B.

Tech (ECE) R-22

LECTURE NOTES

On

NETWORK ANALYSIS & SYNTHESIS (R22A0261)

II B. Tech I – SEM (ECE)

Prepared by:

Mr. R.SAI KIRAN, Assistant Professor

DEPT
OF
EEE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - - ISO 9001:2015
Certified)
Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade
NIRF India Ranking 2018, Accepted by MHRD, Govt. of India

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET) Page 1

 B.Tech (ECE) R-22

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

II Year B.Tech. ECE- I Sem L/T/P/C
3/-/-/3
(R22A0261) NETWORK ANALYSIS & SYNTHESIS

COURSEOBJECTIVES:
1. To solve the two port network parameters.
2. To recognize the behavior of R, L, C with DC excitation.
3. Concept of Series , parallel resonance and current locus diagrams
4. To know the pole zero location for driving point and transfer functions
5. To describe Foster and Cauer forms and the properties of immittance
functions.

UNIT–I: TWO PORT NETWORKS:

Impedance Parameters, Admittance Parameters, Hybrid Parameters,
Transmission (ABCD) Parameters, Conversion of one parameter to another
parameter, Conditions for Reciprocity and symmetry, Interconnection of two
port networks in series, parallel and cascaded configurations, Illustrative
problems.

UNIT–II: D.C.TRANSIENT ANALYSIS (FIRST & SECOND ORDER CIRCUITS):

Introduction to transient response and steady state response, Transient response of
series –RL,RC, RLC Circuits for D.C excitation with Initial Conditions, Solutions
using Differential Equations approach and Laplace Transform approach ,Illustrative
problems.

UNIT-III: LOCUS DIAGRAMS & RESONANCE:

Locus diagrams: Locus diagrams of Series RL, RC circuits with variation of various
parameters, parallel RL, RC circuits with variation of various parameters.
Resonance: Resonance-Series and Parallel circuits, Concept of Bandwidth and Quality
factor.

UNIT–IV: NETWORK FUNCTIONS: Review of Network functions for one port and two

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET) Page 2

 B.Tech (ECE) R-22

port networks: – pole zero location for driving point and transfer functions-Impulse response
of Network functions from pole-zero plots.

UNIT-V: SYNTHESIS OF ONE PORT NETWORKS

Synthesis of reactive one-ports by Foster’s and Cauer methods (forms I and II) -Synthesis of
LC, RC and RL driving-point functions.
Text Books:
1. K. S. Suresh Kumar, ―Electric Circuit Analysis‖, Pearson Publications, 2013.
2. 2. Ravish R. Singh, "Network Analysis and Synthesis", McGraw-Hill Education,
2013

References:
1. Franklin Kuo, ―Network Analysis and Synthesis‖, 2nd Ed.,Wiley India.
2. Van Valkenburg M.E., ―Introduction to Modern Network Synthesis,‖ Wiley Eastern,
1960 (reprint 1986).
3. Van Valkenburg M.E, ―Network Analysis,‖ Prentice Hall India, 2014.
4. Charles A. Desoer and Ernest S. Kuh, ―Basic Circuit Theory,‖ Tata McGraw Hill
Edition.
5. Chakrabarti, A., "Circuit Theory Analysis and Synthesis", Dhanpat Rai& Co., Seventh
- Revised edition, 2018
6. S. K. Bhattacharya, ―Network Analysis and Synthesis,‖ Pearson Education India.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
• Able to solve two port network parameters
• Able to analyze the transient and steady state analysis of RLC Circuits.
• Accomplish the computation of Quality factor, band width and current locus diagram
for a given electrical circuit.
• Identify the properties and characteristics of network functions.
• Synthesize passive one-port networks using standard Foster and Cauer forms.

Malla Reddy College of Engineering and Technology (MRCET) Page 3

 UNIT-1

TWO PORT
NETWORKS
 UNIT-2
TRANSIENT RESPONSE
INTRODUCTION: - As we are aware that the terminal characteristics of capacitors and
inductors are governed by differential relationships. The connection of these elements with the
resistors and energy sources will result in integro-differential (or) simply differential equations
with constant coefficients. The solutions of these equations in time – domain gives the
“TRANSIENT RESPONSE” of the system of equations. The time – domain response of the
circuit for different test signals is almost important to synthesize (or) design electronic circuits.
Whenever a circuit is switched from one condition to another, either by a change in the
applied source or a change in the circuit elements, there is a transition period during which the
branch currents and element voltages change from their former values to new values. The
period is called the “TRANSIENT STATE (or) NATURAL RESPONSE”. After the transient
period has passed, the circuit is said to be in the “STEADY STATE (or) FORCED
RESPONSE”. Thus, the total response of the network is the sum of its transient response and
steady state response.
Now, the linear differential equation that describes the circuit will have two parts to its
solution, the complementary function corresponding to the transient and the particular solution
corresponding to the steady state.
INITIAL VALUES OF NETWORK ELEMENTS
RESISTOR: -
If a circuit is purely resistive, it does not exhibit any transient response. Thus in the circuit, the
current instantaneously rises to its steady state value ie., i(t) t=0 R
V
i = , and there is no transient response.
R
V(t)
−
t = 0 → Represents the instant just prior to the closing of the switch at t = 0.
t = 0 + → Represents the instant immediately after closing of the switch at t = 0.
V
At t = 0 − → i = 0, but at t = 0 + → i =
R
INDCUTOR: -
t=0 L
If a circuit is purely inductor as shown in figure. i(t)

If the switch is closed at t = 0, by, applying KVL to the circuit

di
V =L for t > 0 + V(t)
dt
At t = 0 − , the current is zero, assuming the circuit to be relaxed [ie., No initial inductor current].
At t = 0 + , the current must still be zero, since the current through an inductor cannot become
zero instantaneously, even if it is not zero at t = 0 − .
∴ i = 0 At t = 0 +
Hence, it is obvious that at t (0 + ) , the inductor ‘L’ act as an open circuit. The equivalent circuit
at t (0 + ) is as shown in figure…
OC

i(t) ⇒ ‘L’ is replaced by an open circuit

V(t)
−
However, if at t (0 ) the inductor is already carrying a current due to a previously applied
forcing function, it would continue to flow at t (0 + ) , without change of magnitude.
Let ‘I0’ be the initial inductor current as shown in figure… i(t) t=0 L

I0

V(t)
The equivalent circuit at t (0 + ) is shown in figure…
OC

i(t)
I0
V(t)

‘L’ is replaced by open and ‘I0’ is replaced by equal current source.

CAPACITOR: - t=0 C
If the circuit contains pure capacitor as shown in figure.
If the switch is closed at t = 0 by, applying
KVL to the circuit i(t)

1
V = ∫ i dt for t > 0 + V(t)
C
dV
i=C
dt
−
At t = 0 , the voltage across capacitor is zero, assuming the circuit to be relaxed [ie., No initial
capacitor voltage]. Also current, i = 0 .
At t = 0 + , the voltage across capacitor must be zero, since the voltage across a capacitor cannot
become zero instantaneously even if it is not zero at t = 0 − . It means that, at t = 0 + , the capacitor
acts as Short Circuit. The equivalent circuit at t (0 + ) is as shown in figure…
SC
Hence ‘C’ is replaced by short circuit ⇒
i(t)

V(t)
−
However, at t = 0 , if there is a capacitor voltage due to previously applied forcing function,
then at t = 0 + also, it would remain without change in magnitude.
Let ‘V0’ be initial capacitor voltage as shown in figure…
t=0 C

i(t) + V0 −

V(t)
The equivalent circuit at t (0 ) is shown in figure…
+

i(t) SC
+ −
V0

V(t)
‘C’ is replaced by Short Circuit and ‘V0’ is replaced by an equal voltage source.
FINAL VALUES OF NETWORK ELEMENTS
We shall next see how we can obtain equivalent circuits under Steady state conditions
ie., at t = ∞ .
RESISTOR: -
A resistor obviously remains un effected. Hence a resistance R of a given network
remains as ‘R’ only in the equivalent circuit at t = ∞. also.
INDUCTOR: -
We have induced e.m.f in an inductor across ‘L’ then
 di
VL = L
dt
When Steady state has been reached ie., at t = ∞., there is no change of current
di
i.e., =0 ∴V L = 0
dt
Since, there is no inductor voltage, it implies that the inductor acts as short – circuit. Hence an
inductor acts as open – circuit at t = 0+, but it acts as short – circuit at t = ∞.
i(t) t=0 L

V(t)

Equivalent circuit at t = ∞. SC

i(t)
V(t)

CAPACITOR: -
The current through a capacitor is given as
dV
i = C C where VC Capacitor voltage
dt
At Steady state, there is no change of capacitor voltage
d VC
=0 ∴i = 0
dt
It implies that the capacitor acts as an open – circuit at t = ∞.

