0% found this document useful (0 votes)

494 views210 pages

Suzanne Hudson, Nancy Noonan-Morrisey - The Art of Writing About Art-Cengage Learning (2014) - 1

Uploaded by

Christopher Duran

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

494 views210 pages

Suzanne Hudson, Nancy Noonan-Morrisey - The Art of Writing About Art-Cengage Learning (2014) - 1

Uploaded by

Christopher Duran

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 210

The Art of Writing

about Art
■

Second Edition

Suzanne Hudson
Program for Writing and Rhetoric
University of Colorado

Nancy Noonan
Art History, Loretto Heights College
President, The Mastery Institute

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
The Art of Writing about Art, © 2015, 2002 Cengage Learning
Second Edition WCN: 02-200-208
Suzanne Hudson and
Nancy Noonan ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the
copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used
Product Director: in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical,
Monica Eckman including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning,
Product Manager: digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or
Sharon Adams Poore information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted
under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act,
Content Developer: without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Marri Clark Straton
Product Assistant: For product information and
Rachael Bailey technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning
Media Developer: Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706
Chad Kirchner For permission to use material from this text or product,
submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions
Marketing Manager:
Further permissions questions can be emailed to
Jillian Borden
[email protected]
Art and Cover Direction,
Production Management, and
Composition: PreMediaGlobal Library of Congress Control Number: 2013949098

Manufacturing Planner: ISBN-13: 978-1-285-44258-7

Sandee Milewski ISBN-10: 1-285-44258-X
Rights Acquisitions Specialist:
John Hill
Cengage Learning
Cover Image: Melchers, Julius 200 First Stamford Place, 4th Floor
Gari (1860-1932). Digital Image Stamford, CT 06902
© 2013 Museum Associates USA
/ LACMA. Licensed by Art
Resource, NY
Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning
solutions with office locations around the globe, including
Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and
Japan. Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global.

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

Nelson Education, Ltd.

To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit

www.cengage.com.

Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our

preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com

Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13

P reface x

I ntroduction xii
Why Write about Art? xii
How Will This Book Help? xii

Chapter One
R esponding to A rt 1
Responding Objectively 2
Questions To Guide Your Objective Responses To Art 2
Responding Subjectively 3
Comparing 3
Inferring 4
Interpreting 4
The Language of Art 5
Subject Matter 5
Formal Elements 8
Line 8
Color 9
Value 10
Texture 10
Shape 11
Space 11
Time and Motion 12
Sound and Smell 12
Principles of Design 12
Balance 13
Unity and Variety 13
Proportion and Scale 13
Rhythm 14
Medium 14
Style or “Ism” 14
Art Criticism 16
Diaristic Criticism 16
Formalistic Criticism 16
Psychoanalytic Criticism 17
Marxist Criticism 18
Feminist Criticism 19
Sexual Diversity Studies 20
Postcolonial Criticism 20
iii
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
conte nts
iv

Writing Assignment: Catalogue Entry 22

James Hardy, Jr.’s The Young Ghillie, 1871
by Harrison Potasnik 24
Tom Wesselmann’s Bedroom Painting No. 7
by Stephanie King 24

Chapter Two
P rinciples of E ffective W riting 27
Modes of Discourse 27
Narration 28
Description 28
Analysis 28
Argument 30
A Process for Writing about Art 31
Planning Your Essay 32
Generating Ideas 32
Choosing a Topic 33
Posing a Focus Question 34
Researching the Topic and Taking Notes 34
Finding a Thesis 34
Identifying the Counterargument 35
Asking the Proof Question 35
Designing the Points of Proof 35
Outlining the Essay 36
Drafting Your Essay 36
Drafting the Introduction 36
Drafting the Body 38
Drafting the Conclusion 41
Citing Sources 41
Writing a Title 42
Revising and Editing Your Essay 42

Chapter Three
W riting A nalytically 44
The Formal Analysis 45
Planning Your Formal Analysis 45
Template for Outlining Your Formal Analysis 46
Drafting Your Formal Analysis 46
Drafting the Introduction 46
Drafting the Body 46
Drafting the Conclusion 47
Titling Your Formal Analysis 47
A Student’s Formal Analysis 47
A State of Grace in Matisse’s La Japonaise: Woman beside the Water
by Charles Thompson 47
Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Formal Analysis 50

The Analytical Essay 51

Planning Your Analytical Essay 52
Posing a Focus Question 52
Finding a Thesis 54
Asking the Proof Question 54
Designing the Points of Proof 55
Thinking Through Your Analytical Essay 55
Template for Thinking Through Your Analytical Essay 55
Outlining Your Analytical Essay 55
Template for Outlining Your Analytical Essay 56
Drafting Your Analytical Essay 56
Organizing Your Notes 56
Drafting the Introduction 57
Drafting the Body 57
Drafting the Conclusion 57
Titling Your Analytical Essay 57
A Student’s Analytical Essay 57
A Women’s Photographer
by Olga Shatovskaya 58
Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Analytical Essay 61
The Analytical Comparison 62
Planning Your Analytical Comparison 62
Posing a Focus Question 62
Finding a Thesis 63
Asking the Proof Question 64
Designing the Points of Proof 64
Thinking Through Your Analytical Comparison 64
Template for Thinking Through Your Analytical Comparison 65
Outlining Your Analytical Comparison 65
Template for Outlining Your Analytical Comparison Block
Method 66
Template for Outlining Your Analytical Comparison
Point-by-Point Method 66
Drafting Your Analytical Comparison 67
A Student’s Analytical Comparison 67
Gothic Nightmares in Romantic Painting
by Rachel Gothberg 68
Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Analytical Comparison 72

Chapter Four
W riting the E xhibition R eview 75
Audience and Purpose 75
Planning Your Exhibition Review 77
Visiting the Gallery or Museum 77
Organizing Your Material 78

Finding a Thesis 79
Positive Review 79
Negative Review 79
Mixed Review 79
Outlining Your Exhibition Review 79
Template for Outlining for Your Exhibition Review 80
Drafting Your Exhibition Review 80
Drafting the Introduction 80
Why the Exhibition Is Important 81
Unfulfilled Expectations 81
The Comparison 81
Changing Critical Opinions 82
The Question 82
The Quotation 82
Drafting the Body 83
Exhibition’s Theme 83
Style or “Ism” of the Exhibited Works 83
Artist’s Personal Style 84
Artist’s Influences 84
Medium 84
Message 85
Formal Elements 85
Principles of Design 85
Exhibition Display 86
Drafting the Conclusion 87
Recommendation 87
Assessment of the Artist’s Work 88
What to Look For 88
Praise for the Curator 89
Highlight of the Show 89
Exhibition’s Theme 89
Quotation 90
Point back to the Introduction 91
Titling Your Exhibition Review 91
A Student’s Exhibition Review 92
A Journey through an Imaginary World
by Karin Holzmann 92
Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Exhibition Review 95

Chapter Five
W riting A rguments 98
Planning Your Argument 98
Choosing a Topic 98
Finding a Thesis 100
Anticipating the Counterarguments 100
Asking the Proof Questions 101
Designing the Points of Proof 101
Thinking Through Your Argument 101
Template for Thinking Through Your Argument Essay 102
Outlining Your Argument 102
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
co n t e n t s
vii

Template for Outlining Your Argument Essay 102

Drafting Your Argument 103
Drafting the Introduction 103
Drafting the Body 104
Template for Organizing a Refutation Paragraph 105
Template for Organizing a Constructive Argument Paragraph 105
Drafting the Conclusion 106
Titling Your Argument 106
A Student’s Argument 107
Unpopular Opinions in a Free Society
by Liana Van de Water 107
Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Argument 110

Chapter Six
W riting R esearch P apers 112
Planning Your Research Paper 113
Choosing a Topic 113
Researching the Topic 114
Searching the Library 114
Searching the Internet 115
Taking Notes 116
Outlining Your Research Paper 117
Drafting Your Research Paper 117
Using Sources 117
Plagiarism 118
Paraphrasing Sources 118
Summarizing Sources 119
Quoting Sources 119
Citing Sources 120
MLA (Modern Language Association) 121
CMS (Chicago Manual of Style) 127
Two Student Research Papers 137
An Art Class a Day Keeps Unemployment Away
by Louisa Ferrer 138
Express This!
by Joel Senger 143
Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Research Paper 148

Chapter Seven
W riting the E ssay E xamination 150
Preparing for the Examination 150
Study Checklists 150
Mind Maps 151
Flashcards 152
Plan a Strategy 153

Taking the Examination 153

Before You Begin Writing 153
Preparing to Answer the Essay Question 153
Writing the Essay 154
Sample Essay Examination 154
Question 154
Answer 156
Before Turning In the Examination 158

