Set Theory

Set
In mathematics, the idea of a set is fundamental and all mathematical objects and constructions go
back to set theory. It was developed by German mathematician George Cantor (1845 – 1915).
A set is defined as a well defined collection of objects, things, numbers, called the elements of the set.
Words like collection, group, family, aggregate are often used to convey the idea of set in everyday
life.
The examples of a set are given below:
a. The SAARC Countries
b. A set of political parties in the parliament of Nepal
c. The letters of the word "BUSINESS"
d. A set of prime numbers = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11 …}
e. A set of square numbers = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25 …}
f. A set of vowels in English alphabet = {a, e, i, o, u}
Notation
∈ an element of or belongs to or is a member of or contents to
∉ not an element of or does not belong to or is not a member of
⇒ implies that
Iff If and only if
/or : such that

Specification of set
The following are the method of representing a set
a. Listing method or Roster method or Tabulation method
b. Descriptive phrase method
c. Rule method or set builder method
a. Listing Method or Roster Method or Tabulation Method
This method is used in listing each element of the set within the brackets. For
example A ={a, b, c, d} Note that an element of a set is not written
more than once. If A = {1, 2, 3, 3} which has the elements 1, 2 and 3, it is still
considered as a single element even though 3 is repeated twice.
b. Descriptive Phrase Method
This method consists in placing a phrase describing the elements of the set within the
braces.
For example
A = The set of odd numbers between 1 and 20.
Note that this method may be used when there is a large number of elements or when
all the elements cannot be named. For example,
B = The set of consonants sound in English alphabet. C =
The set of rivers in Nepal.
c. Rule Method or Set Builder Method
In this method, set is described by defining the property that characterizes or specifies
all elements of the set.
 For example,
A = {a, e, i, o, u} can be written as
A = {x: x is a vowel in English alphabet}

Types of Set
1. Finite and Infinite Sets
A set having finite number of elements is called Finite set.
For example
A = {a, b, c}
B = {x: x is a month of the year}
A set having infinite number of elements is called infinite set.
For example
A = {x: x is stars in the sky}
N = {x: x is a natural number} = {1, 2, 3 …}
2. Null set or Empty Set
A set having no element is called a null or empty set. It is denoted by  (phi) or { }
A = {x: x is a male student of Aanya Campus} = 
B = {x: x is a prime number between 24 and 28} = 
3. Singleton Set or Unit Set
A set having only one element is called Singleton Set .
Example
A= { 5 }
B = The set of even prime numbers = {2}
4. Universal Set
Universal Set is the totality of elements under the consideration as elements of any set. It is
denoted by the letter U. For example.
A. The set of all real numbers is the universal set in the real number system.
B. The set of all students of Tribhuvan University.
Venn diagram
The diagrammatic representation of sets is called Venn diagram. It was developed by British
mathematician John Venn. The universal set U is usually represented by rectangle and any other given
set is represented by a circle.

Universal set Set A Set B

Relations of Set
1. Subsets
If A and B are two sets such that each element of A is also an element of B then A is called a
subset of B. It is denoted by A ⊆ B.
 Example
Let A = {a, b, c}
B = {a, b, c, d}
C = {c, }
Here A and C are subsets of B, and B is also called as super set of A and C.
Proper Subset
If each element of set A is an element of B but even if one element of B does not
belong to A (i.e. A ≠ B), then A would be called a proper subset. It is denoted by A ⊂B.
2. Equal and Equivalent set
Two given sets A and B are called equal sets if they have the same elements. It is denoted by
A = B and equivalent if they have equal number of elements

For Example
Let A = {m, n, p}, B = {n, m, p}
So, A = B
Again, A = {a, b, c} and B = {1, 2, 3} are equivalent sets.

3. Joint and Disjoint Sets

Two given sets are said to be joint (overlapping) sets if they have at least one element in
common. Otherwise the sets are disjoint
For Example
Let, A = {1, 2, 3,4}
B = {3, 4, 5,6}
C={5,6,7,8}
Are disjoint sets.

Operation on set
1. Union
The union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements belonging either to A or to B or to both. It is
denoted by A∪B.
In set builder form, A∪B = {x:x∈A or x ∈B}
2. Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of all elements belonging to both A and B. It is
denoted by A∩B.
In set builder form, AB = {x: x∈A and x∈B}.
3. Difference
The difference of sets A and B denoted by A – B is the set of all the elements that
belongs to A but does not belong to B. It can be written as A – B. In set builder form
In set builder form, A – B = {x: x ∈A, x ∉B}.
Similarly, B – A = {x: x ∈B, x ∉A}.
4. Complement of set
If U be a universal set and A be its subset, then the complement of A is the set of all elements
that belong to U but not to A. It can be written as A' or Ā or Ac. In a a set builder form
In set builder form, U
A = U – A = {x: x ∈U, x∉A} b a A

c
e
d h
Laws of Set Algebra

1. Identity laws
(a) A∪U=U (b) A∩U =A
(c) A∪φ= A (d) A∩φ =φ
2. Commutative laws
(a) A∪B=B∪A (b)A∩B =B∩A
3. Associative laws
(a) A∪ (B∪C) =(A∪B)∪C (b) A∩ (B∩C) = (A∩B)∩C
4. Distributive Law

(a) A∪(B∩C) = (A∪ B) ∩ (A∪C) (b) A∩ (B∪C) = (A∩B)∪(A∩C)

5. Complementationlaws
c C
(a)(Ac) =A (b)φ
(c) Uc=φ (d)A∪Ac=U
(e) A∩A = φ
6. De–Morgan'slaws

(A∪ B)c=(Ac∩ Bc) (b) (A ∩ B)c =Ac∪Bc

End of note