EMOTIONS & STRESS

Section1: Emotion

This section specifically analyzes the emotional aspect of mental life. It attempts to answer
questions like the following:
1. What are emotions?
2. What are the important dimensions of emotions?
3. What theories do we have to explain the nature of human emotions?

Objectives
You are expected to be able to do the following after the end of this section:
1. distinguish emotion from motivation, instinct, and reason. identify the components of
emotion
2. understand the meaning of happiness, emotional stress.

1.1 The Meaning of Emotion

What are emotions? What does it mean when you say Mr. X is emotional? Are emotions referring
only to feelings?

• Defining an emotion is not an easy task. It almost seems as if there are as many definitions
of emotions as there are writers on the subject. There is general agreement among scientists
who have studied emotions, however, that they involve three major components:
1. Physiological components- This refers to internal bodily changes associated with
emotions. Examples include shifts in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, digestion etc.
2. Subjective Experience - This involves the personal experience we label as emotions. It is
what it feels like to be angry, sad, happy or elated.
3. Emotional Expression - This refers to outward signs of internal bodily reactions. That is,
the ways in which emotions are expressed in language, facial expression and gestures etc.
• Emotions are personal. No one can truly share our subjective experiences. Yet we can
recognize the presence of various emotions in others, and we are able to communicate our
own feelings to them as well. This occurs because of the presence of nonverbal cues-
out-ward, observable signs of others' internal emotional states.
• Several decades of research on nonverbal cues suggests that this kind of communication
occurs through several basic channels or paths simultaneously. The most revealing of these
consists of facial expressions, eye-contact, body movements and posture, and touching.

Facial Expressions
• One of the main ways of showing emotions is through facial expression. It is possible to
learn much about others' current moods and feelings from their facial expressions. That is,
moods and feelings are often reflected in the face and can be read there from specific
expressions. Facial expression is a valuable source of feedback to a speaker and can
indicate that others are interested and listening.
• It appears that there are six different emotions, which are clearly represented on the face.
These are anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness and surprise. Of course, this in no
way implies that we are capable of showing only six different facial expressions.
• It was widely assumed that basic facial expressions such as those for happiness, anger, or
disgust are universal: they are recognized as indicating specific emotions by persons all
over the world.
• However, a review of the evidence on this issue (Russel, 1994) suggests that the
interpretation of facial expressions may be strongly influenced by cultural factors and that
recognition of them may not be as universal as was previously assumed.
Eye contact
• We do often learn much about other feelings from their eyes. For example, we interpret a
high level of gazing from another as a sign of liking or friendliness. In contrast, if others
avoid eye contact with us, we may conclude that they are unfriendly, don't like us, or are
shy.
• While a high level of eye contact from others is usually interpreted as a sign of liking or
positive feelings, there is one important exception to this general rule. If another person
gazes at us continuously and maintains such contact regardless of any actions we perform,
she/he can be said to be staring. Staring is often interpreted as a sign of anger or hostility.

Body Language
• Our current mood or emotion is often reflected in the gesture, posture, position, and
movement of our body. Together, such non-verbal behaviors are termed as Body Language.
• Gestures tell us a great deal about the emotional state of the other person. For example, a
nervous interviewee may wring the hands, fidget the fingers by fiddling with objects or
hair, wriggle or curl the toes- such involuntary gestures expressed because the true feeling
leak out at the edges. Embarrassment is shown by a hand over the mouth, anger by clenched
hands, and shame by covering the eyes.
• When we like someone, we tend to use more open gestures than when we do not. Open
gestures are those which do not create barriers between us and others. Thus, crossed arms
and crossed legs signal that we are unsure/uneasy/ defensive/ do not like the other person,
and are called closed gestures.
• In addition, body posture, the way in which we sit, or stand is a good indicator of the way
we feel. For example, a drooping body posture can show that a person is very depressed,
while a taut, upright position might show extreme anxiety.

Touching
• The amount and type of touch which is acceptable varies according to sex and society. But,
in general growing evidence indicates that when one person touches another in a manner
that is considered acceptable in the current context, positive reactions generally result.