Handbook
G rammar and S tyle 159
Definitions 160
Parts of Speech 160
Noun 160
Pronoun 160
Verb 161
Adjective 161
Adverb 161
Preposition 161
Conjunction 161
Interjection 162
Sentence Parts 163
Verb (or Predicate) 163
Subject 163
Object 163
Complement 164
Modifier 164
Connector 164
Phrase 164
Clause 165
Sentence Structures 167
Sentence Types 167
Fragments 168
Run-ons 169
Syntax 169
Misplaced Modifier 169
Dangling Modifier 169
Faulty Predication 170
Faulty Comparison 170
Faulty Definition 170
Unnecessary Shift 170
Mixed Construction 171
Parallelism 171
Choosing Words 172
Choosing Verbs 172
Active versus Passive Verbs 172
Strong versus Weak Verbs 173
Verb Tenses 173
Subject-Verb Agreement 173

Choosing Pronouns 174

Avoiding “I” 174
Pronoun Case 174
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 175
Unclear Pronoun Reference 175
Wordiness 175
Biased Language 176
Style 176
Punctuation 178
Comma 178
Semicolon 179
Colon 179
Dash 180
Apostrophe 180
Quotation Marks 181
Mechanics 182
Capitalization 182
Numbers 183
Italics 183
Hyphens 184

Bibliography 186

Index 189

We originally came to this project from the shared experience of teaching at

the college level in our respective fields—Suzanne Hudson in rhetoric and
composition and Nancy Noonan in art history. We come to the second edi-
tion of this textbook from several years’ experience using The Art of Writing
about Art in the classroom and learning first-hand what parts of it generate
thoughtful, focused, and well organized essays, and which parts could stand
revision and updating.
One thing that has not changed is that we still feel that students in all
disciplines, not just composition classes, should be required to write and that
their instructors should hold their writing to high standards. There are at
least two problems with converting this concept into reality. First, instructors
do not have time to teach writing in addition to their own subjects, and are
therefore often inclined to evaluate students’ writing more on content and
less on the quality of the writing itself. The second problem is that although
many students desire to write better papers, they do not know how. Writing
about art, in particular, demands advanced skills, not only in composition,
but also in verbalizing the experience of art—the historical, social, economic,
and political forces that shape art and artists; art theory; and the interplay be-
tween artist and viewer. We feel that students who possess a comprehensive
writing guide are more likely to succeed in art appreciation, art history, and
humanities courses that contain a writing component.
The Art of Writing about Art begins by prompting students to respond
to art and provides students with the requisite vocabulary for verbalizing
the art experience. The unwieldy task of writing about art becomes man-
ageable when students possess the terminology to discuss the artwork in
terms of its components, such as line, perspective, iconography, medium,
and style. Students find that concentrating on one component at a time
generates more words, more ideas, and more understanding of the art than
they would have otherwise generated. The second chapter contains guid-
ance in the principles of effective writing, explaining the differences among
modes of discourse; the process of writing; and the concepts of unity, devel-
opment, organization and coherence.
Having provided vocabularies for communication about art and writ-
ing, this textbook then walks students, step by step, through various writ-
ing assignments: the catalogue entry, the analytical essay—including the
formal analysis, the comparative analysis, and the exhibition review—the
argument, the research paper, and the essay exam. Each writing assignment
ends with a revision and editing checklist to assist students in preparing

x
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
P r e face
xi

their assignments for submission. The textbook contains a handbook of

the principles of grammar and style, particularly as they apply to writing
about art.
Throughout the book, we advocate the formulation of a clear thesis, writ-
ten in the appropriate mode of discourse, and we advise students to organize
their essays according to points of proof—reasons why they believe their
theses to be true. Such a simple frame tends to generate focused, organized
essays on art, as well as essays containing insightful and complex ideas that
would be difficult to comprehend without a discernible shape. In this regard,
art and writing are allies, both driven by the composition of elements toward
the advancement of ideas.
The Art of Writing about Art further assists students by providing numer-
ous examples of writing about art produced by arts and humanities students,
artists, and professional writers. These examples include two catalogue en-
tries, a formal analysis, one analytical and one comparative analysis, one ex-
hibition review, one argument, and two research papers—one documented
MLA style and one documented Chicago style—all written by students. The
book assists students in the planning stages by offering numerous topic sug-
gestions, library and Internet research techniques, templates for planning and
outlining essays, exercises to reinforce their understanding of key concepts,
and advice in organizing the evidence for their assertions. The book aids
students in developing introductions, conclusions, and body paragraphs; in
citing sources in both Chicago and MLA style; and in the finishing touches of
writing titles, revising, editing, and proofreading.
In combining two applications—composition and critical inquiry into
the discipline of art—The Art of Writing about Art meets both the needs of
arts and humanities students who want to write better papers and the needs
of instructors whose valuable class time should be devoted not to teaching
writing, but to what they teach best—the various forms of art and its role in
our cultural heritage.
We would like to thank our students who have allowed us to publish
their work—Harrison Potasnik, Stephanie King, Charles Thompson, Rachel
Gothberg, Olga Shatovskaya, Karin Holzmann, Liana Van de Water, Joel
Senger, and Louisa Ferrer—as well as rhetoric and composition instructors
Frances Charteris and Molly LeClair for sharing their students’ papers. We
thank reviewers for their suggestions: Stephanie S. Dickey, Herron School
of Art, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis; Eloise Augiola,
University of Alabama; Judy Kay Knopf, Jefferson State Community College;
H. Perry Chapman, University of Delaware; Bernadine Heller-Greenman,
Florida International University; and Joanne Mannell Noell, Montana State
University. We would also like to thank our team at Cengage, especially Clark
Baxter, Abigail Baxter, Marri Clark Straton, Sharon Adams Poore, and John
Hill; and the production team at PreMediaGlobal, especially Jyotsna Ojha.
We extend our special thanks as well to Don Eron and Richard Morrissey
for their unflagging and enthusiastic support.

Why Write about Art?

Why write about art? After you have seen the artwork, what’s the point of
transferring that essentially visual experience to a written form? Upon ex-
amination, it becomes clear that art lovers derive enormous benefits from
writing about art. Knowing that you are viewing art with a writing assign-
ment in mind compels you to look more carefully at the art. You slow down
and focus. You begin to notice elements that you might not have noticed had
you not been looking with writing in mind. Information that you have learned
in your art appreciation, art history, and humanities classes comes to mind
as you consider what you will write about the work. Then, as the evaluative
process develops, you form questions about the art that will undoubtedly
improve your written piece.
By seeing more deeply, you understand the work more fully, and your
appreciation of the art intensifies. Careful observation allows you to articu-
late your perceptions and leads to specific word choices, instead of vague
and general ones. In essence, you instruct yourself before instructing your
readers, enhancing the experience for all concerned. Through your written
words, the passion, thought, and creativity that went into the artist’s vision
can be conveyed to the reader, keeping the love and appreciation of art alive
in our world. And, after all, what’s a world without art and art lovers?

How Will This Book Help?

As students, you are frequently required to write essays and research papers.
It is unlikely that your professor will take class time to go through writing
instructions, yet you will be expected to write clear, cogent papers. The Art of
Writing about Art will assist you in tailoring your writing for a particular kind
of reader—one who appreciates art but who wants to know, and see, more.
This book will introduce you not only to the language and tenets of art but
also to the language and tenets of writing—brainstorming, organizing, de-
veloping, and polishing your essays—breaking the process down into small,
manageable tasks and providing numerous examples and writing sugges-
tions. In essence, The Art of Writing about Art will serve as your personal art
and writing tutor, combining the two disciplines to assist you in any assign-
ment that asks you to write about art.

xii
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1

R esponding to A r t

Responding Objectively
Responding Subjectively Comparing
Inferring
Interpreting
The Language of Art Subject Matter
Formal Elements
Principles of Design
Medium
Style or “Ism”
Art Criticism Diaristic Criticism
Formalistic Criticism
Psychoanalytical Criticism
Marxist Criticism
Feminist Criticism
Sexual Diversity Studies
Postcolonial Criticism
Writing Assignment Catalogue Entry

Kindred spirits, art and writing spring from the same well of inspiration—the
desire for personal expression. Eons ago, an artist entered a deeply recessed
chamber of a cave and, with bristle brush and ocher, set about painting a life-
sized image of a bison on the wall, an image that has survived through the
centuries. William Faulkner explains that same urge from a writer’s point of
view: “He knows he has a short span of life, that the day will come when he
must pass through the wall of oblivion, and he wants to leave a scratch on
that wall—Kilroy was here—that somebody a hundred, or a thousand years
later will see.” For various reasons, both artists and writers desire to leave
a mark, to create an image, to communicate some idea. And in the process,
they often leave something for posterity, a creation for all of us to ponder
and enjoy.

1
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1 ■ Res ponding to Art
2

This chapter intends to provide you with opportunities to blend your

enjoyment of both art and writing and perhaps leave your own scratch on
the wall—to communicate your observations and insights to a reader who
enjoys the same things you enjoy: contemplating art and reading insightful
writing.

R e sp onding O bject ive ly

When we look at a work of art, we respond both intellectually and

emotionally. We might say that this artist’s technique reminds us of
another’s—or we might point and gasp and drag a friend across the
museum floor to look.
All responses are valid initially, but to engage more deeply with a work,
we must blend our intellects and emotions by using our education to ana-
lyze our responses. We ask not only how the work makes us feel but also
why it makes us feel that way, so that our opinions can transcend mere
reaction.
The first step toward understanding is to note our objective responses.
An objective response is an impartial one. Following are some questions that
may generate your objective responses to a work of art.

