S C IE N C E , E N G L IS H , M A T H E M A T IC S

E N R IC H M E N T P R O G R A M 2 0 2 1

CHEMISTRY
Topics Covered
Measurements 04

Law of Chemical Combinations 19

Matter 37

Intermolecular Forces of 51
Attraction
Colligative Properties 64

Gas Laws 81

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Topics Covered
Periodic Table 111

Solutions and Solubility 119

Chemical Reactions 128

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TOPIC 1: MEASUREMENTS
Measurements are vital in Chemistry. In here, we
will go over the following topics:

I. Accuracy and Precision

II. Significant Figures
III.Unit Conversion

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 Definition of Terms
ACCURACY – measures the closeness of individual
values with the correct value

PRECISION – measures the closeness of individual

values with each other

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EXAMPLE:
Consider the center of the target as the correct value.
Neither accurate nor precise: This means that the values are
numerically far from each other and from the correct value.

Precise but not accurate: The values are in close proximity to

each other but still far from the correct value

Accurate but not precise: The values are within the correct
value range but they are still far from each other, thus they
are not precise

Both accurate and precise: The values are within the correct Image source: Hazra, Avijit & Gogtay, Nithya. (2017). Biostatistics
Series Module 7: The Statistics of Diagnostic Tests. Indian Journal
value and are in close proximity with each other. of Dermatology. 62. 18. 10.4103/0019-5154.198047.

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Significant figures are the meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity.
Although meaningful, it has to be noted that the last digit is uncertain
.
How to determine the number of significant figures for a measured quantity:

1. From left to right, count the digits with the first digit that is not zero.

Ex. 0.01234 cm has 4 significant figures.

2. In any given case, nonzero digits are always significant so they should be counted.

Ex. 14,985 km has 5 significant figures.

299,792,458 m/s has 9 significant figures.

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
3. Zeros between nonzero digits should be counted.

Ex. 904 kg has 3 significant figures

4. Zeros preceding a nonzero number are never significant and only indicate the
position of the decimal point.

Ex. 0.05 mm - 1 SF; 0.0423 L - 3 SF

5. Exact numbers (from definition or number of objects) can be considered to have

an infinite number of significant figures.

Ex. 2.54 cm, 1000 m and 9 books have infinite SF

Note: the 10^n is not included in the SF count

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
How to determine the significant figure of a calculated quantity:.

1. Addition and subtraction

The resulting value should have the same number of significant figures as the value
with the least number of decimal places. However, you have to add or subtract the
numbers as is before rounding them off.

Ex. 17.89 + 22.563 + 9.674 = 50.127 ≈ 50.13

43.24 - 23.2 + 18.904 = 38.944 ≈ 38.9

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SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
How to determine the significant figure of a calculated quantity:.

2. Multiplication and division

The resulting value should have the same number of significant figures with the value
that has the least number of significant figures. Remember to multiply or divide the
values first before rounding them off.

Ex. 56.723 x 24.3 x 1.2 = 1654.04268 ≈ 1.7 x 10^3

89.5/5.4 = 16.57407407 ≈ 17

References:

Brown, TL., Lemay, H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P. M., & Stoltzfus,
M.W. (2018). Chemistry: The Central Science (14th edition). Pearson. 24-33.
Chang, R., & Goldsby, K.A. (2016). Chemistry, Twelfth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill
Education. 19-23.

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UNIT CONVERSION
Common conversion chart:

Image source: https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/mole-conversions7

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METRIC SYSTEM
This is used as the system of
measurement in most
countries, known for its easy
specification of unit.
In 1960, the system of units
called the International System
of Units (Système International
d'Unités) was formulated and
has units derived from the Image source:
https://www.realnfo.com/toc/Basic_Electrical_Engineering/Fundamental_of_Physics/
metric system. Physical_Quantities

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IMPERIAL SYSTEM
This is the unit of measurement
used in the United Kingdom, the
Commonwealth, and the United
States. The units commonly
associated with this system are
inches (in.), yards (yd.), miles (mi),
pounds (lb), ounces (oz), and feet
(ft).

Image source:
https://www.realnfo.com/toc/Basic_Electrical_Engineering/Fundamental_of_Physics/
Physical_Quantities

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IMPERIAL TO METRIC

Image source: https://www.theschoolrun.com/what-are-imperial-units

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METRIC CONVERSION
The metric system is easier to convert and use. Each prefix in the line chart differs
by a multiple of 10 from the next prefix. Moving to the right would mean to
multiply the power of ten to how many jumps it needs to get to the desired unit.
Moving to the left would mean to divide the powers of ten to how many jumps it
needs to get to the desired unit.

Image source: College Board. (2018). Quantitative Skills in the AP Sciences. AP Central.
https://apcentral.collegeboard.org/pdf/chapter-1-quantitative-skills-ap-sciences.pdf

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METRIC CONVERSION
Moving to the right example:
Convert 10.5 decigrams (dg) to milligrams (mg)
Since there are two jumps to the right, you need to multiply the value by 100.