Hence a capacitor acts as short – circuit at t = 0+, but acts as open – circuit at t = ∞.
t=0 C

i(t)
V(t)

Equivalent circuit of t = ∞.
OC
i(t)

V(t)

SUMMARY:
™ The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
™ Voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
™ At t (0+), an inductor acts as an open – circuit.
™ At t (0+), a capacitor acts as short – circuit.
™ At t (0+), with initial inductor current ‘I0’ is replaced by an equal current source with the
same polarity.
™ At t (0+), with an initial capacitor voltage ‘V0’ is replaced by an equal voltage source with
the same polarity.
™ At t (0+) and at t = ∞, a resistor remains as it is, without any change.
 ™ An inductor acts as short – circuit, under Steady state conditions, for a forcing function
of constant magnitude like step (or) DC voltage.
™ A capacitor acts as open – circuit, under Steady state conditions, for a forcing function of
constant magnitude like step (or) DC voltage.
TRANSIENT RESPONSE IN TIME DOMAIN WITH CONSTANT INPUT
[DC EXCITATION]
RC CIRCUIT
The constant input as shown in figure….. is called step input (or) constant input. Since it
steps from 0 to V volts at a time t=0
Let us assume that the voltage is suddenly applied at t=0 to the RC circuit shown in
figure. Let us assume the initial charge on the capacitor is zero.
t=0
R

v
+

V v
C
i VC

t(Sec)
0
FIG : RC Circuit with Step Input
Q At t = 0 - VC (O - ) = 0
At t = 0 + VC (O + ) = 0 [Q Voltage across capacitor cannot change instantaneously]
Initially it act as short circuit
V
∴i (O + ) =
R
Let ‘i’ be the current flowing in the circuit when the switch is closed at t = 0. Using KVL,
the equilibrium equation is
1
Ri + ∫ i dt = v ….(1)
C
Differentiating the equation (1) with respect to time ‘t’.
di 1 di 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
R + i =0⇒ + i = 0 ⇒ ⎢D + i=0 ….(2)
dt C dt RC ⎣ RC ⎥⎦
The equation (2) is a first order linear homogeneous equation. Hence the total solution
will have only complementary function, and particular integral is zero.
i(t ) = Ae −t / RC …. (3)
To evaluate the constant ‘A’ we will use the initial condition i.e.,
V
i(0+) =
R
V
i(0)|t=0 = A =
R
V −t / RC V
∴ i (t ) = e (or ) i (t ) = e −t / τ ….(4)
R R
This solution is called Natural response of the circuit and also called as the
complementary function. Where τ=RC is called the time constant of an RC circuit.
VOLTAGE ACROSS CAPACITOR:

[ ]
t
1 1 V V 1 −t / τ
VC = ∫ i dt = ∫ e −t / τ dt = e t

RC [−1τ ]
0
C C0R
 V
RC
(− RC ) e −t /τ [ ] = −V [e
t
0
−t / τ
] [
− 1 = V 1 − e −t / τ ] …..(5)

As ‘t’ is varying from 0 to ∞ the time response characteristics of current and voltage
across the capacitor from equations (4) and (5) are shown in figure.
V Response

63.2% VC
V
R
i

t in sec
0 τ
V −t / τ
The transient solution is a total solution of the circuits i.e., i(t)=iss+it = e . Where ‘iss’
R
is steady state value and ‘it’ is the transient value. The response of the circuit will depend upon
‘τ’. If ‘R’ and ‘C’ are larger then the circuit takes longer time to settle down to the new steady
state value.
TIME CONSTANT
The interpretation of the time constant as ‘the time interval during which the response of the
circuit starting from any point of time during the transient interval, would have reached its
final value if it had maintained its rate of change constant at the value it had at that point of
time”. If the time is equal to one time constant then VC = V(1-e-1) = 0.632V. The time constant
can be regarded as the time required for the transient response to attain 63.2% of the steady
state value starting from zero. In two, three, four (or) five time constants the time response
values would be 0.864, 0.95, 0.982 and 0.993 of its steady state value. For all practical purposes
most of the electrical instruments used for measurement of electrical quantities will have a least
count of 1% after approximately five time constants have elapsed.
RL CIRCUIT
The RL network is excited by a step input is shown in figure. Let us assume that at the
time t=0 the switch is closed and initially the current through the inductor is zero.
At t = 0 - iL (O - ) = 0 t=0
R
At t = 0 + iL (O ) = 0
+

[Q Current in the inductor cannot change instantaneously] +

Using KVL, the equilibrium equation is
di v
Ri + L = v ….(1) i L VL
dt
di R V ⎡ R⎤ V
+ i = ⇒ ⎢D + ⎥ i = ….(2)
dt L L ⎣ L⎦ L
The equation (2) is a first order differential equation and the solution gives the response
of the circuit. To get the solution we will obtain the transient part [complementary function]
and steady state part [particular integral] separately. The transient part of the solution is
obtained by solving the homogenous part of the differential equation by making forcing
function to zero.
⎡ R⎤
i.e., ⎢ D + ⎥ i = 0
⎣ L⎦
The general solution is of the form
− RL t
it = Ae …..(3)
Steady state part of the solution (or) particular integral is obtained from
 ⎡ R⎤ V V
⎢D + L ⎥ i = L ⇒ i = ⎡ R⎤
⎣ ⎦ L⎢D + ⎥
⎣ L⎦
To get the steady state part of the solution, substitute D=0 [for DC excitation].
V V
i ss = = ….(4)
R R
L*
L
The complete solution is
R
V − t
i = i ss + it = + Ae L
R
To evaluate the constant A, we use initial condition i(0 +)=0 At t = 0 +
V V V
i (0 + ) = + A ⇒ 0 = A + ⇒ A = −
R R R
∴The complete solution is

i (t ) =
V V − RL t V
R R R
[
− e = 1 − e −t / τ ] ….(5)
L
Where ‘τ’ is the time constant and is equal to
R
VOLTAGE ACROSS THE INDUCTOR:
di
The voltage across the inductor V L = L
dt
⎡V
( ) ⎤
d ⎢ 1 − e −t / τ ⎥
⇒ VL = L ⎣
R ⎦ = VL ⎛ 1 ⎞ e −t / τ = VL * R e −t / τ = Ve −t / τ
⎜ ⎟ …….(6)
dt R ⎝τ ⎠ R L
As ‘t’ is varying from 0 to ∞ the time response characteristics of current and voltage
across the inductor from equations (5) & (6) are shown in figure……
Response
V
R