Questions To Guide Your Objective Responses To Art

1. Who created the artwork?

2. Where and when did the artist create the work?
3. What do you already know about the artist’s life?
4. What do you already know about the social and/or political envi-
ronment in which the artwork was created?
5. What is the overall subject matter?
6. What are the most obvious aspects of the artwork?
7. What details do you notice when you look more closely?
8. How does this work of art make you feel?
9. What does this artwork remind you of?
10. What does the title of the work tell you?
11. How would you describe the style of the work? For example, is it
realistic or expressionistic?
12. What questions do you have about the work?
Once you have noted your immediate responses, you are on the path to
analyzing the art and conveying your analysis to an inquiring reader.

Figure 1.1. Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Cardsharps, c. 1594. Oil on

canvas, 371⁄8× 51½ in. (94.2 × l30.9 cm). Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, TX.

Exercise 1-1
View the painting titled The Cardsharps [Figure 1.1] by Caravaggio.
Answer the “Questions to Guide Your Objective Responses to Art.”
Write your answers so that you can refer to them when you begin your
analysis of the work.

R e sponding S ubj ectiv ely

A subjective response is an opinionated one. Of course, anyone can have

an opinion, but not all opinions are equally valid. If you want your opin-
ions to be taken seriously, you must formulate them carefully. The following
sections and exercises are intended to assist you in formulating subjective
responses for a curious but skeptical reader—one who wants to know more
about the artwork but will not be easily convinced that your ideas are valid.

Comparing
To compare is to note similarities and differences. Comparing heightens our
awareness and sharpens our observations.

Exercise 1-2
Write a paragraph on one of the following topics about Caravaggio’s
The Cardsharps [Figure 1.1]. Each topic requires you to make a compari-
son that may help your reader see the painting in new ways. Support
your generalizations with specific facts and details from the painting.
• How would you characterize each person in the painting?
• What are the characters seeing? What is the viewer seeing?
What are they not seeing?
• How does the left half of the painting compare to the right half?

Inferring
To infer is to draw a conclusion that is not readily apparent, but is based, if
the inference is valid, on evidence.

Exercise 1-3
Write a paragraph on one of the following topics about Caravaggio’s The
Cardsharps [Figure 1.1]. Each topic requires you to make an inference—
to look closely at the details of the painting and conclude something
about the painting that is not readily apparent. Support your inferences
with facts and details from the painting.
• With which character does Caravaggio most sympathize?
• What experiences in Caravaggio’s life might have made him
want to paint this picture?
• Note your initial response to the painting, and explain how the
painting would elicit this response, not just from you, but from
anyone.

Interpreting
To interpret is to make the meaning clear—to convey a work’s subtext, or
implied meaning.

Exercise 1-4
Write a paragraph on one of the following topics about Caravaggio’s
The Cardsharps [Figure 1.1]. Each topic requires you to interpret the

painting—to make sense of its message. Support your interpretation

with facts and details from the painting.
• What might Caravaggio have been saying about cheating?
• What might Caravaggio have been saying about the disparity
between the economic classes—the haves and the have-nots?
• What might Caravaggio have been saying about guilt and
innocence?

The La nguage of A rt

Art is a type of symbolic expression. The artist, in creating that expression,

makes choices, such as in what medium to work (for example, oil paints
or clay), what size to make the work, whether to use bold or muted colors,
or whether to make the work representational or nonrepresentational. Each
choice communicates something from the artist to you, the viewer.
In order for you to translate that communication into writing, you must
acquire a special art vocabulary. Such a specialized vocabulary has a dual
effect: The ability to apply words to your observations enhances your ability
to think about art and, consequently, to write about it more clearly.

Subject Matter
One of the first questions that come to mind when we initially view a work
of art is, “What is depicted?” We are wondering about the subject matter.
Subject matter refers to the identifiable objects or ideas represented in the
work. The ideas could refer to a story, an incident, or an event. The sub-
ject matter, for example, could be of everyday objects, such as oranges and
apples, as depicted in a still-life painting. Or, at the other end of the spec-
trum, the subject could be a scene of great action and tumult, such as a ship
caught at sea in a thunderstorm, as in Joseph M. W. Turner’s painting Slave
Ship [Figure 1.2].
As well as asking, “What is depicted?” we usually ask, “What does it
mean?” The meaning and subject matter are not always evident from looking
at the work; additional research is sometimes required. When researching
Turner’s The Slave Ship, we learn that there is more to it than the drama of a
ship in a storm. The scene is based on a real event in which a captain threw
sick and dying slaves overboard because he was insured for losing slaves to
the sea, but not to illness. The horror of this inhumane act is part of what the
artist wants to communicate and express. Turner heightens the horror of this
abomination, depicting the violence of nature by using steaming colors and
tempestuous seas and by placing monstrous creatures in the same water into
which the slaves are being tossed.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1 ■ Res ponding to Art
6

Figure 1.2. Joseph M. W. Turner, Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead
and Dying, Typhoon Coming On), 1840. Oil on canvas, 35¾ × 48¼ in. (90.8 × 122.6 cm).
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, MA.

Noticing the title of a work can also enlighten us about its subject
atter. Occasionally, a work becomes known by a shortened name. In this
m
case, the full title of the painting is Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and
Dying, Typhoon Coming On. This complete title gives us a more comprehensive
understanding of the meaning and subject matter.
Another way in which the meaning of an artwork can be revealed is
through iconography. Literally, iconography means “image or symbol writ-
ing.” The symbolism can be overt or hidden. Overt symbolism is readily
understood by most people. A Latin cross, for example, would usually be
recognized as a symbol for Christianity. Hidden symbolism, on the other
hand, is not as obvious. Hieronymus Bosch’s The Garden of Earthly Delights
[Figure 1.3] provides an example, with rats symbolizing lies and deceit and
strawberries symbolizing sexuality. Often, additional research is required to
interpret hidden symbolism.
In looking at a work of art and trying to determine its subject matter, we
find that some works are easier to “read” than others. Some works have ob-
jects that look like things we see in the real world, whereas others do not
resemble anything we have ever seen. To explain the differences in art terms
between these types of approaches, works are described as being represen-
tational, abstract, or nonrepresentational (or nonobjective).
Representational art portrays things perceived or represented in the vis-
ible world in recognizable form. Thus, a painting of a man in a hat would
look like a man in a hat that we have seen or would expect to see in the
natural world. The man in the hat in fifteenth-century painter Jan van Eyck’s
The Arnolfini Wedding [Figure 1.6] is an example of representational art.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
T he Lan guage of A rt
7

Figure 1.3. Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly Delights, 1490-1510. Oil-on-
wood panels, 865⁄8 × 1531/8 in. (220 × 389 cm). Detail from the center panel. Museo
del Prado, Madrid, Spain.

Abstract art, in the purest sense of the term, deals with extracting, or
“ abstracting,” the essence of a thing or image. In doing so, the artist makes
forms recognizable as something from the natural world, although some-
what simplified or distorted. Very different from van Eyck’s realistic portray-
al is the man in a hat in Lyubov Popova’s The Philosopher [Figure 1.4]. There is
just enough visual information to tell us that the man wears a hat; however,
the hat is misshapen; the man’s face is fragmented; his eyes, eyebrows, and
eyeglasses are scattered; his hand is green and looks like a claw. This is not
the kind of man that we would expect to see on the street, but it is an excel-
lent example of abstract art.
For works that are representational or abstract, we would also notice into
what category or style of subject matter a work would fall. Is it biblical, myth-
ological, portrait, historical, landscape, or genre? (Genre refers to realistic
paintings of representations of everyday life.) Identifying this factor gives a
deeper understanding of the work itself.
Nonrepresentational (or nonobjective) art goes one step further than
abstract art. Nonrepresentational art makes no reference to the natural
world of images. All identifiable subject matter has been eliminated. The
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER 1 ■ Res ponding to Art
8

Figure 1.4. Lyubov Popova, The Philosopher, 1915. Oil on canvas, 35 × 24¾ in.
(89 × 63 cm). The Hermitage, St. Petersburg, Russia.
artist uses formal elements and the principles of design (discussed later in
this chapter) to express his or her intent in the artwork. It is often said that the
formal elements are the subject matter. A pioneer of nonrepresentational art
is twentieth-century Russian artist Kazimir Severinovich Malevich, whose
painting Suprematist Composition [Figure 1.5] essentializes this type of art.

Formal Elements
The formal elements constitute the basic ingredients at the artist’s dispos-
al. The choices made as to which formal elements to use and how to use
them ultimately determine what the work will be like in the end. The formal
elements are line, color, value, texture, shape, space, time and motion, and
sound and smell.