Emotion is a motivated state that is marked by physiological arousal, expressive behavior,

and mental experience and that varies in its intensity and pleasantness or unpleasantness.

1.2 Some Theories of Emotion

1. James - Lange Theories (William James and Carl Lange)

This theory suggests that subjective emotional experiences are the result of physiological
changes within our bodies (internal changes in the autonomic nervous system or
movements of the body). You feel frightened for instance, when making a public speech
because you notice that your heart is racing, your mouth is dry, and other physical
symptoms of fear.

2. Cannon - Bard Theory (Walter Cannon and Philip Bard)

• This theory suggests that various emotion provoking events induce simultaneously the
subjective experiences we label as emotions and the physiological reactions that
accompany them.
• In contrast with the James - Lange theory, this theory holds that bodily reactions and the
felt emotion are independent of each other in the sense that bodily reactions are not the
basis of the felt emotion.
• According to the Cannon-Bard Theory, when you encounter an emotion-provoking event,
such as seeing a snake, your brain processes the stimulus and simultaneously generates the
emotion (fear) and the physical responses (such as increased heart rate and sweating). In
this view, the bodily reactions do not cause the felt emotion; instead, both occur
concurrently because of the brain's processing of the event.

3. Schachter -Singer Theory (Stanley Schachter & Jerome Singer)

• According to this view, emotion-provoking events produce increased arousal. In response
to feelings of arousal, we search the external environment to identify the causes of such
feelings. The causes we then select play a key role in determining the label we place on our
arousal, and so in determining the emotion we experience.
• If we feel aroused after a near-miss in traffic, we'll probably label our emotion as 'fear' or
perhaps " anger” If, instead we feel aroused in the presence of an attractive person, we may
label our arousal as "attraction" or "love."
• In short, this theory holds that the emotion we feel is due to our interpretation of an aroused
or "stirred up "bodily state.

4. Lazarus Theory
• Lazarus Theory states that a thought must come before any emotion or physiological
arousal. In other words, you must first think about your situation before you can experience
an emotion.
• Example. You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you,
and you think it may be a mugger, so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your
breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear.

5. Facial Feedback Theory

• According to the facial feedback theory, emotion is the experience of changes in our facial
muscles. In other words, when we smile, we then experience pleasure, or happiness. When
we frown, we then experience sadness. It is the changes in our facial muscles that cue our
brains and provide the basis of our emotions. Just as there are an unlimited number of
muscle configurations in our face, so to are there a seemingly unlimited number of
emotions.
• Example. You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you
and your eyes widen, your teeth clench and your brain interpret these facial changes as the
expression of fear. Therefore, you experience the emotion of fear.
Section 2 – Stress and Coping
This section is aimed to elaborate what is stress and how individual cope from stress.

Objective:
At the end of this section you will be able to:
1. Define stress
2. List type of stressors
3. Describe mechanisms of coping from stress

2.1 Stress
Stress is a state of an individual when he perceives that his well-being (physical as well as
psychological) is endangered, and that he must mobilize all his energies or his protection.

Stress includes a process of:

a. Appraising events as threatening, challenging and harmful.
b. Responding to such events on different levels:
-Physiological (muscle tension)
-Emotional (apprehension, fear)
-Behavioral (fight or flight)

Events that often lead to stress are called stressors. STRESSOR causes stress, like stimuli,
situations, and circumstances.

EXTERNAL STRESSORS: Physical Environment, Social Environment, Major Life Events, Daily
Hassles, Organizational and School.
INTERNAL STRESSORS: Lifestyle Choices, Negative Self-Talk, Mind Traps, Personality Traits.

STRAIN are behavioral reactions (such as crying, isolating oneself, taking drugs), emotional
reactions (feeling anxious, depressive, in despair), physical reactions (headache, increase of
blood pressure, insomnia)

STRESS refers to the process that occurs when there is a disturbance in the equilibrium between
an individual and their environment. This state of disturbed equilibrium happens when the
demands of the environment exceed the individual's ability to cope or respond effectively.