VL

t in sec
0
TIME CONSTANT
If the time is equal to one time constant then VL = V(e-1) = 0.3678 Volts. The time constant can
be regarded as the time required for the transient response to attain 36.78% of initial value.
RLC CIRCUIT
The behaviour of an RLC series circuit with constant t=0
R L
excitation is presented here. Such RLC circuits are of
great importance, since they occur, in many practical +
situations. In the figure shown above. A battery of
voltage ‘V’ is suddenly applied to the series RLC v
circuit with no-initial current in the inductor and i
C
initial charge on the capacitor
At t = 0 - iL (0 -) = 0 ; VC (0 -) = 0
At t = 0 + iL (0+) = 0; VC (0 +) = 0
 Applying KVL, the equilibrium equation is
di 1
Ri + L + ∫ i dt = V ….(1)
dt C
Differentiating with respect to time, ‘t’
di di 2 1 di 2 R di 1 ⎡ R 1 ⎤
R +L 2 + i=0⇒ 2 + + i = 0 ⇒ ⎢D 2 + D + i=0 ….(2)
dt dt C dt L dt LC ⎣ L LC ⎥⎦
This is a second order differential equation and it is a homogeneous equation.
The solution of this equation is of the form
i= Ae
m1t
+ Be m2 t …..(3)
Where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are constants to be determined from the initial conditions of the
network and m1 and m2 are the roots of characteristic equations.
R 1
D2 + D + =0
L LC
The roots of the characteristic equation are
2
R ⎛R⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
− ± ⎜ ⎟ − 4⎜ ⎟
⎝ LC ⎠ − R
2
L ⎝L⎠ ⎛ R ⎞ 1
m1 , m2 = = ± ⎜ ⎟ −
2 2L ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
The response of the network depends on the nature of the roots m1 and m2. Also depend
up on the value under radical. Three cases of these roots are explained below.
2 2
⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 1 : When ⎜ ⎟ − is positive. In this case ⎜ ⎟ > . Hence the roots are
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
negative real. The response of the circuit is with out oscillations as shown in figure, curve 1. In
this case the final value is reached more slowly and is said to be over damped.
2 2
⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 2 : When ⎜ ⎟ − is equal to zero. In this case ⎜ ⎟ = . Hence the roots are
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
R
equal to − . In this case the response rises faster than curve 1 without any oscillations and
2L
no over-shoot on the final value. This response is called critically damped and is shown by
curve 2 in figure. The time of response is shortest.
2 2
⎛ R ⎞ 1 ⎛ R ⎞ 1
CASE 3 : When ⎜ ⎟ − is negative i.e., ⎜ ⎟ < then the roots m1 and m2 are
⎝ 2L ⎠ LC ⎝ 2L ⎠ LC
complex conjugates with negative real parts. The response of the system is oscillatory with
over shoots on the final value. This response is termed as under damped. Such a response is
often said to be ringing. The under damped behaviour is shown by curve 3 in figure.

Curve (3)
i

Curve (1)

Curve (2)

t in sec
0 FIG : RESPONSE OF THE CIRCUIT
THE EXPRESSION FOR CIRCUIT CURRENT
The expression for current of an RLC series circuit may be written as
d 2i di
2
+ 2ζω n + ω n2 i = 0
dt dt
Whose roots are m1 , m2 = −ζ ω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1 and the solution is
⎡ −ζ ω +ω ζ 2 −1 ⎤ t ⎡ −ζ ω −ω ζ 2 −1 ⎤ t
i(t ) = C1e ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
+ C 2 e ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
n n n n

The solution will have different farms depending up on the value of ‘ζ’. If ‘ζ’ is less than
one then R<RC and the response is under damped. If ‘ζ’ is equal to one then R=RC and the
response is critically damped. If ‘ζ’ is more than one then R>RC and the response is over
damped.

t=0
R

) ~ i
C

At t = 0 +
And Vm and θ
1
C∫
Ri + i dt = Vm Sin(ω t + θ ) ….(1)
Differentiating with respect to time, ‘t’
di 1
R + i = Vm ω Cos(ω t + θ) …..(2)
dt C
di 1 V ω
⇒ + i = m Cos (ω t + θ )
dt RC R
⎡ 1 ⎤ V mω
⇒ ⎢D + i= Cos (ω t + θ ) ….(3)
⎣ RC ⎥⎦ R
The complementary function (or) transient part of the above differential equation is
it = K 1e − t / RC = K 1 e − t / τ ….(4)
Where τ=RC Time constant
The steady state part of the solution of equation (1) is as follows. Let us assume that the
particular integral is of the form
i p (or )i ss = A Cos (ω t + θ ) + B Sin(ω t + θ )
di p
Where = − A Sin(ω t + θ )ω + B Cos (ω t + θ )ω
dt
= − Aω Sin(ω t + θ ) + Bω Cos (ω t + θ )
Substituting in equation (2) we have

8
 UNIT-3
LOCUS DIAGRAMS
An AC circuit is generally analyzed presuming the input voltage is constant. If
the values of R, L, C and f are varied the current in AC circuit gets affected in
magnitude and phase. The behavior of the circuit under such conditions can be studied
using LOCUS DIAGRAMS.
Example: - The performance of induction machine can be determined using the locus
diagram. The transmission line performance for different load conditions can be easily
evaluated using locus diagrams in power system engineering.
IMPEDANCE LOCUS DIAGRAMS
1. SERIES R – L CIRCUIT WITH CONSTANT ‘XL’ AND VARIABLE ‘R’:
Let us consider an R-L circuit with AC sinusoidal excitation in which the
inductance is constant and resistance is variable as shown in figure.
I Img Z
R

Z
XL
V L

R
Real Z
Locus of Impedance

The impedance of the network is Z = R + jXL, where XL = Lω. The current in the
network is
V V
I  2 ( R  jX L ) Is in complex form
R  jX L R  X L 2
VR VX L V R V XL
 2 2
j 2 2
 x jy   j 
R  XL R  XL R2  X L
2
R2  X L
2
R2  X L
2
R2  X L
2

VR VX L
Where x 2 2
 I Cos and y 2 2
 I Sin
R  XL R  XL
V2 V2 X V VX Vy
x 2  y 2  I2  2
 2
 L   2 L 2 
2
R  XL 2
R  XL XL XL R  XL XL
2 2
Vy  V   V 
 x  0    y 
2
2
x y  2
   
XL  2X L   2X L 
 V   V 
The above equation is a circle whose center is at  0,  with a radius of   ,
 2 X L   2 X L 

where ‘R’ is varying from 0 to . The current varies as a semicircle as shown in figure.
A N V

Locus of I
 V 
 0, 
 2X L  M

 V 
  B
 XL 
As the resistance is varied from 0 to  the current is traversing along the semicircle
V
AMB. The maximum horizontal component of I is AN 
2X L
Power factor is Cos 45 = 0.707
0 lagging.
V V2
Pmax  V ( I cos  ) max  V   Watts .
2XL 2XL
2. SERIES R – L CIRCUIT WITH CONSTANT ‘R’ AND VARIABLE ‘XL’:
Let us consider an R-L circuit with AC sinusoidal excitation in which the
inductance is constant and resistance is variable as shown in figure.
I
Img Z
R

Z
L XL
V

R
Real Z
Locus of Impedance
The impedance of the network is Z = R + jXL, where XL = Lω. The current in the
network is
V V
I  2 ( R  jX L ) Is in complex form
R  jX L R  X L 2
VR VX L V R V XL
 2 2
j 2 2
 x jy   j 
R  XL R  XL R2  X L
2
R2  X L
2
R2  X L
2
R2  X L
2

VR VX L
Where x 2
 I Cos and y 2
 I Sin
R2  X L R2  X L
V2 V2 R V VR V x
x2  y2  I 2      2 
2
R  XL
2 2
R  XL
2
R R R  XL 2
R
2 2
V x  V  V 
   y  0  
2
 x2  y2   x  
R  2R   2R 
V  V 
The above equation is a circle having radius   and centre  ,0  . The locus of the
 2R   2R 
current when L is varying from 0 to  is shown in figure.
V  V 
 ,0   
A  2R  B R  V

Locus of I

V
The current is maximum when the inductance is the circuit is zero. Therefore I max  .
R
The current and the voltage are in phase. Then the power factor is unity.
V V2
Pmax  V ( I cos  ) max  V   Watts .
R R
3. SERIES R – C CIRCUIT WITH CONSTANT ‘Xc’ AND VARIABLE ‘R’:
Let us consider an R-C circuit with AC sinusoidal excitation in which the
capacitance is constant and resistance is variable as shown in figure.
I
R
R
Real Z
Z
XC
C
V

Locus of Impedance
Img Z
1
The impedance of the network is Z = R – jXC, where XC = . The current in the
C
network is
 V V ( R  jX C ) VR VX
I   2  j 2 C 2
R  jX C 2
R  XC
2
R  XC
2
R  XC
V R V XC
   j   x jy
2 2 2 2
R2  X C R2  X C R2  X C R2  X C
VR VX C
Where x  I cos   2 2
and y  I sin   2 2
R  XC R  XC
V2 V2 XC V VX Vy
x2  y2  I 2      2 C 2 
2
R  XC
2 2
R  XC
2
XC XC R  XC XC
2 2
 V   V 

 x  0   y 
2

2X C
  
2 X

   C 
 V   V 
This is an equation of a circle with   as radius and  0,  as the centre of the
 2X C   2X C 
circle. The current locus diagram is as shown in figure.