Line Technically, a line is a mark made by a moving point. Lines can

create patterns, move our eyes through the composition, or describe or
express emotions. Lines are not all the same; they can be thick or thin,
short or long, straight, angular or curved, hard- or soft-edged, similar or
contrasting, horizontal, vertical, or diagonal, broken or unbroken, and

Figure 1.5. Kazimir Severinovich Malevich, Suprematist Composition, 1915. Oil on

canvas, 275⁄8 × 18½ in. (70 × 48 cm). Tula Museum of Fine Arts, Tula, Russia.

dominant or subordinate. Lines can go in the same direction or in various

directions. Lines can be contained within the edges of the shapes within the
work, or they can be contour lines, which define the outlines of the shapes.
Lines have intrinsically expressive meanings and are described in such terms
as calm, agitated, nervous, or gentle.

Color The name of a color, such as red or green, is its hue. Primary hues
are blue, red, and yellow. Secondary hues are green, orange, and violet.
Twentieth-century painter Piet Mondrian reduced his color palette to only
primary colors (with black and white) so that his paintings would appeal to
people universally. Complementary colors are opposite each other on the
color wheel. The basic pairs are blue/orange, red/green, and yellow/violet.
When used together, these colors intensify one another. Another aspect of
color is its intensity or saturation. Simply put, how “violet” is the violet?
How “orange” is the orange? The more pigment in the color, the more highly
saturated or intense it is. Color also varies in warmth or coolness. Blues are
cooler than reds, for example, and tend to subdue, thus affecting the mood
of the work.

Value Value entails the varying degrees of light and dark. In relationship
to color, value distinguishes light from dark, as in the difference between
“light” blue and “dark” blue. Light colors are high in value; dark colors are
low in value. Sculpture is particularly affected by the direction and intensity
of the light, thus the value. Note whether the gradations of light and dark
are gradual or abrupt. When there is a strong contrast of light and dark, the
artist is employing a device called chiaroscuro. Rembrandt frequently used
chiaroscuro, which heightens the sense of drama in his works, such as The
Night Watch.

Texture Texture refers to the tactile aspect (actual texture) or to the illusion
of the tactile aspect (implied texture). In regard to actual texture, consider
whether the paint is applied in a smooth manner, whereby the eye can barely
detect the presence of the brush. (Reproductions make it difficult to see this
aspect of a painting; however, a detail, which is a close-up view of a small
section of the work, can reveal this condition.) This smooth application gives
the work a glassy, photographic look. A good example is van Eyck’s The
Arnolfini Wedding [Figure 1.6]. On the other hand, the paint may be applied in
thick daubs. If so, the artist is employing the technique of impasto (meaning

Figure 1.6. Jan van Eyck, The Arnolfini Wedding, 1434. Tempera and oil on wood,
32 × 23½ in. (82.2 × 60 cm). National Gallery, London, United Kingdom.

“like a thick paste”) and is working in a painterly method. Vincent van Gogh
used this painterly method, and if you were able to run your hand quickly
over the front of his paintings, you would clearly feel the roughness and the
thickness of the paint on the surfaces.
When considering actual texture, note any different materials in the work.
Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque experimented with textural variation
when they glued pieces of newspaper to their paintings. In sculpture, notice
whether the surface texture is smooth or rough. Nineteenth-century sculptor
Auguste Rodin used both of these approaches in his very smooth work, The
Kiss, as opposed to the craggy surface of his Monument to Balzac.
Implied texture is not something you can physically feel, as in actual tex-
ture, but instead is visual. The Arnolfini Wedding [Figure 1.6] also exemplifies
implied texture. In Italian merchant Giovanni Arnolfini’s fur coat, you can
detect the individual hairs; the softness and furriness of the coat is conveyed,
or implied, to your sense of touch. Another example in this work is the im-
plied furry texture of the little dog’s coat, waves and all.

Shape Shape refers to an area that stands out from the space next to or around
it because of line, color, value, or texture. Line and shape are often closely
interrelated, although contour lines are not necessary to create shape. Actual
shapes, like those in Malevich’s Suprematist Composition [Figure 1.5], can be
clearly and immediately seen by the eye. However, implied shapes might also
exist in the work. A triangular shape, for instance, could be visually suggested
by the arrangement of figures, such as in Leonardo da Vinci’s Madonna and Child
with Saint Anne [Figure 1.9]. In this case, the most stable of all geometric shapes,
the triangle, also exemplifies the Renaissance characteristics of calm and orderly
composition. Therefore, shape can contribute to the meaning or stylistic tenets of
a work. Note also whether the shape is simple or complex, regular or irregular.

Space Space is concerned with either a two-dimensional or three-

dimensional aspect of a work. In painting, a two-dimensional medium,
space is concerned with the appearance of depth or flatness. Does the work
remain a two-dimensional vision, or does it give the appearance of three
dimensions? If the latter is true, certain pictorial devices may have been used.
One of those devices is linear perspective, whereby all parallel lines and
edges of surfaces receding at the same angle converge at a single vanishing
point. Atmospheric or aerial perspective creates the illusion of distance
by decreasing the saturation of color and details and blurring the contour
lines. Foreshortening is the technique of distorting an object or parts of an
object that are at an angle to the picture plane, making them appear to extend
backward or forward into space. Overlapping is also useful, wherein one
figure or part of a figure extends over a part of another figure, creating a visual
sense of depth. In three-dimensional sculpture and architecture, attention is
cast on the space surrounding the piece and on how the sculpture or building
and that space relate. In essence, the sculpture or building interacts with the
space to create the whole work.

Figure 1.7. Umberto Boccioni, The Charge of the Lancers, 1915. Collage and oil on
cardboard, 19¾ × 125/8 in. (50 × 32 cm). Collection of Riccardo and Magda Jucker,
Milan, Italy.

Time and Motion As our modern world is increasingly preoccupied

with moving in the fast lane and with time getting away from us, it is not
surprising that the notions of time and motion have become formal elements
in our artwork. Besides the two- and three-dimensional aspects of space in
art, motion is an element in the third dimension. Time, however, ushers in
the fourth dimension. More recent mediums, such as photography, film,
and video, deal with time and motion rather obviously. Umberto Boccioni’s
painting The Charge of the Lancers [Figure 1.7], as well as his sculpture Unique
Forms of Continuity in Space, depicts figures who are rushing in a forward
motion through time, their broken planes testimony to their hurried and
fractured modern existence.

Sound and Smell Although sound and smell were not an issue with
works of earlier centuries, contemporary mediums such as installation
art and performance art bring in such new elements. Because there are no
boundaries in these inventive mediums, the possibilities regarding the use of
sound and smell are endless.

Principles of Design
Design is the organization, or the composition, of the formal elements of
art. The artist must decide not only which of the formal elements to use, but
also how to arrange them. Design principles bring a certain sense of order to
the work of art, pleasing our aesthetic sensibilities in the process. The most
general principles used in design are explained in the following sections.

Balance Balance has to do with the distribution of masses in the work of

art. If a line were to be drawn axially (down the middle), would one side be a
mirror reflection (with minor disparities) of the other? If so, we have bilateral
symmetrical balance. If this is not the case, then asymmetrical balance exists
in the work. Radial balance is another possibility, whereby the compositional
elements radiate outward from or converge upon a central point.

Unity and Variety Unity is a sense of oneness of different elements and

images. Unity is created by the repetition of shapes, colors, textures, linear
directions, and so forth. Examples of repetition transcend the ages. This
technique has been used by Andy Warhol to depict the monotony of mass
production in a consumer culture in 200 Campbell’s Soup Cans as well as by
ancient cultures, such as the Polynesians on Easter Island, for mysterious,
probably ritualistic, purposes. When we look closely at the statues on Ahu
Akivi [Figure 1.8], however, we notice not only unity but also variety. The
statues are not exactly alike; they are of varying height and heft, and the
faces are somewhat individualized. Variety provides interest and vitality,
alleviating the visual boredom that can result from extreme unity.

Proportion and Scale Proportion and scale both have to do with size.
Scale refers to the relative size of an object as compared to other objects of its
kind. Scale is size in relation to some constant, often a human being, or to the
size we expect something to be in the natural world. Proportion refers to the
relationship in size of one part to another or of each part to the whole. When
the head of a sculpted figure, such as a statue on Ahu Akivi [Figure 1.8],
looks exceedingly large, it is “out of proportion.”

Figure 1.8. Monolithic statues on Ahu Akivi, c. 1000-1600. Photograph. Easter

Island, Polynesia.

Rhythm Rhythm results from the recurrence or repetition of identical

or similar elements, such as lines, shapes, or colors that imply order
and continuity. Rhythm can also be established through a reiteration of
alternating elements. An example is the alternating textures in the smooth
and bunched-up treatment of the drapery in the marble statue titled Three
Goddesses from the Parthenon. Ultimately, the main function of rhythm is to
move the viewer’s eye through the composition.

Medium
Medium (plural media or mediums) refers to the physical material or technical
means that an artist uses for expression. First, establish what major category
the artist is working in, such as drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking,
mosaic, ceramics, computer graphics, collage, mixed media, fiber arts, instal-
lation art, performance art, photography, video, film, architecture. Then dis-
cuss the materials or specific technique used, such as ink, pencil, oil paint,
tempera, acrylic, fresco, gouache, watercolor, chalk, charcoal, clay, stone,
wood, glass, metal, fiber, paper, sand, ice.