10.5 dg x 100 mg/1 dg = 1050 mg

Moving to the left example:

.Convert 64 cm to hm (hectometers)
Since there are 4 jumps to the left, you need to divide the value by 10000.

64 cm ÷ 1 hm / 10000 cm = 6.4 x 10^-3 hm

Reference: Metric Math Conversion. Online Math Learning. (n.d.)

https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/metric-math.html

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TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
For temperature, there are three units commonly used: Celsius, Fahrenheit, and
Kelvin. Kelvin is the SI temperature scale. To convert Celsius to Kelvin, you can use
the following formula:

Example: Determine the Kelvin temperature of an object if it is measured with a

temperature of 41.3 degrees Celsius.

K = 41.3 + 273.15 = 314.45 K ≈ 314.5 K

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TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
Aside from Kelvin, other common units of temperature used are Celsius and
Fahrenheit, with a conversion factor of:

Try the equations out for yourself with these examples:

What is 78.6 °C in Fahrenheit? Answer: 199.08 °F ≈ 199 °F

What is 21.23 °F in Celsius? Answer: -5.9833333 °C ≈ - 5.983 °C

Reference: Zumdahl, S.S. & Zumdahl S. A. (2014). Chemistry,
9th edition. California: Brooks Cole. pg 8-11.

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TOPIC 2: Laws of Chemical
Combinations
What are the laws of chemical combinations?
1.Law of Conservation of Mass
2. Law of Constant Composition
3. Law of Multiple Proportions
4. Law of Reciprocal Proportion
5. Gay Lussac ’s Law of Gaseous Volume

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Laws of Conservation of Mass
- Antoine Lavoisier

- the mass of the products in a chemical reaction

must equal the mass of the reactants

" Mass can neither be created nor destroyed. "

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Laws of Conservation of Mass

Total mass reactant = Total mass

Product

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Laws of Conservation of Mass

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Laws of Conservation of Mass

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Law of Constant Composition

- Joseph Proust

"A chemical compound always contains the

same elements combined together in the same
proportion by mass. "

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Law of Constant Composition

For example, pure water obtained from different

sources such as a river, a well, a spring, the sea,
etc., always contains hydrogen and oxygen
together in the ratio of 1:8 by mass.

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Law of Constant Composition

C O C O
12 g 32 g 24 g 64 g

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Law of Constant Composition

C O
12 g 32 g

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Law of Constant Composition

C O
24 g 64 g

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Law of Constant Composition

C O
50 g ?g

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Law of Constant Composition

C H
100 g ? g
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Law of Multiple Proportions

- John Dalton
" Law of multiple proportions, states that when
two elements combine with each other to form
more than one compound, the weights of one
element that combine with a fixed weight of the
other are in a ratio of small whole numbers."

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Law of Multiple Proportions

Ratio of the mass of

Oxygen: 1:2

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Law of Reciprocal Proportion
- Jeremias Richter
" If two different elements combine separately
with the same weight of a third element, the
ratio of the masses in which they do so are
either the same or a simple multiple of the mass
ratio in which they combine."

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Law of Reciprocal Proportion

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Gay Lussac ’ s Law of Gaseous Volume
- " Whengases react together to form other
gases, and when all volumes are measured at
the same temperature and pressure: The ratio
between the volumes of the reactant gases and
the gaseous products can be expressed in
simple whole numbers."

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Gay Lussac ’ s Law of Gaseous Volume

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TOPIC 4: M A T T ER
Matter is any substance that has mass and takes
up space by having volume. It is neither created
nor destroyed, following the Mass Conservation
Law. In here, we will go over the following topics:

I. States of Matter
II. Classification of Matter
III.Properties of Matter
 STATES OF MATTER
SOLID LIQUID GAS
has a fixed shape and has a fixed volume but now has no definite shape nor
volume; fixed shape; volume;
particles are tightly packed; particles are less tightly particles are far from each
the gaps between particles packed; other, thus can move freely;
are tiny, hence it is enough can take the shape of any has the highest
to compress them; container in which they are compressibility compared to
force of attraction is kept; solids and liquids;
adamant; force of attraction is weaker force of attraction is
rate of diffusion is very low than solids; negligible;
rate of diffusion is higher rate of diffusion is higher
than that of solids than solids and liquids
 STATES OF MATTER

PLASMA
consists of particles with extremely high kinetic energy

BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE
within a few degrees of absolute zero, the motion of the molecules
becomes negligible. As this brings down the kinetic energy, the atoms no
longer stay separate, but they begin to clump together.
light slows down as it passes through a BEC; it also show properties of a
superfluid which implies, it flows without friction
COMPOSITION OF MATTER
ATOMS
single neutral particles

MOLECULES
neutral particles made of two or more atoms bonded together

IONS
positively or negatively charged particle;
CATION
positively charged particle;

ANION
negatively charged particle;
 Atomic Structure
refers to the structure of an atom comprising a nucleus (center) in which the protons
(positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are present. The negatively charged
particles (electrons) revolve around the centre of the nucleus.

DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY (John Dalton)

Every matter is made up of atoms.
Atoms are indivisible.
Specific elements have only one type of atoms in them.
Each atom has its own constant mass that varies from element to element.
Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction.
Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form
to another.
 Atomic Structure
THOMSON ATOMIC MODEL (J.J. Thomson)
Cathode Ray Experiment - It has a tube made of glass which has two openings, one
for the vacuum pump and the other for the inlet through which a gas is pumped in
Thomson described the atomic structure as a positively charged sphere into which
negatively charged electrons were embedded.
“Plum pudding model” - where the pudding describes the positively charged atom
and the plum pieces describe the electrons

RUTHERFORD ATOMIC THEORY (Ernest Rutherford)

Rutherford, who was a student of Thomson, modified the atomic structure with the
discovery of another subatomic particle called “nucleus”. His atomic model is based
on the Alpha ray scattering experiment.
 Atomic Structure
BOHR'S ATOMIC THEORY (Neils Bohr)
The electrons inside atoms are placed in discrete orbits called “stationary orbits”.
The energy levels of these shells can be represented via quantum numbers.
Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy and move to lower energy
levels by losing or emitting its energy.
As long as an electron stays in its own stationery, there will be no absorption or
emission of energy.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in these stationary orbits only.
The energy of the stationary orbits is quantized.
 Subatomic Particles
PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS
positively charged subatomic mass of a neutron is almost charge of an electron is -1e
particles. The charge of a the same as that of a proton; (-1.602 × 10^-19);
proton is 1e (1.602 × 10^-19) electrically neutral particles the mass of an electron is
mass = approximately 1.672 and carry no charge; approximately 9.1 × 10^-31;
× 10^-24 different isotopes of an due to the relatively
The total number of protons element have the same negligible mass of electrons,
in the atoms of an element is number of protons but vary they are ignored when
always equal to the atomic in the number of neutrons calculating the mass of an
number of the element. present in their respective atom
nuclei.
Electronic Structure of Atoms
AUFBAU'S PRINCIPLE
The filling of electrons should take place in accordance
with the ascending order of energy of orbitals:
Lower energy orbital should be filled first and higher
energy levels.
The energy of orbital α(p + l) value it two orbitals
have same (n + l) value, E α n
Ascending order of energy
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, . . .
Electronic Structure of Atoms
PAULI'S
EXCLUSION
PRINCIPLE
No two electrons can have all the
four quantum numbers to be the
same or, if two electrons have to
be placed in an energy state they
should be placed with opposite
spies.
Electronic Structure of Atoms
HUND'S RULE OF MAXIMUM
MULTIPLICITY
In case of filling degenerate (same
energy) orbitals, all the degenerate
orbitals have to be singly filled first
and then only pairing has to happen.
 PROPERTIES O F M A T T E R
PHYSICAL
attribute of matter that is independent of its chemical composition; any
characteristic that can be measured;

EXAMPLES
Density - mass per unit volume of a substance;
Solubility - ability of a substance to dissolve;
Latin: solubilis - “capable of being dissolved”
Melting point - temperature from solid to liquid state
Boiling points - temperature at which a liquid boils (or changes to gas)
Electrical conductivity
 PROPERTIES O F M A T T E R
CHEMICAL
characteristics that can only be measured or observed as matter transforms into a
particular type of matter;

EXAMPLES
Reactivity - tendency of matter to combine chemically with other substances;
Flammability - tendency of matter to burn; it reacts with oxygen and transforms
into various substances;
Toxicity - the extent to which a chemical element or a combination of chemicals
may harm an organism;
Acidity - substance's ability to react with an acid; acids react with bases to create
water, which neutralizes the acid

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 PHYSICAL CHEMICAL

Refer to any Refer to any

characteristic of characteristic of
matter that can be PROPERTIES matter that can be
observed WITHOUT observed as it
changing the OF MATTER REACTS WITH or
identity of the changes into a
substances that different
make it up substance

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TOPIC 4: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
The forces that allow for the interaction of
molecules.

I. Dipole-dipole
II.Ion-Dipole
III.Hydrogen Bonding

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 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
• attractive forces between molecules
• responsible for the non-ideal behavior of gases.
• interactions, aside from covalent or ionic bonding, that
consist of the forces that cause the aggregation of the
components of a substance forming a liquid or a solid or
the condensed phases of matter.
 INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
• vary in strength among different substances.
• often significantly less than intramolecular forces—ionic,
metallic, or covalent interactions
• require less energy in which, for instance, less energy is
needed to vaporize a liquid or melt a solid than to break
covalent bonds.
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF
ATTRACTION
 DIPOLE-DIPOLE