 V 
  B
 XC 
Locus of I
 V 
 0,  M
 2X C 

A
N V
 V
The maximum horizontal component is AN = and this occurs at =450 leading
2X C
(Current leads the voltage).
V V2
Pmax  V I cos  max  V   Watts.
2X C 2X C
4. SERIES R – C CIRCUIT WITH CONSTANT ‘R’ AND VARIABLE ‘XC’:
Let us consider an R-C circuit with AC sinusoidal excitation in which the
resistance is constant and capacitance is variable as shown in figure.
I
R
R
Real Z
Z
XC
C
V

Locus of Impedance
Img Z
1
The impedance of the network is Z = R – jXC, where XC = . The current in the
C
network is
 V V ( R  jX C ) VR VX
I   2  j 2 C 2
R  jX C 2
R  XC
2
R  XC
2
R  XC
V R V XC
   j   x jy
2 2 2 2
R2  X C R2  X C R2  X C R2  X C
VR VX C
Where x  I cos   2 2
and y  I sin   2 2
R  XC R  XC
V2 V2 R V VR V x
x2  y2  I 2      2 
R2  X C
2
R2  X C
2
R R R  XC 2
R
2 2
 V  V 
   y  0  
2
 x  
 2R   2R 
V V 
This is an equation of a circle having radius and center at  ,0  . The current locus
2R  2R 
of a series RC circuit with variable C is as shown in figure since the current leads the
voltage.

Locus of I
M

A V 
,0   V B V
  
 2R  R
 RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
If the voltage applied to a RLC circuit is sinusoidal and happens to have the
same frequency as the natural frequency then a very sinusoidal current flows in the
network, even with the small voltage applied. This phenomenon is called
RESONANCE. Signals at hundreds of frequencies are almost available at different
locations waiting to be picked up. It is the phenomenon of resonance through
resonance networks which enables us to select the signal we want and discord others.
Hence resonance is an important practical phenomenon. The use of resonance networks
in Radio and communication systems is an established fact.
In general there are two types of resonance in electrical circuits:
Series resonance and
Parallel resonance
SERIES RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
SERIES RLC RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS
I Let us consider a RLC series
circuit with an AC sinusoidal excitation
R L C
as shown in figure (1). An electrical
V
circuit is said to undergo resonance
when the net or total current is in phase
with the applied voltage. A circuit at
resonance exhibits certain characteristic
FIG (1): Series RLC Circuit properties.
A series RLC circuit is said to be in resonance when the net reactance is zero. By
varying ω of the supply a Condition that the total reactance is zero can be achieved
when
I XC  I XL IXL

1
 L O I
C O
1 V = IR
O  Rad / sec
LC IXC
1 FIG (2): Phasor Diagram
the resonance frequency, f 0  Hz
2 LC
The voltages at resonance condition are shown in figure (2). The impedance at
resonance is Z  R  j 0 is the minimum. The current at resonance is maximum and this
V
value is given by I O  Amps .
R
IMPEDANCE OF RLC CIRCUIT AS FUNCTION OF ‘ω’
As ω is varying from 0 to ∞ the impedance of a series RLC circuit is also varying.
1
Z  R  j ( L  ) (or ) Z  R  j ( X L  X C )
C
The variation of XL, XC and Z are depicted in figure (3).
1
At resonance frequency,    O  . The impedance is minimum and the
LC
admittance is maximum. At this instant Z = R and the voltage and current are in phase
and the power factor is unity.
The current in RLC circuit is given by,
V V
I 
R2  (X L  X C )2 1 2
R 2  ( L  ) I
XL
LC Z
The voltage across R is VR then XL - XC
VR Y
VR   IR
1 2 R
R 2  ( L  )
C ω
o ω0
Similarly, XC
VX L
VL   IX L
1 2
R  ( L 
2
)
C
VX C FIG (3): Characteristics
VC   IX C
1
R 2  ( L  )2
C
V
At resonance VL = VC and I O  (maximum resonant current) and for other
R
frequencies ‘I’ will be less than ‘IO’ as shown in figure (4). The peak of this current can
be increased with decrease in R. Hence the small resistance is said to give sharp tuning
and large resistance broad tuning. A desired frequency can be selected by decreasing
the resistance. Effect of resistance on current variation is shown in figure (5). This
selection of desired frequency with reduced value of R is called selectivity of RLC series
circuit.
I I
R1<R2<R3
V
I0 
R
R1

R2
ω R3
o ω0 o ω0 ω
FIG (4): Current FIG (5): Different R’s

QUALITY FACTOR or VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION FACTOR

The quality factor Q0 of the resonant circuit may also be called as figure of merit
of the circuit (or) magnification factor. The value of Q0 represents the quality of the
circuit in terms of its voltage magnification. The ratio of the voltage developed across L
or C to the applied voltage is termed as voltage magnification and is denoted by as ‘Q’.
We have
(Voltage across the inductor at resonance) (Voltage across the capacitor at resonance)
Q0  OR
Supply Voltage Supply Voltage
I0 X L I X L0 1
 Q0  OR 0 C  Q0  OR
I0 R I0 R R C0R
1
Puttiing O  , we get
LC
 Dr. B. VENKATA PRASANTH M. Tech., Ph.D.

L 1 1 L
Q0  OR  Q0 
R LC  1  R C
CR 
 LC 
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM VALUE OF VL BY VARIATION OF INDUCTANCE
By varying inductance the condition for the maximum voltage across the
inductor and the corresponding frequency can be determined as given below,
The voltage across the inductor is
VX L
V L  IX L 
R2  (X L  X C )2
dVL
The voltage across the inductor is maximum when 0
dX L
dVL VX L 2
 
1

 R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2 *V  R  (X L  X C )2 2 * 2( X L  X C )  0
dX L 2
2
 R2  XC  XL XC
2
R2  XC
 XL 
XC
The frequency at which the voltage across the inductor is maximum is derived as
shown below,
2
XC  XL XC  R2
1 1
 2 2
 LL *  R2
C L CL
1
 L  rad / sec
CL  C 2R 2

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM VALUE OF VC BY VARIATION OF

CAPACITANCE
By varying capacitance the condition for the maximum voltage across the
capacitance and the frequency at which it occurs are derived here.
The expression for voltage across the capacitor is
VX C
VC  IX C 
R2  (X L  X C )2
dVC
The voltage across the capacitor is maximum when 0
dX C
dV VX
 
1

 C  R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2 *V  C R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2 2 * 2( X L  X C )  0
dX C 2
2
 XL XC  R2  XL
XL
 XC  2
R2  XL
The frequency at which it across is
1 L C 1 R2
  C   2
C C R2  X L
2
LC L
 UNIT-4
NETWORK FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION: - A function relating currents (or) voltages at different ports of the network,
called a transfer function is found to be mathematically similar to the transform impedance
function. These functions are called Network Functions.
PORTS [or] TERMINAL PAIRS
I 2 21
1
V1 One –port
11 Network
Fig (a)
1 3
N –Port
Network
11 31
I1 I2
1 2
V1
Two –port V2
11 Network 21
N N1
Fig (b) Fig (c)
Fig (a), (b) & (c): REPRESENTION OF ONE PORT, TWO PORT & N-PORT NETWORKS
In fig.(a) is shown a representation of a one-port network. The pair of terminals is connected to
an energy source which is the driving force for the network. So that, the pair of terminals is
known as the driving point of the network. Fig.(b) shows a two port network. The port 1-11 is
assumed to be connected to the driving force (as an input), and port 2-21 is connected to a load
(as an output). In fig.(c) shows a representation of an N-port network for the general case.
COMPLEX FREQUENCY
We considered only DC and pure sinusoidal as the forcing functions. However, circuits may be
subjected to other types of forcing functions also as for example exponentially increasing (or)
decreasing sinusoidal. In order to facilitate this study, a new concept of frequency called
“complex frequency” is introduced. Thus complex frequencies is defined as S = σ + j, and by
setting σ or  as both equal to zero, the functions are obtained.
Case (1) Let σ = 0: we have S = j, we know that this is the frequency of a purely sinusoidal
alternating function.
Case (2) Let  = 0; we have S = σ, a real number, either positive (or) negative. This gives us an
exponentially varying function. [Exponentially decreasing if σ is negative]
Case (3) Let σ = 0 &  = 0, we have S = 0. This is representative of a direct function.