Style or “Ism”
The notion of style in art encompasses both the personal style of the artist
and the period style in which the work was done. The artist’s personal style
is defined by distinctive, recurring characteristics. We can look at the works
of Henri Matisse and easily recognize his personal style by the bold primary
colors, arabesque patterns, and flattened space, which are repeated in the
majority of his works.
Period style refers to time, and it is safe to say that during most peri-
ods of time, artists in the same geographical area have generally worked
in fashions similar to one another. Works done in Europe during the
Renaissance, for example, usually adhered to similar tenets, such as
rounded figures and three-dimensional space. However, it is also true that
major, differing styles coexisted during some periods. In the fourteenth
century, the Proto-Renaissance, many artists were beginning to work in the
new Renaissance style, as established by Giotto; another group of artists
went in a different direction, working in the Italo–Byzantine style, depict-
ing flattened figures and two-dimensional space. Later, in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries, it was common for many styles, or movements,
to coexist. Often the names for these movements ended in ism, such as
Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Abstract Expressionism, Dadaism,
Surrealism, and so forth. Consequently, it is often asked, “What is the art-
ist’s ‘ism’?” meaning, “What is the period style or movement in which the
artwork was done?”

Exercise 1-5
Go to a nearby art gallery or museum and choose one work of art that
intrigues you. Without researching the work, try your hand at apply-
ing the terms in the section of this chapter under the heading “The
Language of Art.”
1. What is the artwork’s subject matter?
2. Does it contain any objects that seem symbolic?
3. Is the artwork representational, abstract, or
nonrepresentational?
4. What kinds of lines has the artist used?
5. What colors are used? Are the hues primary or secondary? Are
the colors highly saturated or not?
6. How is value, or light, used?
7. What is the actual texture of the artwork? What is the implied
texture?
8. What actual shapes, and what implied shapes, are featured in the
artwork?
9. How does the artwork convey a sense of space? Is it two-
dimensional or three-dimensional? Does it use linear, atmo-
spheric, or aerial perspective? Does it employ foreshortening or
overlapping?
10. Does the artwork convey a sense of time or motion?
11. Does the artwork employ sound or smell?
12. Is the artwork balanced or unbalanced? Is it symmetrical or
asymmetrical? Is it balanced radially?
13. Does the artwork have unity or variety, or some combination of
the two?
14. Is the artwork proportioned and conventionally scaled or not?
15. Does the artwork convey a sense of rhythm?
16. What medium and materials has the artist used?
17. Does the artwork reflect a personal style?
18. Does the artwork reflect a period style?

A rt C ri ticism

Criticism, the term applied to expository and argumentative writing about

art, means “evaluation or analysis of a work of art,” not “condemnation”
or “denunciation.” Critical essayists often apply certain philosophies or
theories to the art. For example, people involved in politics examine art for
its political message. People interested in psychology view art with an eye
toward the psychological motivation of the artist or the psychological impli-
cations of the art. You are probably already doing the same thing—applying
your own interests to your viewing.
Following is a brief summary of several of the more popular approaches
to art criticism. These approaches can be extremely complex and obscure,
and this quick overview in no way pretends to capture any of them in their
entirety. But at least a cursory understanding of the terms will enhance your
appreciation and ability to write about art.

Diaristic Criticism
Diaristic criticism is the most relaxed and informal of all types of art criticism.
Just as its name implies, it reads somewhat like an entry in the writer’s diary,
sharing the writer’s observations and feelings about the works of art. Diaristic
criticism usually is written in the first person, using the pronoun I. In express-
ing his or her experience of the artwork, the skilled diaristic critic leans toward
informality, perhaps even including bits of gossip and innuendo, as long as
they do not ultimately distract from the main purpose of the essay. Although
the writer’s life and opinions might weave through the essay, it is vital not to
allow these personal elements to overshadow the artworks being discussed.
Following is an example of diaristic art criticism from Robert Pincus-
Witten’s essay on the sculpture of conceptual artist Sol LeWitt.
I reject Sol LeWitt’s new work (exclusive of the wall drawings) because I c annot
theoretically justify it, not because I do not relate to his sense of human scale
(being most put off by the proportions of the Modular Series—the 5½’ cubic
frames fabricated in interlocking, white baked-enamel steel elements). To me,
what is vital in current art is not a function of object but a function of idea. It’s
never “inherent beauty”—whatever that means—that includes a sense of wonder
but only the arguments into which that object (and here I am regarding Concep-
tual art as a kind of object) can be fitted.1

Notice that although Pincus-Witten uses first-person pronouns, the para-

graph is more about the art than it is about himself.

Formalistic Criticism
Very different from diaristic art criticism, formalistic art criticism focuses
only on the formal aspects of a work of art, ignoring the subject matter. The
artwork’s effect upon the viewer is examined in terms of elements of style

(line, color, shape, value, and texture), the compositional devices (balance,
repetition, and contrast), and the materials and techniques, as well as other
formal elements used in the work.
Clement Greenberg is one of the best-known and most dogmatic formal-
istic art critics of all time. The following critique of twentieth-century artist
Fernand Léger’s work demonstrates the basis for Greenberg’s reputation.
As far as I know, Léger’s last complete masterpiece is the largest version of
Three Women, also called Le grand déjeuner (1921), which is in the collection of the
Museum of Modern Art, a picture that improves with time (and one which tends
to be remembered as much larger than it actually is). Later on, Léger will secure
unity only by elimination and simplification, but here he secures it by the addi-
tion, variation and complication of elements that are rather simple in themselves.
First, staccato striplings, checkerings, dottings, curvings, anglings—then a mas-
sive calm supervenes; tubular, nude forms, limpid in color and firmly locked in
place, with their massive contours stilling the clamor around them—these own
the taut canvas as no projection of a more earnestly meant illusion could.2

As you can see, Greenberg’s concern is with shape, color, line, unity, and
variation—all formal elements of style and design. One of the writing assign-
ments in Chapter 3 encourages you to engage in the formalistic approach to
art criticism.

Psychoanalytic Criticism
Sigmund Freud’s work in psychoanalysis at the beginning of the twentieth
century opened up a new way to explain our psyches, as well as a new av-
enue for art interpretation and criticism. Psychoanalytical art criticism takes
the writer beyond the obvious and into the subconscious.
One of the more well-known examples of writing about art through the psy-
choanalytical lens is Sigmund Freud’s interpretation of Leonardo da Vinci’s
painting in the Louvre, Madonna and Child with Saint Anne [Figure 1.9], which
Freud refers to as Saint Anne with Two Others. (Saint Anne was Mary’s mother.)
Leonardo’s childhood was remarkable in precisely the same way as this picture.
He had had two mothers; first his true mother, Caterina, from whom he was
torn away when he was between three and five, and then a young and tender
stepmother, his father’s wife, Donna Albiera. By combining this fact about his
childhood with the one mentioned above (the presence of his mother and grand-
mother) and by condensing them into a composite unity, the design of Saint Anne
with Two Others took shape for him. The maternal figure that is further away from
the boy—the grandmother—corresponds to the earlier and true mother, Caterina,
in its appearance and in its special relation to the boy. The artist seems to have
used the blissful smile of Saint Anne to disavow and to cloak the envy which the
unfortunate woman felt when she was forced to give up her son to her better-
born rival, as she had once given up his father as well.3

Clearly, according to Freud, the painting has psychological implications

beyond its religious subject matter. And, interestingly, after the reader is

Figure 1.9. Leonardo da Vinci, Madonna and Child with Saint Anne, c. 1508-1513.
Panel painting, 66¼ × 51¼ in. (168 × 130 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris, France.

exposed to his psychoanalytical theory here, it is nearly impossible to view

the painting without considering this other level of meaning.