• make up the van der Waals forces together with dipole-

induced dipole, and dispersion forces
• an attractive force between polar molecules, that is,
between molecules having dipole moments
• often behave in an electric field with a center of positive
charge and a negative charge, exhibiting a dipole moment.
• attract each other electrostatically by lining up wherein the
positive and negative ends are close to each other, the
molecules having dipole moments
 ION-DIPOLE
• an electrostatic force responsible for the attraction
between ions, either a cation or an anion, and dipoles or
polar molecules
• cations are attracted to the negative end of the dipole,
while anions are attracted to the positive end of the dipole.
• magnitude of the attraction increases as either the ionic
charge or the magnitude of the dipole moment increases.
• Ion–dipole forces are significant for ionic substances in
polar liquids, such as a solution of NaCl in water.
 HYDROGEN BONDING
• a special type of intermolecular attraction between the hydrogen
atom in a polar bond (particularly H - F, H - O, and H - N) and
nonbonding electron pair on a nearby small electronegative ion
or atom usually F, O, or N (in another molecule)
• can be considered a type of dipole-dipole attraction
• Because N, O, and F are so electronegative, a bond between
hydrogen and any of these elements is quite polar, with hydrogen
at the positive end (remember the + on the right-hand side of the
dipole symbol represents the positive end of the dipole):
 HYDROGEN BONDING

The hydrogen atom has no inner electrons. Thus, the positive

side of the dipole has the concentrated charge of the nearly
bare hydrogen nucleus. This positive charge is attracted to the
negative charge of an electronegative atom in a nearby
molecule.
 HYDROGEN BONDING

The hydrogen atom has no inner electrons. Thus, the positive

side of the dipole has the concentrated charge of the nearly
bare hydrogen nucleus. This positive charge is attracted to the
negative charge of an electronegative atom in a nearby
molecule.
EFFECT OF IMFA ON PROPERTIES
OF LIQUIDS
Liquids have a variety of structural traits and behaviors due to
intermolecular interactions. This part discusses the effect of
intermolecular forces of attraction on boiling point, melting
point, surface tension, and viscosity of liquids.
EFFECT OF IMFA ON PROPERTIES
OF LIQUIDS
Boiling point and Melting point
• Before molecules can enter the vapor phase, enough energy must
be given to overcome the attractive interactions between them at
the boiling point.
• If substance A requires more energy than substance B to separate
the molecules held together by stronger intermolecular forces,
substance A has a higher boiling point than substance B. This
principle is also the same as the melting point of substances A and
B.
• the boiling point and melting point of substances increases with
stronger intermolecular forces.
EFFECT OF IMFA ON PROPERTIES
OF LIQUIDS
Surface tension
• Nevertheless, other molecules pull molecules at the surface
downward and sideways, but not upward away from the surface
• the molecules are drawn into the liquid causing the surface to
tighten like an elastic film.
• This phenomena is explained by surface tension, which is the
measure of the elastic force on the surface of a liquid.
• the amount of needed energy for the surface of the liquid to
stretch or increase by a unit area
• Liquids with high surface tension mean that they also have strong
intermolecular forces.
EFFECT OF IMFA ON PROPERTIES
OF LIQUIDS
Viscosity
• a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
• There is a high tendency that the liquid will flow more slowly if it
has greater viscosity.
• Liquids having high viscosity means that it also has strong
intermolecular forces.
TOPIC 5: COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
These are properties that depend on the
amount instead of the identity of the
substance.

I. Vapor Pressure Lowering

II. Boiling Point Elavation
III.Freezing Point Depression

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COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Wh a t d o you think is the
e f f e c t o f adding solute t o
a pure solvent in terms o f
vapor pressure, boiling
point, and freezing point
o f the solution?
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Are physical changes which result from
adding solutes into a solvent.

Colligative properties depend only on

the number of solutes present in a
solution, and not on the identity of the
solutes.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

1.Vapor Pressure Lowering

2. Boiling Point Elevation
3. Freezing Point Depression
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Vapor Pressure Lowering
Vapor pressure is a measure o f the tendency t o change
material into its gaseous or vapor state.

Wh e n an amount o f solute is added t o a solvent, its

vapor pressure is l o w e r e d which decreases its
volatility.

#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Vapor Pressure Lowering
The presence o f non - volatile
solutes implies that there will be
f e w e r solvents particles at the
surface o f the solution, hence
less solvent will evaporate.

https://thefactfactor.com/
#
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Vapor Pressure Lowering
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Vapor Pressure Lowering
Self Assessment Question.
Between distilled water and a 10% saline
solution, which is expected to evaporate
faster? Assume that other variables (volume,
temperature, etc.) are held constant.
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Boiling Point Elevation
The boiling point of pure water is
100 C, but the boiling point of
seawater is around 104 C.
Why is this so?
#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Boiling Point Elevation
The boiling point is the temperature when a
liquid turns into a gaseous form through the
application of heat.

The boiling point is inversely

proportional to the vapor pressure.
#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Boiling Point Elevation
When the vapor pressure is lowered, the intermolecular forces
of attraction between the molecules are strengthened

The boiling point of a solution is always greater than the boiling

point of its corresponding pure solvent

#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Boiling Point Elevation

#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Boiling Point Elevation
Self Assessment Question.
How is the volatility of a solution or
a solvent related
to its boiling point?