Since ‘S’ is complex in nature and is also variable, it is termed as “complex frequency variable”.
Its real part ‘σ’ is termed as “Neper frequency“ with units Nepers / Sec and its imaginary part
‘w’ is termed as “Radian frequency” with units Radians / Sec.
NETWORK FUNCTIONS
The transform impedance at a port has been defined as the ratio of voltage transform to current
transform, with zero initial conditions with no internal voltage (or) current sources except
controlled sources. Thus we write
V S 
Z S  
I S 
Similarly, the transform admittance is defined as the ratio of current transform to voltage
transform i.e.,
IS  1
YS   
VS  ZS 
The transform impedance and transform admittance must relate to the source port 1-11 (or) 2-21.
The impedance (or) admittance found at a given port is called a driving point impedance (or)
admittance i.e., transform impedance (or) admittances of port 1-11 and 2-21 are also called as
input and output driving point impedances (or) admittances respectively.
Because of the similarly of impedance & admittance, these two quantities are assigned one
name “Immittance” function [combination of impedance and admittance]. An immittance
function is thus an impedance function (or) admittance function.
IMMITTANCE FUNCTIONS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
IMPEDANCE FUNCTION ADMITTANCE FUNCTION
ELEMENTS
Z(S) Y(S)
1
RESISTOR (R) in  R G
R
1
INDUCTOR (L) in H SL
SL
1
CAPACITOR (C) in F CS
SC
1 1 1
Therefore ZS   R  SL  & YS    G   SC
SC R SL
IMMITTANC FUNCTION FOR SOME SIMPLE NETWORKS
IMPEDANCE FUNCTION ADMITTANCE FUNCTION
NETWORKS
Z(S) y(S)

R L 1
R+SL
R  SL

R C 1 SRC  1 SC
R 
SC SC SRC  1

L C 1 S 2 LC  1 SC
SL  
SC SC S LC  1
2

R L C 1 SRC  S 2 LC  1 SC
R  SL  
SC SC SRC  S 2 LC  1

SRL R  SL
R  SL SRL
L
 R

R SRC  1
SRC  1 R
C

L
SL S 2 LC  1
S LC  1
2
SL
C

L SRL S 2 RLC  SL  R
S RLC  SL  R
2
SRL
C

The transfer function is used to describe networks which have at least two ports. In general, the
transfer function relates the transform of a quantity at one part to the transform of another
quantity at another part. Thus transfer functions have the following possible forms:
 The ratio of one voltage to another current (or) one current to another voltage is Z(S) or Y(S).
 The ratio of one voltage to another voltage called voltage transfer function; G(S)
 The ratio of one current to another current called current transfer function;  (S)
It is conventional, t define transfer functions as the ratio of an output quantity. In terms of the
two-port network, the output quantities are V2(S) & I2(S) and the input quantities are V1(S) and
I1(S). Using this scheme, we have
V S 
1. Transfer, impedance function; Z 21 S   2
I 1 S 
I S 
2. Transfer Admittance function; Y21 S   2
V1 S 
V S 
3. Voltage transfer function; G 21 S   2
V1 S 
I S 
4. Current transfer function;  21 S   1
I 2 S 
NOTE: - The ratio of an input Quantity to an output quantity is termed as the “Inverse
transfer function”
V S 
5. Inverse Transfer impedance function; Z 12 S   1
I 2 S 
I S 
6. Inverse transfer Admittance function; Y12 S   1
V2 S 
V S 
7. Inverse Voltage transfer function; G 12 S   1
V2 S 
I S 
8. Inverse current transfer function;  12 S   1
I 2 S 
POLES AND ZEROS OF NETWORK FUNCTIONS
If the network functions of a circuit (or) system are known, the behaviour of the circuit can be
easily understood. Network functions are generally characterized by their poles and zeros.
The poles and zeros of network impedance functions facilitate both network analysis and
synthesis. We know that the driving point impedance Z(S) is given as a ratio of two
polynomials in the complex frequencies considers the network function.
 pS  a 0 S n  a 1 S n 1  .....  a n 1 S  a n
NS   
qS  b 0 S m  b 1 S m1  .....  b m1 S  b m
Where a0, a1…, an & b0, b1, …, bm are coefficients which are real & positive, if the network is
passive and does not contain any dependant energy sources.
Let Z0, Z1, …, Zn be the roots of the equation p(S) =0 and p0, p1,, ….., pm the roots of the equation
z
q(S) =0. also let 0  H . Where H is termed as “Scale factor”.
p0
The network function can be expressed in the form
S  z 1 S  z 2 ......S  z n 
NS   H
S  p1 S  p 2 .....S  p m 
By putting S = z1, z2, ..zn, the network function becomes equal to zero. Hence the roots z1, z2, …,
zn are termed as “Zeros” of the function. Similarly by putting S = p1, p2, .., pm the network
function becomes infinite. Hence the roots p1, p2, …, pm are termed as “poles” of the function.
All the roots are complex frequencies. If z1, z2, .. zn are all unequal, the network function is said
to have n distinct zeros. Like wise, if p1, p2,…,pm are all unequal, the network function is said to
process m distinct poles. If on the other n and, some of the zeros (or) poles are equal, the zero
(or) pole is said to have repeated multiplicity. For example, if a zero repeats it self, say z1 = z2, it
is said to be double (or) have multiplicity 2. Similarly if a pole repeats it self twice, say p5 = p6 =
p7, it is said to be triple (or) have multiple3.
The poles and zeros of a rational network function for S = 0 & S = ∞ are termed as “external
poles & zeros”, and all other poles are zeros are termed as “Internal poles & zeros”. If both
internal & External poles and zeros of a network function are taken into account, then, total no
of poles = total no of zeros. A function has either a zeros or a pole at S = 0 and at S = ∞. The
poles and zeros of a network function are usually plotted in a S-plane.
Example: - Consider a network function
SS  S 
NS  
S  2  S  1  j1S  1  j1
By inspection, for expression N(S), has two zeros at
S = 0 & S = -5 and has three poles S = -2, S = - (1+j1)
& S = - (1-j1). These poles and zeros are shown in
the S-plane. Zeros are shown as circles (or) simple
‘0’ and poles are shown as crosses (or) simple ’X’ by
standard convention. Such as display of zeros &
poles of a network function in the S2 plane is termed
as “pole - zero plots” (or) pole zero configuration”.
The pole zero plot is very useful in describing the
behaviour of the network following fig.
SIGNIFICANCE OF POLES & ZEROS
V S 
Consider the impedance function Z11 S   1
I 1 S 
At every zero of the function, the network impedance is zero, and hence voltage would be zero.
This represents a short circuit. Thus at critical frequencies represented by the zeros of the
function, the network behaves as if it is short circuited. Also, at critical frequencies represented
by the poles of the function, the impedance is infinite and hence current would be zero. This
represents open circuit condition.
I S 
Similarly we consider the driving point admittance function Yii S   1 , we see that at every
V1 S 
zero of this function, the network admittance is zero and this represents an open–circuit
condition. Also at critical frequencies represented by the poles of the function, the admittance
of the circuit is infinite and this represents a short –circuit condition. With regard to transfer
functions also, it can be shown that the zero’s of such functions determine the magnitude of the
response and the poles determine the time –domain behaviour of the network response.
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR DRIVING POINT FUNCTIONS
(With common factors is p(S) & q(S) cancelled)
1. The coefficients in the polynomials p(S) & q(S) must be real & positive.
2. Poles & zeros must be conjugate if imaginary (or) complex.
3. The real part of all poles & zeros must be negative (or) zero, if the real part is zero, then that
pole (or) zero must be simple i.e., all the roots of p(S) = 0 & q(S) = 0 lie on the left half of S
–plane and simple roots may lie on the imaginary (or) j –axis.
4. The polynomials p(S) & q(S) may not have missing terms between those of highest and
lowest degrees, unless all even (or) all odd terms are missing.