Marxist Criticism
Marxist art criticism is concerned with social relationships as they relate to
economic issues. Just as Karl Marx was interested in the struggle for power
among economic classes, Marxist criticism focuses on the treatment of the
underclass by those in power, pointing out the social injustices that class
structures engender.
Marxist theorist T. J. Clark examines the reasons for art critics’ nearly
unanimous denunciation of Édouard Manet’s Olympia [Figure 7.3], which
was first exhibited in 1865. According to one contemporary report, “Never
has a painting excited so much laughter, mockery, and catcalls as this
Olympia.” Various reports described Olympia as “a sort of female gorilla, a
grotesque in India rubber,” her body as having the “livid tint of a cadaver”
that “recalls the horror of the morgue” with “dirty hands and wrinkled feet.”
Her face was seen as “prematurely aged and vicious”; in short, “this redhead
is of perfect ugliness” “protected all the while by a hideous Negress.” The cat

perched at the foot of the bed was something “out of a witches’ sabbath” that
“has unfortunately been flattened between two railway sleepers.”4
As Clark points out, the complaints about the painting ring false. Olympia
is far from ugly, and the critics had seen plenty of female nudes in art, so it
could not have been the mere fact of the subject’s nudity that disturbed them
so profoundly. Clark posits the theory that the critics were threatened by the
painting’s challenge to familiar and comfortable class structures.
The courtisane [a high-class prostitute] was supposed to be beautiful. Therefore
her price was high and she had a choice of clients, to some degree. Her business
was dominance and make-believe; she seemed the necessary and concentrated
form of Woman, of Desire, of Modernity (the capital letters came thick and fast).
It was part of her charm to be spurious, enigmatic, unclassifiable: a sphinx with-
out a riddle, and a woman whose claim to classlessness was quite easily seen to
be false. . . .
[Manet’s] challenge to the myth in this was twofold. What the myth essen-
tially did, I have been arguing, was offer the empire a perfect figure of its own
pretended social playfulness, of the perfect and fallacious power of money.
“Les hommes boursicotent, les femmes traficotent” [Men do business; women
traffic]—and class, in the game, was merely another kind of masking. The cour-
tisane put on the mask occasionally, and was appreciated for her falsity in this
as in all other things. To break such a circuit, it would not have been enough to
show a prostitute possessed of the outward signs of class—costume and makeup,
slippers, flowers, bracelets, servants, tokens of vulgarity or distinction—since
these were all believed to be extrinsic to her real power. Her power was her body,
which only money could buy.
But if class could be shown to belong to that body; if it could be seen to remake
the basic categories of nudity and nakedness; if it became a matter of the body’s
whole address and arrangement, something read on the body, in the body, in
ways the spectator could not focus discriminately—then the circuit would be bro-
ken, and the category courtisane replaced by others less absolute and comforting.
The body and money would not be unmediated terms any longer, intersecting in
the abstract, out there in the hinterland of images; they would take their place as
determinate facts in a particular class formation.5

Feminist Criticism
Feminist criticism, which began in the twentieth century, is based on the
sociopolitical philosophy that women deserve rights and opportunities
equal to those of men. It approaches art from the female point of view—
a relatively new vantage point, considering the patriarchal foundations
that have dominated the majority of cultures for millennia. The feminist
art critic infers the artist’s attitude toward women and interprets the art
accordingly.
The following is an excerpt from an essay by Linda Nochlin, a promi-
nent feminist art historian. In the essay, Nochlin examines a Neoclassical
painting, The Oath of the Horatii by Jacques-Louis David. In the painting,
three brothers swear allegiance to Rome in the presence of the women and

children of the family. Nochlin explains how the painting reveals the artist’s
assumptions about male strength and female weakness that were prevalent
in the eighteenth century.
Strength and weakness are understood to be the natural corollaries of gender
difference. Yet it is more accurate to say, in a work like David’s Oath of the Horatii,
that it is the representation of gender differences—male versus female—that
immediately establishes that opposition between strength and weakness which is
the point of the picture. . . .
The striking effectiveness of the visual communication here depends in the
most graphic way possible upon a universal assumption: it is not something
that needs to be thought about. The binary division here between male energy,
tension, and concentration as opposed to female resignation, flaccidity, and
relaxation is . . . carried out in every detail of pictorial structure and treatment,
is inscribed on the bodies of the protagonists in their poses and anatomy, and is
even evident in the way that the male figures are allotted the lions’ share of the
architectural setting, expanding to fill it, whereas the women, collapsed in upon
themselves, must make do with a mere corner.6

Sexual Diversity Studies

Sexual diversity studies, also called gay studies, relates to sexual orientation
and gender identity, focusing on lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered
(LGBT) people and cultures. In the following excerpt, Abigail Solomon-Godeau
discusses the curiously uncritical reception of feminized and eroticized males
in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century art, particularly in France,
where homosexuality was both socially and legally proscribed.
However one wants to account for it, The Sleep of Endymion [Figure 1.10], exhib-
ited two months after the fall of the Gironde on June 1793, and just prior to the
decree of 5 September making terror official government policy, was enthusiasti-
cally received and immediately established Girodet’s reputation. . . . The critics
were particularly taken with what they agreed was the “originality” of Girodet’s
treatment, but significantly, the remarkable effeminate quality of Endymion
and the erotic dynamics implied between the Zephyr figure and the sleeping
shepherd provoked no comment as such. Consistent with the nature of most
Salon criticism of the period, commentary is more general than specific, based
on consensual academic precepts governing composition, color, tonality, and
“truth”—that is to say, the mimetic persuasiveness of the representation. . . . The
use of academic formulas to discuss works that seem so intensely eroticized to
contemporary eyes is, however, itself an index of the shift in ideologies of gender,
such that the audacity of the Endymion, at least with respect to the treatment of
the two male figures, appears far more remarkable now than it evidently did to
its contemporary audience.7

Postcolonial Criticism
Postcolonial criticism, which bears a similarity to multiculturalism and
critical race theory, is concerned with the effects of colonization, such as the
European colonization of North and South America, on indigenous peoples.

Figure 1.10. Anne-Louis Girodet de Roucy-Trioson, The Sleep of Endymion, 1791. Oil
on canvas, 78 × 102¾ in. (198 × 261 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris, France.

An artwork need not be consciously about indigenous peoples and their op-
pressors to reveal an underlying attitude. In the following excerpt, Curtis
Marez explains how the film Men in Black, ostensibly about an invasion of
aliens from outer space, reflects white attitudes toward Native Americans.
While perhaps we are used to thinking of “illegal aliens” simply as “Mexicans,”
historically the ascription of Mexican nationality at the border has served often
to partly obscure Indian identities. The 2000 U.S. Census helped to make this
process visible by counting Latin-American Indians as part of the larger Indian
population for the first time. It recorded thousands of Indians from Mexico
and Central America in California alone, helping to give that state the largest
Indian population in the U.S. Men in Black represents the illegal alien as Indian
in a number of ways, including language (like the alien, many Latin-American
Indians do not speak Spanish as their first language or at all), the reference to
treaties and the alien’s previously described long hair and “Indian” costume.
Such associations are reinforced when the alien menacingly extends a halo of
feather-like flippers around his head that resembles a Plains Indian war bonnet.
Further, surrounded by saguaro cactus props, the scene’s desert setting recalls
the western. Numerous film westerns focus on the upper Sonoran desert region
of Arizona, the historical territory of the Apaches. According to [Ward] Churchill:
“In fact more films have been dedicated to supposedly depicting Apachería than
the domain of any other native people, the ‘mighty Sioux’ included.” Thus with
his Texas accent and “shoot now, ask questions later” attitude, Agent K recalls
many a Hollywood Indian hunter, while the alien suggests a “savage” Apache
warrior. When Agent K shoots his detainee, it is filmed for laughs as the Indian/

alien splatters the officer like a brightly colored cream pie. This comic routiniza-
tion of police violence against “illegal” Indian aliens recalls the possible future
imagined by [Immanuel] Wallerstein, where the crisis of the Indian South in the
North provokes the formation of “fortress America.” In this way the film revises
Geronimo’s captivity narrative in order to speculate on a contemporary situation
where information technologies and networks of capital represent a new devel-
opment within a larger pattern of conquest.8

Critical theories often cohabit. You may find the formalist and psycho-
analytical approaches to be compatible. Marxist and multicultural criticisms
often work well together because their philosophies overlap; both are con-
cerned with treatment of the disenfranchised. The main thing to understand
is that familiarity with these philosophies and theories will assist you in
thinking and writing about art.

Exercise 1-6
Practice applying theories and criticisms to art. Search online for any
or all of the following artworks and write a paragraph that applies the
indicated criticism. Resist the temptation to read others’ commentaries
about the artwork. Trust your own reactions and impressions.
• Diaristic criticism: Cindy Sherman, Untitled Film Still #6
(photograph, 1977)
• Formalistic criticism: Louise Nevelson, Sky Cathedral (sculpture,
1982)
• Psychoanalytic criticism: Salvador Dali, The Persistence of
Memory (painting, 1931)
• Marxist criticism: Diego Rivera, The Zapotec and Mixtec Civiliza-
tion (mural at the Palacio Nacional, 1945)
• Feminist criticism: Frida Kahlo, Roots (painting, 1943)
• Sexual diversity studies: Donatello, David (sculpture, c. 1425–1430)
• Postcolonial criticism: John Gast, American Progress (painting, 1872)

Wri t ing Assignm en t: C atalogu e Entry

Some exhibitions publish catalogues that contain essays about the individ-
ual works. These short essays are called catalogue entries. Assemble your
skills of communicating about art to write a short descriptive essay that will
enhance your reader’s appreciation of an artwork. Think of this piece of writ-
ing as a catalogue entry.