Two aspects about stress:

1. Stress is unavoidable
2. Some stresses are good

The Four Stages of Stress Reaction

Stage 1: Recognition of environmental demand

The first stage of stress reaction occurs when an individual becomes aware of an environmental
demand, whether it is predictable or not. The instant we recognize that an event is happening, we
have identified a demand placed upon us.

Stage 2: Appraisal of the demand

In this stage, we evaluate the demand to determine its significance and our ability to cope with it.
This appraisal process explains why certain events might be stressful for one person but not for
another. We ask ourselves two key questions:

1. Does this event present a threat to me?

2. Do I have the resources to cope with this event?
If we perceive the event as a threat to our well-being or believe we lack the means to respond
effectively, we experience stress.

Stage 3: Mobilization of the nervous system

Once a demand is appraised as stressful, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is activated. The
ANS controls automatic body functions, such as heartbeat, body temperature, breathing rate, and
digestion. This mobilization prepares the body to handle the perceived threat.

Stage 4: Response to the threat

With the body prepared for action by the various hormones and neurotransmitters, we respond to
the stressor. Physiologists refer to this as the "fight-or-flight" response, which highlights the two
common reactions:

Fight: We attempt to neutralize or influence the source of stress by confronting it.

Flight: We try to reduce stress by escaping the situation, leaving the confrontation for another time.

Stage 5: Return to baseline

After the stressor has been neutralized or avoided, the parasympathetic nervous system (PaNS)—
the other branch of the ANS—works to calm the body. The PaNS sends signals to slow the
heartbeat, reduce breathing rate, relax muscles, and restart digestive processes. This system
promotes recovery, energy storage, and long-term survival functions.

2.2 Coping/Managing Stress

Identify the sources of stress in your life.

To identify the true sources of stress in your life, it's important to closely examine your habits,
attitudes, and excuses. Consider the following questions to gain insight into the underlying causes
of your stress:
• Temporary Justifications: Do you often dismiss your stress as temporary, saying things
like, "I just have a million things going on right now," even though you can't recall the last
time you took a break?
Insight: If you can't remember the last time you took a break, it suggests that the stress
isn't temporary but a chronic issue. Continuously telling yourself that the stress is just
temporary can prevent you from addressing the underlying causes and seeking necessary
changes or support.
• Normalization of Stress: Do you view stress as an unavoidable part of your work or home
life, thinking, "Things are always crazy around here," or do you see it as an inherent part
of your personality, with thoughts like, "I have a lot of nervous energy, that's all"?
Insight: Normalizing stress can prevent you from recognizing when it's become harmful.
By accepting stress as a permanent fixture, you might overlook opportunities to reduce or
manage it, potentially leading to burnout and other negative health outcomes.
• External Attribution: Do you tend to blame your stress on other people or external events,
or do you consider it entirely normal and unexceptional?
Insight: External attribution can lead to a sense of helplessness, as it implies that you have
little control over your stress. Recognizing this tendency is crucial because it highlights the
need to develop personal strategies for stress management, rather than relying on changes
in external circumstances.

Replace unhealthy coping strategies with healthy ones.

It's important to recognize and replace unhealthy coping strategies with healthier alternatives.
Reflect on how you currently manage stress in your life. Your stress journal can help you identify
these coping mechanisms. Evaluate whether they are healthy or unhealthy, and whether they are
helpful or unproductive. Unfortunately, many people cope with stress in ways that actually worsen
the problem.

Unhealthy Ways of Coping with Stress:

• Smoking: Using cigarettes to manage stress can lead to addiction and serious health
problems.
• Using pills or drugs to relax: Reliance on medication or illicit drugs for relaxation can
result in dependency and other negative health effects.
• Drinking too much: Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to addiction, liver problems,
and impaired judgment.
• Withdrawing from friends, family, and activities: Isolating yourself can increase
feelings of loneliness and depression.
• Bingeing on junk or comfort food: Overeating unhealthy foods can lead to weight gain
and health issues.
• Procrastinating: Avoiding tasks can increase stress and anxiety in the long run.
• Zoning out for hours looking at your phone: Excessive screen time can interfere with
sleep and reduce productivity.
• Filling up every minute of the day to avoid facing problems: Over-scheduling can lead
to burnout and prevent you from addressing underlying issues.
• Sleeping too much: Oversleeping can be a sign of depression and can disrupt your natural
sleep cycle.
• Taking out your stress on others: Lashing out at others can damage relationships and
create additional stress.