5. The highest degree of p(S) & q(S) may differ either zero (or) one only.
6. The lowest degree of p(S) & q(S) may differ either zero (or) one only.
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
(With common factors in p(S) and q(S) cancelled)
p( S )
1. The coefficient in the polynomials p(S) & q(S) of NS   must be real and those for q(S)
q( S )
must be positive
2. Poles & zeros must be conjugate if imaginary (or) complex.
3. The real part of poles must be negative (or) zero, if the real part is zero, then that pole must
be simple. This includes the origin.
4. The polynomial q(S) may not have any missing terms between that of highest & lowest
degrees, unless all even (or) all odd terms are missing.
5. The polynomial p(S) may have terms missing between the terms of lowest and highest
degree and some of the coefficients may be negative.
6. The degree of p(S) may be as small as zero in dependant of the degree of q(S).
7. a). For G and α :- The maximum degree of p(S) is equal to the degree of q(S)
b). For Z and Y :- The maximum degree of p(S) is equal to the degree of q(S) plus one.
 UNIT-5
NETWORK SYNTHESIS
INTRODUCTION
Two important topics with in the domain of Electric Network Theory are Network Analysis and
Network Synthesis. The difference between Network Synthesis and Network Analysis is as
follows:
“If the network and excitation (input) are given and the response (output) is to be determine, the
problem is defined as Network Analysis”.
“When the excitation (input) and the response (output) are given and it is required to determine a
network, the problem is defined as Network Synthesis”.
There fore we can say Synthesis by the process of finding a network corresponding to a given
Driving Point Impedance (or) Admittance. Such a Synthesis is called Driving Point Synthesis.
The starting point for any network synthesis problem is the network function N(S) which is the
ratio of response (output) to the excitation (input). The first step in a network synthesis is to
determine whether the network functions N(S) could be realized as a physical passive network.
One of the elements of realizability is positive real function which is important because it
represents physically realizable passive driving point impedances ie., impedances and
admittances. Another element of realizability is a class of polynomial known as Hurwitz
Polynomial. It is infact the denominator polynomial of the network function satisfying certain
conditions.
Basically, there are two methods of synthesizing One – Port network, first one is the partial
fraction method, and the network obtained by this method of synthesis is called FOSTER FORM
of network and the second method of synthesis is continued fraction expansion method, and
network obtained by this method of synthesis is called CAUER FORM of network. Quite often the
term canonic is used for foster and cauer form. Because CANONIC means the network contains
the possible number of elements.
The elements required in synthesizing these networks are linear, passive and time invariant and
are inherently causal ie., in such networks the response (Effect) can not precede the excitation
(Cause) and therefore, given the transfer function we need not bother about the causality
condition. We must test the stability of the network which indirectly means we are left with the
checking of physical realizability of H(S) in terms of the following conditions:
 H(S) should not have poles in the right half of the S – plane.
 H(S) should not have multiple poles in the j - axis.
 The degree of the numerator of H(S) should not be more than unity with reference to the
denominator. This means in order to test H(S) for its physical realizability we have to test the
denominator polynomial of H(S). Infact the denominator polynomials of the transfer function
belong to across of polynomials known as Hurwitz polynomials.
HURWITZ – POLYNOMIAL
A polynomial is said to be Hurwitz if the following conditions are satisfied.
p( S )
N( S ) 
q( S )
 p(S) is real when S is real.
 The roots of p(S) have real parts which are zero (or) negative which means these lie along j -
axis as in the negative half of S – plane.
Properties:-
Suppose p(s) is given as
p(s)  a n S n  a n  1 S n  1    a1 S  a0
Then
 All the coefficients an, an-1, …,a0 must be real and positive which means that between the
highest order term in ‘S’ and the lowest order term. None of the coefficients is zero unless of
course the polynomial is even (or) odd.
 Hurwitz polynomial is that either odd or even parts have roots on the j - axis only. If we
denote the odd and even parts of p(S) by n(S) and m(S) respectively then
p( S )  n( S )  m( S )
Then n(S) and m(S) both have roots on the j - axis only. Therefore, if p(S) is either even or odd
its roots lies on j - axis.
 The continued fraction expansion of the ratio of the odd to even parts (or) even to odd parts of
p(S) yields all positive quotients.
CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION REQUIRES DIVISION AND INVERSION AND HAS
THE FOLLOWING IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS
 The continued fraction expansion of even to odd parts (or) vice – versa of a polynomial must
be finite in length ie., the process terminates and does not continue indefinitely.
 If the continued fraction expansion of odd to even parts (or) vice – versa of a polynomial yields
positive quotient term, then the polynomial must be Hurwitz to with in a multiplicative factor
W(S) ie., if we write
F( S )  W( S )  F1 ( S )
Then, F(S) is Hurwitz if W(S) and F1(S) are Hurwitz. Therefore, in order to check whether the
given polynomial is Hurwitz (or) not following tests must be carried out.
 All the coefficients of the polynomial must be real and positive and none of them must be
missing except if the polynomial has only even (or) odd order terms. This can be done by
inspection of the polynomial, no calculation is required.
 The quotients of the continued fraction expansion of even to odd parts (or) vice – versa of
the polynomial are positive. This is done by actual carrying out the continued fraction
expansion. However, it is to be noted that if p(S) is completely even (or) completely odd
then the second parts for continued fraction expansion are obtained by differentiating p(S)
p( S )
with reference to ‘S’ ie., the continued fraction be begin with has the parts 1 . It can be
p (S )
seen that if p(S) is completely odd then p1(S) is completely even and vice – versa.
POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS
A very important class of functions is known as POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS. These functions
are important in the sense, that if a function is positive real, this represents a physically realizable
passive driving point Immitance.
Now, a function F(S) is said to be positive real if it satisfies the following conditions:
 F(S) is real for real ‘S’ ie., F() is real (as S = +j) we take only real part of ‘S’.
 Real F(s)  0 if Re( S )  0
There fore, we provide here an alternative set of necessary and sufficient conditions for a rational
function with real coefficient to be positive real. These are:
1. F(S) must have no poles in the right half of the S – plane.
2. F(S) may have only simple poles on the j - axis with real and positive residues.
3. Re F( j)  0 , For all.
Let us understood one by one the implication of these three conditions.
The first one requires that we must test the denominator of F(S) whether it is Hurwitz (or) not
which can be obtained by continued fraction expansion of the polynomials.
The second condition is tested by finding partial expansion of F(S) and checking whether the
residues of the poles on the j -axis are positive and real. Therefore if F(S) has a pair of poles at
S   j1 a partial fraction expansion gives terms of the form.
K1 K2