#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Freezing Point Depression
The freezing point is observed at
the temperaure at which a
liquid turns into solid state when
cooled.

#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Freezing Point Depression
When solutes are added to
a solvent, there will be
aninterference on the
pattern-formation of the
substance.
#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Freezing Point Depression
The freezing point of a solution is always
lower than the freezing point of the solvent.

The freezing point is inversely proportional to

the concentration of the solute.

#
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Freezing Point Depression
Self Assessment Question.
What is the relationship between freezing point and
boiling point? Between freezing point and vapor
pressure?

#
TOPIC 6:
GAS LAWS
Gas laws are an analysis of the behavior of gases. In the
study of gas laws, variables of state (i.e. Pressure (P),
Volume (V), Temperature (T), and number of moles of
gas (n)) are essential in the analysis of gas nature.
I. Boyle's Law
II. Charles' Law
III.Gay-Lussac's Law
IV. Avogadro's Law
V. Combined Gas Law
VI. Ideal Gas Law

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 BOYLE'S LAW
Proponent: Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
Original Experiment: Performed in J-Tube using the trapped air through
observing the effect of adding Mercury to the open end of the tube (similar to
Figure 1).
Observation: If temperature is kept controlled (or constant) and pressure is
increased, then the volume would decrease. Thus, it was concluded that the
volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at
constant temperature. This relationship can be represented as graph (similar
to Figure 2).

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 BOYLE'S LAW

Figure 2. Graphical
Figure 1.
representation of
Representation of J-
Boyle ’ s Law
tube experiment of
Robert Boyle Source:
Source: https:// www.toppr.c
http:/ / c hemed.c hem. om/ guides / c hemistr
purdue.edu / genche y / states - of -
m / topicreview / bp / c matter / gas - laws /
h4/ gaslaws3.html

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 BOYLE'S LAW
Boyle’s Law: The volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure at constant temperature.
P α 1/V Eqn 1
Since the relationship between the Pressure and inverse of volume is deemed
linear then,
P=k×1/V Eqn 2
Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line of P vs 1/V
Further manipulation,
PV=k
P1V1=P2V2 Eqn 3
For various Boyle’s Law problem calculations, Eqn 2 and 3 are commonly used.

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 BOYLE'S LAW
Sample Problem with Calculation:
Practice Problem 1
Calculate the pressure in atmospheres in a motorcycle engine at the end of the
compression stroke. Assume that at the start of the stroke, the pressure of the
mixture of gasoline and air in the cylinder is 745.8 mm Hg and the volume of each
cylinder is 246.8 mL. Assume that the volume of the cylinder is 24.2 mL at the end
of the compression stroke.
Given:
P1=745.8 mm Hg ; V1=246.8 mL ; V2=24.2 mL
Required:
P2 in atm

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 CHARLE'S LAW
Proponent: Jacques Charles (1746-1823)
Original Experiment: He trapped a sample of gas in a cylinder with a movable
piston in water bath at different temperatures.
Observations: Charles noticed that the volume of a gas is directly proportional
to its temperature.
Charles Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed amount of gas
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (in Kelvin (K) or
Rankine (R)).

For graphical representation, see Figure 3.

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CHARLE'S LAW

Figure 3. Graphical
representation o f Charles
Law
Source:
ht t p s :/ / w w w .t o p p r.c o m / g uid
e s / c h e m is try / s ta tes - of -
m a tte r / ga s - l aw s /

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 CHARLE'S LAW
To present the Charles Law in equation,

Since the relationship between volume and temperature of gases at constant

pressure is linear, then

Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line of V vs T

Further manipulation,

For various Charles Law problem calculations, Eqn 4 and 5 are commonly
used.
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 CHARLE'S LAW
Sample Problem with Calculation:
Practice Problem 2
Assume that the volume of a balloon filled with H2 is 1.00 L at 25 oC. Calculate the
volume of the balloon when it is cooled to -78 oC in a low-temperature bath made
by adding dry ice to acetone.
Given:
V1=1 L ; T1=25 oC ; T2=-78 oC
Required:
V2 in atm

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SEMEPxDOST 2020 | UPLB DOST Scholars' Society
 GAY-LUSSAC 'S LAW
Proponent: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1746-1823)
Observation/s: While building an air thermometer, Gay-Lussac accidentally
discovered that at fixed volume and mass of a gas, the pressure of that gas is
directly proportional to the temperature.
Gay-Lussac’s Law: At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of
gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (K or R).

Graphical representation of this relationship of pressure (P) and temperature

(K) at constant volume is shown in Figure 4.

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GAY -LUSSAC 'S LAW

Figure 4. Graphical
representation o f Gay -
Lussac ’ s Law.
Source:
ht t p s :/ / w w w .t o p p r.c o m / g uid
e s / c h e m is try / s ta tes - of -
m a tte r / ga s - l aw s /

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 GAY -LUSSAC 'S LAW
The mathematical representation of the law is shown by Eqn 6.