You will probably need to research the artist’s style, influences, life, and
times. However, emphasis in your catalogue entry should be on this particu-
lar artwork and your own observations of it, not a summary of the material
you have researched. Items for discussion might include:
• subject matter
• techniques
• composition
• idiosyncrasies
• principles of design
• elements of style
• work’s history, various owners
• special circumstances under which the work was done
• artist’s influences
• other versions of the work
• whether photos were used
• bits of correspondence by the artist, other artists, literary figures
• quotes from other artists/experts/viewers/catalogues
For two examples, view James Hardy, Jr.’s The Young Ghillie, 1871
[Figure 1.11] and read a catalogue entry by student Harrison Potasnik.
Then view Tom Wesselmann’s Bedroom Painting No. 7 [Figure 1.12] and a
catalogue entry by student Stephanie King.

Figure 1.11. James Hardy, Jr., The Young Ghillie, 1871. Watercolor on paper. Private
collection, United Kingdom.

James Hardy, Jr.’s The Young Ghillie, 1871

b y H arr i s o n P o ta s n i k

Destined to paint, this Bristol native from southwestern

England came from a family of artists. James Hardy, Jr., often
pays homage to his father, James Hardy, Sr., by illustrating
landscapes realistically. James Hardy as well as his broth-
er, Heywood Hardy, and cousin, Daniel Frederick Hardy,
also distinguished English painters of the mid-nineteenth
century, were influenced by the serene, composed classi-
cism of Victorian art. Painting both in oil and watercolor,
Hardy’s work usually depicts dogs and game, set in high-
land landscapes. Adhering to the style of his time period,
Hardy’s artwork portrays moments of life with precision
and objectivity.
Hardy renders the countenance of the young Scotsman as
calm and determined, possibly focused on another pursuit.
One setter follows his gaze; the other watches him, waiting
for a command. The ghillie, or gamekeeper, leading his two
dogs in the expedition wears traditional Scottish attire—
a plaid kilt, blue beret, and red scarf. Holding a slingshot
rather than a gun, the boy, through his longing eyes, displays
a thirst for mastering his destined livelihood. The modesty
in appearance of both the young ghillie and his dogs attests
to the realistic nature of Hardy’s paintings. Hardy’s work
avoids the superficiality of gaudy appearance for an attempt
to capture inner expression. Thus, the artist displays the
team’s simple control of the situation, but with a yearning to
continue their quest.

Tom Wesselmann’s Bedroom Painting No. 7

b y Stepha n i e K i n g

Tom Wesselmann, cartoonist turned contemporary painter,

spent much of his career trying to discover exactly where his
unique talent could land him in a genre of art all his own. In
the early 1960s Wesselmann began to work with collage in
constructing scenes of everyday objects in his series Still Life.
A few years later Wesselmann found his new niche in sensual-
ity, portraying nude women in sexual positions. This series of
nude art was from his Great American Nude collection. The next

Art, Pennsylvania, PA, USA / Purchased with the Adele Haas Turner / and Beatrice Pastorius Turner Memorial
Bedroom Painting No. 7, 1967–69 (oil on canvas), Wesselmann, Tom (1931–2004) / Philadelphia Museum of

Fund, 1972 / The Bridgeman Art Library / Art ©

Figure 1.12. Tom Wesselmann, Bedroom Painting No. 7, 1967-69. Oil on canvas,
78 × 87¼ in. (198.1 × 221.6 cm). Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, PA.

noteworthy phase of Wesselmann’s evolution was his series of

Seascapes, which honed in on suggestive aspects of nude male
and female bodies against plain backgrounds of the sea. The
Bedroom Series is the perfect culmination of these three unique
phases of Wesselmann’s art evolution.
In Wesselmann’s Bedroom Painting No. 7, a foot rests on
exotic leopard-print linen, its toenails polished with cherry
red enamel. The toes are relaxed, and the skin is flawless. The
ripe, untouched orange placed near the toes suggest both a
woman’s breast and innocence, counterbalancing the sexual-
ity presented through the red polish and the animalistic pat-
terning. The delicate balance of the exotic and the wholesome,
although dominant in the painting, is accented by the still life
that plays out in the background. The clear blue sky contrasts
with the daffodils that signal the onset of spring, softening
the excitement of the young woman’s rendezvous with the
morning.

Notes
1. Robert Pincus-Witten, “Sol LeWitt: Word 3 Object,” in Postminimalism into
Maximalism: American Art, 1966–1986 (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1987), 119.
2. Clement Greenberg, “Master Léger,” Partisan Review 21 (1954): 91.
3. Sigmund Freud, Leonardo da Vinci and a Memory of His Childhood (New York:
Norton, 1964), 63–64.
4. T. J. Clark, The Painting of Modern Life (New York: Knopf, 1985), 83–96.
5. Ibid., 110–18.
6. Linda Nochlin, “Women, Art, and Power,” in Women, Art, and Power and Other Essays
(Harper & Row, New York: 1988), 3–4.
7. Abigail Solomon-Godeau, Male Trouble: A Crisis in Representation (London: Thames
and Hudson, 1997), 66–68.
8. Curtis Marez, “Aliens and Indians: Science Fiction, Prophetic Photography and
Near-Future Visions,” in Global Visual Cultures: An Anthology, ed. Zoya Kocur
(West Sussex, UK: Wiley & Sons, 2011), 239.

P rinciples of E ffective W riting

Modes of Discourse Narration

Description
Analysis
Argument
A Process for Writing about Art Planning Your Essay
Drafting Your Essay
Revising and Editing Your Essay

Effective writing about art can be achieved through many methods. Most
often, the effectiveness of your writing depends on understanding your audi-
ence and purpose and adjusting your tone and style accordingly. An informal
style is appropriate in many settings; a formal style is more often appropri-
ate in academic writing. Effective writing also depends on your understand-
ing of certain principles, such as the differences between description and
analysis, the qualities of a workable thesis, and the concept of development.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the terms and concepts that will
be mentioned throughout this book, and that you will learn to use to your
advantage in your essays and research papers on art.

Modes of Discourse

Most linguists agree that when we engage in discourse—that is, when we com-
municate either orally or in writing, or even in body language—we employ
a mode of discourse. That mode of discourse may be narration, description,
analysis, or argument. Your essays and research papers about art will prob-
ably be written in one of the latter three modes, but it is easier to understand
exactly what that means when all four modes are defined and explained.

27
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
C HAPT ER 2 ■ Princi ples of Effective Writ ing
28

Narration
Narration is storytelling. A narrative may be either fiction or nonfiction.
Generally, there is conflict in a narrative; someone must overcome or be
overcome by some force or obstacle. Much art arises from stories. The Greek
sculpture of Laocoön and his sons, for example, depicts a scene from Virgil’s
Aeneid. Laocoön, a Trojan priest, had tried to warn the Trojans against bring-
ing the Greeks’ wooden horse inside the city walls. The gods who favored the
Greeks in their war against the Trojans sent a pair of sea serpents to punish
Laocoön. The sculpture captures the moment in which Laocoön and his two
sons are strangled and bitten by the serpents. If you were writing an essay on
the sculpture, you would likely include the story of Laocoön, but the bulk of
the essay would be written in one of the following three modes of discourse.

Description
Often, the definition of a descriptive essay is “an essay that tells how a per-
son, place, or thing is perceived by the five senses.” For our purposes, this
definition is too narrow because it implies that only tangible things can be
described. Intangibles, such as your feelings as you stand before an artwork,
can also be described, or you could describe an artist’s character, which is
intangible, rather than his or her appearance. It would be a descriptive state-
ment, for example, to say that “Caravaggio was temperamental.” You could
also describe an action, such as Jackson Pollock’s technique of dripping and
splattering. You might describe the historical context in which a work of art
was produced. Even divulging another person’s opinion is descriptive writ-
ing. For example, if you write that “Picasso disdained nonrepresentational
art, remarking that it was inconceivable to work without a recognizable sub-
ject,” you are writing descriptively. You are describing Picasso’s argument,
not arguing. In short, descriptive writing divulges both abstract and concrete
information objectively.
Still, an essay is never simply a list of facts. An essay has a purpose. An essay
attempts to probe beneath the surface and get to the nature, or essence, of its
subject. And so a descriptive essay is not the equivalent of an encyclopedia ar-
ticle, devoid of personality and insight. It is an expression of acute observation.