s  j1 S  j1
The residues of complex conjugate poles are conjugate themselves. If the residues are real which
these should be for F(S) to be positive real then K 1  K 1 so that
*
 K1 K 1* 2K S
  2 1 2
S  j1 S  j1 S  
Therefore, if K1 is found to be positive, then F(S) satisfies the second condition.
The third condition we first find the real part of F(j) from the original function F(S) suppose,
P( S )
F(s) 
Q( S )
Say M1, M2 and N1, N2 are the odd and even parts of P(S) and Q(S) respectively such that
M (S )  N1 (S )
F( S )  1
M 2 (S)  N2 (S)
Let us obtain even and odd parts of F(S), multiply numerator and denominator of F(S) by
M 2 ( S )  N 2 ( S ) we obtain
M1 (S )  N1 (S ) M 2 (S )  N 2 (S )
*
M 2 (S)  N2 (S) M 2 (S)  N2 (S)
M ( S )M 2 ( S )  N 1 ( S )N 2 ( S ) M 2 ( S )N 1 ( S )  M 1 ( S )N 2 ( S )
F( S )  1 
M 22 ( S )  N 22 ( S ) M 22 ( S )  N 22 ( S )

Even function Odd function

Note: - Multiplication of even with even (or) odd with odd gives even function where as
multiplication of odd with even (or) Vice – versa gives an odd function.
If we substitute S = j we find the even part of any polynomial is real where as the odd part is
imaginary so that if F (j) is written as
F( j)  Re [F( j)]  j Im [F( j)]
Then
Re F( j)  EvenF( S )S  j
j Im F( j)  OddF( S )S  j
Therefore to test for the third condition for positive realness we determine the real part of F (j) by
finding out the even part F(S) and then substituting S = j we then check to see whether
Re [F( j)]  0 for all .
The denominator of Re [F( j)] is always a positive quantity because
M 22 ( j)  N 22 ( j)  M 22 ( j)  N 22 ( j)  0
Since A (2) represent an even polynomial and may be written as
A(2 )  A 0 2 r  A 2 2 r2  A 4 2 r4    A 2 r2 2  A 2 r
If all the coefficients of A (2) are positive then A (2) is positive for all values of  between 0
and. However, if all the A – Coefficients are not positive then a test known as STURM’s test is
carried out which is explained as follows:
Let us put 2 = x and assume A (2) = P0(x). The above equation reduced to
A(2 )  P0 ( x)  a 0 x r  a 1 x r1    a r1 x  a 0
Here P0(x) is the first of a set of functions known as Sturm’s functions. The second function is
obtained by differentiating the first one, thus
P1 ( x)  a 0 r x r1  a 1 (r  1) x r2  
Now if P0(x) is divided by P1(x), it gives a two – term quotient, the remainder is the negative of the
next Sturm’s function P2(x) ie.,
P0 ( x)  P2 ( x)
 1 x   2 
P1 ( x) P1 ( x)
Here P2(x) is one degree lower than P1(x). The division is repeated to yield the next Sturm’s
function P3(x) ie.,
 P1 ( x)  P3 ( x)
 3 x  4 
P2 ( x) P2 ( x)
The procedure is continued till (i) the last Sturm’s function Pr of degree zero is found (or) (ii) the
remainder resulting from the division process is identically zero.
After we have obtained P0 , P1 ,  , Pr , Sturm’s theorem states that the number of zeros of P0(x) in
the interval 0 < x <  is equal to S - S0 where S and S0 are the number of sing changes in the set
( P0 , P1 ,  , Pr ). Evaluate at x = 0 and x =  respectively. If, however, there are no sign changes ie.,
S - S0 = 0 then A(2 )  0 , for all  . It is to be noted that  0 ,  1 , ,  r are of no consequence to
find P0 through Pr and are to be ignored.
PROPERTIES OF POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS
P( S )
The coefficients of the numerator and denominator polynomials in N( S )  are real and
q( S )
positive, as follows
 N(S) is real when ‘S’ is real.
 Complex poles and zeros of N(S) occur in conjugate pairs.
a
 The scale factor H  0 is real and positive.
b0
 The poles and zeros of N(S) have either negative or zero real parts.
 Pole of N(S) on the imaginary axis must be simple and their residues must be real and
1
positive. The same statement applies to the poles of .
N( S )
 The degrees of numerator and denominator polynomials in N(S) differ at most by 1. Thus
the number of finite poles and finite zeros of N(S) differ at must be by 1.
 The terms of lowest degree in the numerator and denominator polynomials of N(S) differ in
degree at most by 1. So, N(S) has neither multiple poles nor zeros at the origin.
The passive elements to be used for synthesizing a network the R, L and C and the impedances
and / or admittances of these elements are rational function of ‘S’ as is seen here under…
 If F(S) = SL where L is a real positive number, it is a positive real by definition and L is an
inductance if F(S) is impedance.
 F(S) = R where ‘R’ is a real positive number, here again F(S) is positive real by definition
and if F(S) is an impedance ‘R’ is the resistance.
K 1
 F( S )  Where ‘K’ is a real positive, here F(S) is positive real by definition and is the
S K
capacitance. Here F(S) is positive real because when ‘S’ is real F(S) is real and when real
K K
part of S  0 , Re( S )    0 then Re   2 0
 S   
2

Therefore, F(S) is positive real. So, the passive impedances are positive real functions. Similarly, it
is clear that the admittance.
K
Y( S )  K S ; Y( S )  K and Y( S ) 
S
are positive real if ‘K’ is real and positive.
LC – IMMITANCE FUNCTIONS
Let us consider the impedance of a passive one – port network.
M (S)  N1 (S)
Z( S )  1    (1)
M 2 (S)  N2 (S)
The average power dissipated by the one – port network having reactance elements L and C is
zero which mean that the real part of Z( j) is zero ie.,
ReZ( j)  Z( j)Even  0
 Z( j)Even  M 1 (S) M22 (S)  N21 (S) N 2 (S)    (2)
M 2 (S)  N 2 (S)
which means M 1 ( S ) M 2 ( S )  N 1 ( S ) N 2 ( S )  0 .
For this situation to raise either of the following cases must hold
(a) M 1 = 0 = N2
(b) M 2 = 0 = N1
N1 (S) M (S)
From equation (1), for (a) Z( S )     ( 3) and (b) Z( S )  1    ( 4)
M 2 (S) N 2 (S)
This means that the driving point Immitance
 Is a ratio of even to odd (or) odd to even polynomials.
 Has poles and zeros of Z(S) (or) Y(S) on the imaginary axis.
 The poles and zeros interlace on the j – axis ie., the poles and zeros alternate on the j –
axis. This is known as separation property.
The separation property is given by 0  0  1  2     where there frequencies in Z(S) are
given as
K( S 2  12 ) ( S 2  23 )( S 2  22 n  1 )
Z( S )     ( 5)
S ( S 2  22 ) ( S 2  24 )( S 2  22 m  2 )
Here frequencies 1 , 3 ,  , 2 n 1 are known as internal zeros and 2 , 4 , , 2 m 2 are known as
internal poles. The critical frequencies at S = 0 and S =  are called external critical frequencies,
expanding x(S) in to partial fraction we have
K 2K S 2K S
Z( S )  0  2 2 2  2 4 2    K  S    (6)
S S  2 S  4
Let S = j we see that Z ( j ) has zero real part and can thus be rewritten as a pure reactance jx()
  K0 2 K2  
Z( j)  j   2    K      (7 )
  2   2

 jx()
Differentiating with respect to ‘’ we have
dx() K 0 2 K 2 (2  22 )
 2  K       ( 8)
d  (22  2 )2
dx()
Since all the residues Ki are positive it is found that for an LC function 0
d
dB()
Similarly for an admittance function it can be shown that  0 where B () is the susceptance
d
of the LC function.
Thus on plotting X against,
the slope of the curve is
always positive ie., X always
increases with the increase of
. Thus as we increase the
frequency from a value 1,
the impedance X increases
from X1reaching infinity at a
certain higher values as
shown. Under this conditions
of frequency at infinite
reactance, the sign of X
changes ie., X() becomes - .
For higher values of  , reactance X increases becoming less and less negative. Thus, the slope is
 B. VENKATA PRASANTH, M.Tech., Ph.D.
again positive as given by curve CD in figure. At some frequency, X becomes zero and then
beyond this frequency, X again becomes positive and ultimately reaches infinity at a higher
frequency. Beyond this frequency, the cycle repeats. Frequencies at which X becomes zero are
called ZERO’S while the frequencies at which X becomes infinite in magnitude are called POLE’S.
The zero frequencies are called Anti – resonant frequencies.
dX
Now in a reactive network since is always positive the poles and zeros must alternate, ie., zero
d
must lie in between two poles and similarly a pole must lie in between two zeros. This property of
a reactive network is referred as the separation property.
 The Highest (or) Lowest powers of numerator and denominator must differ by unity.
 With this we observe that at S = 0 at S = ; there is always a critical frequency whether
zero (or) a pole.
RC – NETWORK FUNCTIONS
The fig.s (a) and (b) shows simple parallel RC and series RC networks. The impedance of the
parallel network of fig. (a) is
Ca
Rb Cb

Ra
Fig.: (a) Fig.: (b)
 
 
1  1 
Za (S )  R a C a     ( 1)
Ca  S  1 
 R a Ca 
 
1 S
and the admittance of the network of figure (b) is Yb ( S )  *    (2)
Rb  1 
 S  
 R b C b 
A comparison of equations (1) and (2) shows that both have their poles on the negative real axis in
Y( S )
the S – plane, comparison also shows that Z(S) and have the same from for these two
S
particular networks.
NOTE: - 
1 1 1 1 1  R a Ca S Ra 1
    Ca S  (or ) Za (S )  
Za (S) R a 1 Ra Ra 1  R a Ca S  1 
C a  S  
Ca S
 R a C a 


1 R C S1 1 1 S
Z b (S )  R b   b b (or ) Yb ( S )   *
Cb S Cb S Z b (S) R b  1 
 S  
 R b C b 


The general form of ZRC(S) is as follows
( S  1 )( S  3 )
ZRC ( S )  H    ( 3)
S ( S  2 )
By partial fraction expansion the above equation can be reduced to
K K2 K4
ZRC ( S )  0      K     ( 4)
S ( S  2 ) ( S   4 )
If zero at S = 0, then equation (3) becomes
 H ( S  2 )( S   4 )
ZRC ( S )     ( 5)
( S  1 )( S  3 )
Which has the same of partial fraction expansion as equation (4) but with K0 = 0
j
Last zero may be at
infinity