Further manipulation of this relationship will result to a linear equation.

Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line of P vs T

Wherein this implies that at a given volume of gas, the quotient of the
pressure and temperature of gas is constant.

For various Gay-Lussac’s Law problem calculations, Eqn 7 and 8 are commonly
used.
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 GAY-LUSSAC 'S LAW
Sample Problem with Calculation:
Practice Problem 3
At 20 oC, a confined ammonia gas has a pressure of 2.5 atm. At what temperature
would its pressure be equal to 760 mm Hg?
Given: T1=20 oC ; P1= 2.5 atm ; P2=760 mm Hg
Required: T2

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SEMEPxDOST 2020 | UPLB DOST Scholars' Society
 AVOGADRO 'S LAW
Proponent: Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro (1776-1856)
Observation/s: He provided explanations as to why compounds reacted in
definite ratios and on how the amount of gas affects its volume. Through his
paper, he wrote that

“Equal volumes of all gases, kept at the same pressure and temperature, contain the
same number of molecules.”

This observation further implies that the volume of a gas is directly

proportional to the number of moles of gas present at a given temperature
and pressure.

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 AVOGADRO 'S LAW
The mathematical representation of the above observation can be expressed
as,

Where n is the number of moles of gases

Further mathematical manipulation of the above relationship will result to

Where k is the proportionality constant or the slope of the line of V vs n

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 AVOGADRO 'S LAW
Using the concept of moles such that it is the ratio of mas and molecular mass
of gases.

Where m is the mass of gases and M is the molar mass of gases

Accordingly, we know that the density is the ratio between mass and volume.

Where rho is the density

Further manipulation of Eqn 10,

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 AVOGADRO 'S LAW
Sample Problem with Calculation
Practice Problem 4
A 7.25 L sample of Nitrogen gas (N2) is determined to weigh 21 g. How many
moles of nitrogen gas would there be in a 20 L sample provided that the
temperature and pressure remains the same. Also, find the proportionality
constant of the Avogadro’s equation for N2.
Given: V1= 7.25 L ; V2=20 L ; m1=21 g
Required: n2

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SEMEPxDOST 2020 | UPLB DOST Scholars' Society
 COMBINED GAS LAW
Combination of the Boyle’s Law, Charles Law, and Gay-Lussac’s Law will result to
this relationship of variables of state. From the previous discoveries of Boyle,
Charles, and Gay-Lussac, the following statements were deduced:

(a)The volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at

constant temperature.
(b)At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed amount of gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature (in Kelvin (K) or Rankine (R)).
(c)At constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature (K or R).

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 COMBINED GAS LAW
Therefore, we can tell that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely
proportional to each other but are both directly proportional to the temperature
of that gas.

Mathematical interpretations and manipulations of the said relationship are

shown below.

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 COMBINED GAS LAW
Sample Problem with Calculation

Practice Problem 5
The oxygen tank manufacturer used to produce 5.0 L oxygen tanks at 2000 psi
and 25 oC. Statistics suggests that the 3.0 L oxygen tank at 1500 psi is more
marketable. What is the temperature requirement of the desired tank?
Given: V1= 5 L ; P1=2000 psi ; T1=25 oC ; V2=3L ; P2=1500 psi
Required: T2

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SEMEPxDOST 2020 | UPLB DOST Scholars' Society
 IDEAL GAS LAW
Each of the following relationships is a special case of a more general relationship
known as the ideal gas equation.
PV=nRT Eqn 20

General Definition: Ideal gas law provides the equation of state of a hypothetical
ideal gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under many
conditions.

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 IDEAL GAS LAW
In the ideal gas equation, R is a proportionality constant known as the ideal gas
constant and T is the absolute temperature. The value of R depends on the units
used to express the four variables P, V, n, and T.

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 IDEAL GAS LAW
Another important concept in various gas laws problems is the concept of
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP).

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 IDEAL GAS LAW
Sample Problem with Calculation

Practice Problem 6
Let's calculate the molecular weight of butane if 0.5813 gram of this gas fills
a 250.0-mL flask at a temperature of 24.4 oC and a pressure of 742.6
mmHg.
Given: Gas species=Butane (C4H10) ; m= 0.5813 g ; V= 250 mL; T= 24.4 oC ;
P=742.6 mmHg
Required: Molecular weight (M) of butane
Solution:

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SEMEPxDOST 2020 | UPLB DOST Scholars ' Society
TOPIC 7:
PERIODIC TRENDS
I. The Periodic Table
II. Effective Nuclear Charge
III.Periodic Trends
a. Atomic Size/Radius
b. Metallic Character
c. Ionization Energy
d. Electronegativity

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 The Periodic Table
framework created by Dmitri Mendeleev, 1986
presents the elements in an ordered manner
the organization can give a hint to an element's properties
based on its position in the table

divided into family/groups and periods

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Family/Groups
(columns)