Healthy Ways of Coping with Stress:

• Exercise: Regular physical activity can improve your mood and reduce anxiety.
• Healthy eating: A balanced diet can enhance your energy levels and overall well-being.
• Mindfulness and meditation: Practices like mindfulness and meditation can help you stay
grounded and reduce stress.
• Connecting with others: Spending time with friends and family can provide emotional
support and help you feel connected.
• Hobbies and creative activities: Engaging in hobbies can be a great way to relax and
express yourself.
• Time management: Organizing your tasks and setting priorities can help you feel more in
control and reduce stress.
• Adequate sleep: Ensuring you get enough sleep each night can improve your resilience to
stress.
• Relaxation techniques: Techniques such as deep breathing, yoga, or progressive muscle
relaxation can help you unwind.
• Seeking professional help: Talking to a therapist or counselor can provide valuable
support and strategies for managing stress.

Practice the 4 A's

The four A's - Avoid, Alter, Adapt & Accept

Avoid unnecessary stress: It’s not healthy to avoid a stressful situation that needs to be addressed, but
you may be surprised by the number of stressors in your life that you can eliminate.
Learn how to say "no." Know your limits and stick to them. Whether in your personal or professional
life, taking on more than you can handle is a surefire recipe for stress. Distinguish between the "shoulds"
and the "musts" and, when possible, say "no" to taking on too much.
Avoid people who stress you out. If someone consistently causes stress in your life, limit the amount of
time you spend with that person, or end the relationship.
Take control of your environment. If the evening news makes you anxious, turn off the TV. If traffic
makes you tense, take a longer but less-traveled route. If going to the market is an unpleasant chore do
your grocery shopping online.
Pare down your to-do list. Analyze your schedule, responsibilities, and daily tasks. If you’ve got too
much on your plate, distinguish between the “shoulds” and the “musts.” Drop tasks that aren’t truly
necessary to the bottom of the list or eliminate them entirely.
Alter the situation: If you can't avoid a stressful situation, try to alter it. Often, this involves changing
the way you communicate and operate in your daily life.
Express your feelings instead of bottling them up. If something or someone is bothering you, be more
assertive and communicate your concerns in an open and respectful way. If you've got an exam to study
for and your chatty roommate just got home, say up front that you only have five minutes to talk. If you
don't voice your feelings, resentment will build and the stress will increase.
Be willing to compromise. When you ask someone to change their behavior, be willing to do the same.
If you both are willing to bend at least a little, you'll have a good chance of finding a happy middle
ground.
Create a balanced schedule. All work and no play is a recipe for burnout. Try to find a balance between
work and family life, social activities and solitary pursuits, daily responsibilities and downtime.
Adapt to the stressor: If you can't change the stressor, change yourself. You can adapt to stressful
situations and regain you sense of control by changing you expectations and attitude.
Reframe problems. Try to view stressful situations from a more positive perspective. Rather than
fuming about a traffic jam, look at it as an opportunity to pause and regroup, listen to your favorite radio
station, or enjoy some alone time.
Adjust your standards. Perfectionism is a major source of avoidable stress. Stop setting yourself up for
failure by demanding perfection. Set reasonable standards for yourself and others, and learn to be okay
with “good enough.”
Practice gratitude. When stress is getting you down, take a moment to reflect on all the things you
appreciate in your life, including your own positive qualities and gifts. This simple strategy can help you
keep things in perspective.
Accept the things you can't change: Some sources of stress are unavoidable. You can’t prevent or
change stressors such as the death of a loved one, a serious illness, or a national recession. In such
cases, the best way to cope with stress is to accept things as they are. Acceptance may be difficult, but in
the long run, it’s easier than railing against a situation you can’t change.
Don't try to control the uncontrollable. Many things in life are beyond our control—particularly the
behavior of other people. Rather than stressing out over them, focus on the things you can control such
as the way you choose to react to problems.