First pole may be at origin

From these results we may state the following properties of RC impedance functions:
1. All poles and zeros are simple and are located on the negative real axis of the S – plane.
2. Poles and Zeros are interlaced.
3. The lowest critical frequency is a pole which is at the origin only if K 0  0 .
4. The highest critical frequency is a zero which is at infinity only if K   0 .
5. The residues evaluated at the poles of ZRC(S) are real and positive.
Now that the poles and zeros of RC impedances are on the –  axis, let us find the relative
locations of the critical frequency, for which, we find out the slope of Z(S) at S = 
dZRC ( S ) K 0  K1  Ki
 2  
d  (  1 ) 2
(    i )2
dZRC ( S )
It is clear that  0 ie., it is negative.
d
Since the slope of Z RC ( ) is always negative as – 
decreases (or)  increases, Z RC ( ) must increase until at
S  1 , Z( 1 )   . At   1 , Z() changes sign and is
negative because between  1 &  2 , the term in the
denominator (  1 ) becomes negative whereas the
other three factors are positive and it continues until the
next critical frequency (  2 ) is reached where the
function is zero. Since Z RC (  ) increases for decreasing – 
, the third critical frequency must be a pole at S   3 . As
Z RC (  ) changes sign at   3 , the final critical frequency
must be zero at S   4 . Beyond    4 the curve
becomes equal to Z() = 1.
RL – NETWORK FUNCTIONS
The fig.s (a) & (b) shows simple parallel RL and series RL networks. The impedance of the parallel
network of fig.(a) is
La
Rb Lb

Ra
Fig.: (a) Fig.: (b)

S L aR a S
Za (S)  R a L a   Ra    (1)
R a  S La  Ra 
 S  
 L a 
 1
Lb
and the admittance of the network of figure (b) is Yb ( S )     (2)
 Rb 
 S  
 L b 
A comparison of equations (1) and (2) shows that both have their poles on the negative real axis in
Z( S )
the S – plane, comparison also shows that and Y( S ) have the same form for these two
S
particular networks. The general form of ZRL(S) is as follows
K S K S K S
ZRL ( S )  K 0  1  2    i    K  S
S  1 S   2 S  i
The pole zero configuration as shown in figure
j

Last pole may be at

infinity


First zero may be at origin

From these results we may state the following properties of RL impedance functions:
1. Poles and zeros are simple and are located
on the negative real axis of the S – plane.
2. Poles and zeros are interlaced.
3. The singularity nearest to (or at) the origin
is a zero. The singularity nearest to (or at) S
=  must be a pole.
4. The residues of ZRL(S) the poles must be
real and negative however the residues of
Z RL ( S )
are real and positive.
S
5. The slope of ZRL(S) is positive and
Z RL ( )  Z RL (0 ).
6. The plot of Z RL ( S ) as a function of  are as
shown in fig.
Realization of canonic forms [Foster & Cauer Forms]
Forster form– I : –
Since we know that the poles & zeros of an LC immittance function lie on the j  axis , the partial
fraction of the LC immittance function will, in general, be of the form
K 2K S 2K S
F( S )  0  2 2 2  2 4 2    K  S    (1)
S S  2 S  4
While synthesizing such a network each term in the partial fraction is associated with an element
(or) a pair of elements and then these are to be connected in series. For example if F(S) is Z(S) then
K 1
the term 0 represents a capacitor of Farads, the term K  S an inductor of K  Henry and the
S K0
2K S 1
term 2 2 2 represents a parallel combination of L & C where C is Farads and the inductor
S  2 2K 2
2K
is of 2 2 Henry and the elements are connected as shown in Table.
2
It is to be noted that since all poles of LC immittance function lie on j  axis , we can remove all
the poles simultaneously using partial fraction. If Z(S) has no pole at the origin [and so it has a
zero at origin] the first term in the partial fraction will be missing [C 0 will be absent]. Similarly, if
there is a zero rather than a pole at infinity then the inductor will be absent.
Forster form – II : –
However if the function F(S) is given in admittance form Y(S), then the partial fraction expansion
of Y(S) gives a circuit consisting of parallel branches. Let
K 2K S 2K S
Y( S )  0  2 2 2  2 4 2    K  S    (2)
S S  2 S  4
Each term here represents an admittance of an element (or) a pair of elements to be connected
K 1
across a two port network. 0 represent an inductor element of Henry and K  S represents
S K0
1
capacitor of K  Farads. Similarly, if L & C are in series, their admittance is L  Henry &
2K 2
2K
C  2 2 Farads. Therefore, the network takes the shape as shown in Table.
2
Cauer form– I : –
Continued fraction expansion is used in cauer method. In first cauer from we arrange the
polynomials in the numerator and denominator in the descending powers of S and we eliminate
during every step a pole at infinity ( S   ) . If the original function is Z(S) with the order of
numerator is 2n, then that of the denominator is 2n–1, we eliminate a pole at infinity by diving
numerator by the denominator, and thereby we get the quotient is Z1(S). Therefore, the remainder
function Z2(S) is still LC immittance function and is
Z 2 ( S )  Z( S )  Z 1 ( S )
Now the denominator of Z2(S) is of the order 2n–1 where as the numerator becomes 2n–2 as the
difference in power must be one. Since in cauer-I, we always eliminate a pole at infinity, therefore,
we invert Z2(S) to obtain,
1
Y2 ( S ) 
Z2 (S)
Again divide this numerator of Y2(S) by its denominator we have Z3(S) which will forms the series
element. Next we again invert Y4(S) so that we can have a pole at infinity. The process is continued
till the remainder is zero. In fact, this process is known as continued fraction expansion and is
given as follows:
1
Z( S )  Z 1 ( S ) 
1
Y2 ( S ) 
1
Z3 (S) 
1
Y4 ( S ) 
Z5 (S)   
Since the expansion of Z( S ) looks a ladder, the network so synthesized are known as ladder
network.
Whenever be the form of the original function whether Z( S ) (or) Y( S ) , in first form of cauer a pole
is eliminated at infinity ( S   ) at every step. Therefore, if the numerator of the original function
has power of S smaller than that of the denominator, it should be inverted and the continued
fraction expansion carried out. The final network synthesized is a ladder network whose series
elements are inductor & shunt elements are capacitors shown in Table.
Cauer form– II : –
Here we arrange the given function polynomials (numerator as well as denominator) in the
ascending order power of S and remove a pole at origin ( S  0 ) successively. Since the lowest
degree of numerator & denominator of an LC admittance must differ by one, it follows that there
must be a zero (or) a pole at ( S  0) . After arranging the numerator & denominator in the
ascending power of S we divide the lowest power of the numerator by the lowest power of
denominator, and then we invert the remainder & divide again. With this we will have an
alternate form of ladder network which will have series capacitors and shunt (reactors) inductors.
Series capacitor impedance has a pole at origin whereas shunt reactor admittance has a pole at
origin. A general network is shown in Table.
1
Z( S )  Z 1 ( S ) 
1
Y2 ( S ) 
1
Z3 (S) 
1
Y4 ( S ) 
Z5 (S)   
Table: Foster forms – I & II and Cauer forms – I & II with LC, RC and RL Circuits
LC CIRCUIT
S. No. Form Description Circuit

Partial fraction
FOSTER
1. expansion of
FORM – I
Z(S)

Partial fraction
FOSTER
2. expansion of
FORM – II
Y(S)

Continued
fraction
CAUER
3. expansion of
FORM – I
Z(S) (or) Y(S)
about infinity
Continued
fraction
CAUER
4. expansion of
FORM – II
Z(S) (or) Y(S)
about zero
RC CIRCUIT

Partial fraction
FOSTER
1. expansion of
FORM – I
Z(S)

Partial fraction
FOSTER
2. expansion of
FORM – II
Y(S)

Continued
fraction
CAUER
3. expansion of
FORM – I
Z(S) (or) Y(S)
about infinity
 Continued
fraction
CAUER
4. expansion of
FORM – II
Z(S) (or) Y(S)
about zero

RL CIRCUIT

Partial fraction
FOSTER
1. expansion of
FORM – I
Z(S)

Partial fraction
FOSTER
2. expansion of
FORM – II
Y(S)

Continued
fraction
CAUER
3. expansion of
FORM – I
Z(S) (or) Y(S)
about infinity
Continued
fraction
CAUER
4. expansion of
FORM – II
Z(S) (or) Y(S)
about zero