Periods
(rows)

Blocks

Source: https: / / pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov / periodic - table / # v iew = table & pr operty = E lectronConfiguration

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 1A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
Family/Groups
2A
(columns)

Valence
3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B 1B 2B 3B 4B
electrons (ve-)
Often have
common
properties
ve- increasing
from left to
right
Source: https: / / pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov / periodic - table / # v iew = table & pr operty = E lectronConfiguration

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 Period
1
(row)
2
energy level 3
shells increase 4
from top to
5
bottom
6
exceptions for
7
d and f blocks

Source: https: / / pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov / periodic - table / # v iew = table & pr operty = E lectronConfiguration

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 Effective Nuclear Charge

Shielding - an effect of electrons in inner shells on outer

electrons; weakens the pull of the positively charged nucleus

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 Periodic Trends
ATOMIC SIZE/RADIUS
half the distance between two nuclei of the same element joined by a single
bond (a.k.a. size of an atom)

Across a period:
Main factor: changing Z + constant shielding (same # of shells)
Increasing Z = Increasing Zeff = decreasing atomic size/radius
Left to right: Decreasing

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 Periodic Trends
Down a group:
Main factor: # of shells (shielding constant)
Increasing # of shells = decreasing Zeff = increasing atomic size/radius
Top to bottom: increasing

Increasing atomic Decreasing atomic

size or radius size or radius
H < Li < Na B > C> N

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TOPIC 8: SOLUTIONs AND
SOLUBILITY
How do you define a solution?
What are the types of a solution?
What is solubility?
What are the factors that affect solubility?
W hat are the fac tors that affec t the ra te of
solubility?

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 SOLUTION
is a homogenous mixture composed of two or more substance combined –
these substances are classified either as a solute or solvent.
a solution will always exist in a single phase even though the solute and
solvent exist in different phases.

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 SOLUTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SOLUTION
A homogenous mixture consisting of two or more substances.
Should exist in one phase.
Does not scatter a light beam.
The particles should not be visible to the naked eye.
Cannot be separated by simple filtration.
Very stable.

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 SOLUTION
TYPES OF A SOLUTION
Saturated solutions are solutions that contain the maximum solute that the
solvent is capable of dissolving at a given temperature.
Unsaturated solutions are the opposite, these are the type of solution that
contains less than the maximum solute that the solvent is capable of dissolving
at a given temperature.
Supersaturated solutions, lastly, are solutions that contain more than the
maximum solute that the solvent is capable of dissolving at a given temperature.

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 CONCENTRATION
The concentration of a solution is a m easurem ent of the am ount of solute
dissolved per given amount of solvent or solution.
A concentrated solution is a solution that has a relatively large am ount of
dissolved solute

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 DILUTION
A dilute solution is one that has a relatively small amount of dissolved solute. In
general, the concentration of a solution is often measured in molarity.
Dilution is a procedure of adding solvent to the solution to decrease its
concentration. This process ensures that the solute remains constant, but the
solvent is increased, thereby decreasing the concentration.

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 SOLUBILITY
Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a substance that could dissolve
in a specific amount of solvent under a given temperature.
Solubility always goes by the thum b rule, “like dissolves like” which m eans
substances with the same polarity will always form a homogeneous mixture.

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 FACTORS AFFECTING
SOLUBILITY
If you increase the temperature, the amount of solute that can dissolve under a
specific amount of solvent also increases.
Pressure is only significantly applicable to gases. Gas solubility increases as the
partial pressure of the gas atop the liquid increases and vice versa.

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 FACTORS AFFECTING THE
RATE OF SOLUBILITY
The greater the temperature, the faster the rate of the solubility.
The greater the surface area, the greater the rate of solubility.
Agitation, by any means, increases the rate of solubility.

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TOPIC 9: CHEMICAL REACTIONS
I. Types of Chemical Reactions
II. Balancing Chemical Reactions
III.Energy Change in Chemical
Reactions

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 Definition of Terms

• REACTANTS - a substance or group of substances

which take part and are consumed during a chemical
reaction

• PRODUCTS - the species or resulting substance after

a successful chemical reaction

02
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 Definition of Terms
• SYSTEM - in chemical reactions, a system is a single
set-up of reactants and products interacting with each
other

• SURROUNDINGS - the external environment of the

system

• ENTHALPY CHANGE (ΔH) - the amount of heat

evolved or absorbed in a reaction carried out
03
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 Definition of Terms
• ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS - reactions that
absorb energy from its surroundings in the form
of heat

• EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS - reactions that

release energy to its surroundings in the
form of heat
04
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 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
This shows how inputs (or reactants) undergo
changes and form outputs (products)
A simple example of a chemical reaction is the
chemical equation for the formation of salt through
Na and Cl.
A more complex example is seen on the chemical
equation of photosynthesis
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AN EXAMPLE OF A CHEMICAL REACTION

SOURCE: https://www.expii.com/t/balancing-chemical-equations-overview-examples-8597

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 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
This shows a stoichiometric representation of the
process, and shows how much products are formed
per reactant involved.
It is important to note that chemical reactions must be
balanced in order to conform to the Law of
Conservation of Matter. Furthermore, the energy
input or output in the reaction must also be balanced.

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 OBSERVABLE CHANGES DURING
A CHEMICAL REACTION
The following can serve as signs or indicators of successful chemical
reactions:

• Formation of bubbles • Change in odor

• Formation of precipitate • Change in temperature
• Change in color • Change in pH, and;
• Change in volume • Emission of light

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 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIOMS
Chemical reactions can be classified into four major
types, namely: synthesis reaction, decomposition
reaction, single displacement and double
displacement reactions.

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 SYNTHESIS DECOMPOSITION
REACTION REACTION
• two reactants combine and form • a single reactant splits into
a single product two different products
• takes the form of A + B → AB. • takes the form AB → A + B

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SINGLE-DISPLACEMENT
REACTION
• reaction where an element
reacts with a compound and
replaces another element
within it
DOUBLE-DISPLACEMENT
REACTION
• reaction wherein two
compounds exchange places
and form new ionic compounds

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BALANCING CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A chemical equation is said to be balanced if the number
of atoms for each element in the reactant side is equal to
the number of atoms for each element in the product side.

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 STEPS IN BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS

• Write down your unbalanced chemical equation and list down all
the elements present in both the reactants and products side.
• If possible, start with an element found in one compound on
each side of the equation.

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 STEPS IN BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS

• Change the coefficients (the numbers in front of the compound

or molecule) so that the number of atoms of the element is the
same on each side of the equation. Note that balanced
equations usually have integers as coefficients. (For you may
encounter several equations which use halves).

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 STEPS IN BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS

• Once you have balanced one element, do the same thing for the
remaining elements. Remember that coefficients are the only ones
that must be altered -- and not your subscripts.

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 STEPS IN BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
Other considerations in writing and balancing chemical equations are
as follows:

• There may be times where the physical states of the compounds

involved are noted in parentheses.
• Take note that a balanced chemical equation uses the smallest
whole-number coefficients -- so watch out if your coefficients can
still be reduced to lowest terms.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Balance the following chemical equation:

Firstly, note down the two elements present in the reactant

and product side - Fe and O.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM
Note down the number of atoms the reactant and product side.
You may use a table on this one.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM

Try manipulating the coefficients on the reactant side first in

order to balance the equation. If the answers do not really
balance, try manipulating both sides or the product side first.

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Keep in mind that the smallest whole-number coefficients are your final
answers, so watch out for coefficients that may still be reduced into
lowest terms.

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ENERGY CHANGE IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Energy change in chemical reactions is important to note since it tells us
the nature of the reaction on whether it may occur spontaneously or not.

Additionally, since chemical reactions must also conform to the Law of

Conservation of Energy, energy change tells us how heat energy flows into
and out of the system (depending on the reaction type)

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RECALL
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that heat transfer
spontaneously occurs from higher temperatures to lower
temperature.

Knowing the nature of heat flow in exothermic and endothermic

reactions, we may think of endothermic reactions have systems that
are „colder‟ than the surroundings, while exothermic reactions have
surroundings 'colder' than the systems.

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RECALL
It is also important to note the change in enthalpy (ΔH) and heat
(q) in the equations. Take note that when q and ΔH are both
positive, then the reaction is said to be endothermic since heat is
absorbed. Otherwise -- such that q and ΔH are both negative,
then the reaction is considered exothermic.

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 References
“7.4: How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations.” Chemistry LibreTexts, 4 Apr. 2016,
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Map%3A_Introductory_Chemistry_(Tro)/07%3A_Chemical_Reactio
ns/7.04%3A_How_to_Write_Balanced_Chemical_Equations.

“Balancing Chemical Equations: Practice and Review | Albert.Io.” Albert Resources, 30 Mar. 2017,
https://www.albert.io/blog/balancing-chemical-equations-practice-and-review/.

Helmenstine, Anne. “Examples of Balanced Chemical Equations.” Science Notes and Projects, 26 Apr. 2020,
https://sciencenotes.org/examples-of-balanced-chemical-equations/.

Staff, Carolina. “Classifying Chemical Reactions.” Carolina Knowledge Center,

https://www.carolina.com/knowledge/2020/02/11/classifying-chemical-reactions. Accessed 11 Nov. 2021.

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations | Introductory Chemistry – Lecture & Lab. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-sanjac-
introductorychemistry/chapter/writing-and-balancing-chemical-equations-2/. Accessed 11 Nov. 2021.

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 Test Yourself!!
Mock Quiz 1:
https://test.gclocked.com/?form=-MoRsPtwyGtua-
QMCBgv

Mock Quiz 2:
https://test.gclocked.com/?form=-MoRnxcuA4k45gX7B9IH

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SEM EP 20 21

YOU'RE ALMOST THERE.

BEST OF LUCK!

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