Analysis
Analysis (sometimes called exposition) is the mode of discourse that theo-
rizes. It differs from description in that an inference is at its core. An infer-
ence is a conclusion derived from facts, but it is not itself a fact. It is a guess
or a theory, albeit an educated one. If, for example, your classmate finishes a
midterm exam early and walks out of the room with a huge smile on her face,
you might infer that she is happy with her performance on the exam. You
could be wrong, of course. She might not have known any of the answers
but feels elated over her free tickets to the Georgia O’Keeffe exhibition at the

museum that afternoon. Your inference, however, given the circumstances, is

a reasonable, educated one.
An inference is the result of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning pro-
gresses from specific to general: you are in possession of some specific facts,
and from them you move to a conclusion or inference. That move is called an
inductive leap. Your inference is considered valid when there are enough facts
in support of it to convince an educated, sympathetic, yet skeptical audience.
If your inference is based on scant evidence, you may be accused of “jumping
to conclusions,” as the expression goes. In the foregoing example, the pieces of
evidence that you put together were the relative importance of the exam to the
student’s final grade, the quick finishing of the exam, and the smile. Together,
they created an impression on you. You inferred something from them.
There are three primary approaches to analysis: evaluation (what something
is worth), interpretation (what something means), and speculation about
causes and effects. The following paragraph, from an essay by Aldous Huxley
titled “Variations on El Greco,” is analytical in that it engages in interpretation.
And what did El Greco want to say? The answer can only be inferred; but to
me, at least, it seems sufficiently clear. Those faces with their uniformly raptur-
ous expression, those hands clasped in devotion or lifted towards heaven, those
figures stretched out to the point where the whole inordinately elongated anatomy
becomes a living symbol of upward aspiration—all these bear witness to the art-
ist’s constant preoccupation with the ideas of mystical religion. His aim is to assert
the soul’s capacity to come, through effort and through grace, to ecstatic union
with the divine Spirit. This idea of union is more and more emphatically stressed
as the painter advances in years. The frontier between earth and heaven, which is
clearly defined in such works as The Burial of Count Orgaz and The Dream of Phillip
II, grows fainter and finally disappears. In the latest version of Christ’s Baptism
[Figure 2.2] there is no separation of any kind. The forms and colours flow continu-
ously from the bottom of the picture to the top. The two realms are totally fused.1

Huxley’s reader may not interpret El Greco’s The Baptism of Christ

[Figure 2.2] in the same way that he has, but the reader will accept Huxley’s
interpretation if it seems solidly based on facts. There is room for more than
one interpretation of most works of art, and they can coexist amicably. That
does not mean, however, that all interpretations are equally valid. A convinc-
ing interpretation will be supported with evidence.

Inductive Reasoning

Set of Facts ...Inductive Leap ...Inference

Figure 2.1. Drawing inferences through inductive reasoning.

Figure 2.2. El Greco, The Baptism of Christ, c. 1608-1614. Oil on canvas, 130 × 83 in.
(330 × 211 cm). Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain.

Argument
Argument is a mode of discourse that assumes a contrary audience, one
that is predisposed to disagree with you but is not irrational or ignorant.
Your obligation is not only to defend your position but also to refute the
opposing opinion.
Some arguments are written as refutations of other interpretations. For
example, Sigmund Freud, who often indulged in analysis of the arts, wrote
an essay about Michelangelo’s Moses. The prevailing interpretation is that the
sculpture captures a specific historical moment, when Moses sees his people
dancing around the golden calf and is about to rise in his wrath and shat-
ter the Tables of the Law. Freud’s interpretation refutes the prevailing one
and contends instead that the sculpture captures the moment after Moses’s
burst of fury, when he has overcome the temptation to act and has decided to
remain seated. Freud bases his argument on several pieces of evidence, but
primarily the position of Moses’s right arm.2
The word argument is often used loosely to mean “main point” or “thesis.”
Your professor may speak of your “central argument” with regard to the

thesis or main point of your paper, even if the paper is purely analytical and
does not engage in refutation at all. Be sure that you understand the meaning
of the word argument as it pertains to your assignment.

One complication in understanding modes of discourse is that the differ-

ences among them are not absolute. The difference, for example, between
description and analysis is not always clear; some degree of interpretation
when describing is often unavoidable. Nor is the difference between analysis
and argument always clear because the degree of skepticism in your audi-
ence, which is variable, determines whether you are obligated to refute exist-
ing attitudes and interpretations. Still, the more you think about writing in
terms of modes of discourse, the sharper your critical thinking and writing
skills become.

Exercise 2-1
Following are four statements about art. In the blank beside each one,
write N for narration, D for description, AN for analysis, or AR for
argument. You will not need to be familiar with the artwork to recognize
the mode of discourse in which the sentence is written.
_____ 1. Marcel Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase was ridi-
culed when it was first exhibited; one critic said it looked
like an “explosion in a shingle factory.”
_____ 2. The story of Adam and Eve ends with their expulsion
from the Garden of Eden, an event depicted by numerous
artists including Masaccio.
_____ 3. Taxpayer-supported museums should not exhibit Robert
Mapplethorpe’s more graphic photographs.
_____ 4. Although Seurat’s A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La
Grande Jatte looks at first to depict people enjoying a day
in the park, its theme is alienation.

A Process for Wri ting abou t Art

Writers often feel overwhelmed at the beginning of a writing project. Where

to begin? Often, the task seems not so overwhelming when we break it into
small, manageable pieces and resist looking too far ahead. Concentrate on
one task at a time, and eventually the pieces will come together.
The process for writing about art is the same as the process for writing
about any topic: plan, draft, revise, and edit.

Planning Your Essay

Careful planning sets the stage for a sharply focused, well-written essay. The
following are steps in planning that may seem time consuming at first, but
in the end will save time because you will know what you want to say and
how you want to say it.

Generating Ideas Generating ideas for an essay might begin with any
of several prewriting strategies. You might begin by brainstorming—
generating a list of ideas. To facilitate the brainstorming process, some people
use a mind map [Figure 2.3], which is a way of diagramming connections.
The purpose of such an exercise is to free-associate ideas and begin the
process of seeing the relationships among them.
Another brainstorming device is to freewrite, which is to set a timer for a
certain number of minutes, say 10, and write for that length of time without
stopping, without lifting pen from paper, and without correcting grammar or
spelling errors. Writer Bernard Malamud endorses this method: “The idea is to
get the pencil moving quickly. . . . Once you’ve got some words looking back
at you, you can take two or three—throw them away and look for others.”3

popular sculpture

Renaissance

classical nude

1501–1504
Greco-Roman influence
Michelangelo’s David

Florence

energy-in-reserve
underdog republic

contrapposto

Medicis

Figure 2.3. Generating ideas with a mind map.

Figure 2.4. Michelangelo, David, 1501-1504. Marble sculpture, height 14’3”

(434 cm). Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence, Italy.

Choosing a Topic Your topic is the subject matter for your essay; it usually
can be stated broadly in a few words. Your topic might be Michelangelo’s
David [Figure 2.4] or it might be Monet’s use of light, or the cave paintings at
Lascaux. As you choose your topic, consider the following questions:
1. How long will your essay be?
A three- to five-page essay, for example, may be enough space to exam-
ine some aspect of Michelangelo’s David, but it will not be enough space
to describe the David’s complete history including the life and times of
its creator, discuss the implications of the narrative on which the David
is based, speculate about the reasons for all of the artistic choices Mi-
chelangelo made in the creation of the sculpture, infer the reasons for
the David’s popularity, and argue about where it should be located. Your
instructor will prefer a narrow and deep essay to a shallow and wide
one, so you will need to tailor your choice of topic accordingly.
2. In what mode of discourse will your essay be?
• If you are expected to write a descriptive essay, have you chosen a
topic that will allow you to show your readers something that they
would not likely have seen for themselves?
• If you are expected to write an analytical essay, have you chosen a
topic about which you have ideas of your own?

• If the essay will be analytical, will you be evaluating, interpreting,

or speculating about causes and/or effects?
• If you are expected to write an argument, will you be able to refute
convincingly the opposing view?

Posing a Focus Question Your focus question is the question about the
topic that the essay will answer. Posing a proper focus question is a crucial
step in the design of your essay because some focus questions will lead you
to a descriptive essay, some will lead you to an analytical essay, and some
will lead you into an argument.
For example, “What is the history behind the stone used to sculpt Michel-
angelo’s David?” is a focus question that will inevitably lead to a descriptive
essay because that information is readily available. No inference would be
required on your part. (It will also be a short essay.)
The question, “Who is the person represented in Michelangelo’s
David?” may lead to a descriptive or analytical paper, depending on your
answer. If your answer is that David is the biblical shepherd boy who
slew the giant, Goliath, you are writing a descriptive paper. If, however,
you answer that David, as a shepherd boy, represents the people, the un-
derdog, or the republic of Florence, you have the makings of an analytical
essay—one that helps the reader understand the sculpture in a way that
may not have been likely without your help. The focus question, “Why is
Michelangelo’s David so beloved?” is likely to lead to an analytical essay
because no definite answer to that question exists. One can only speculate.
Ask only one focus question. Asking—and trying to answer—more than
one question will lead to a disunified essay.

Researching the Topic and Taking Notes Hardly anyone can write an
essay without doing at least a bit of research, so you will probably need to
collect some sources for your paper. Chapter 6, “Writing Research Papers,”
gives detailed information on finding sources through your campus library
as well as the Internet.
After you have collected your resources, read them with your pencil. That
is, mark the interesting passages and write your reactions and thoughts in the
margins as you read. If you are using borrowed books, use sticky notes to call
out the interesting passages. If you are reading articles electronically, use your
computer’s highlighter or stickies. One time-tested method is to take notes on
index cards, one note per card. On each card, write a fact or a quote that you
believe will be included in the essay. Be sure to note on each card the source
from which you obtained the information as well as the page number. Later,
you will find that the index cards are easily shuffled and organized as your
paper takes shape. They also will facilitate the documentation of your sources.

Finding a Thesis Your thesis is the answer to your focus question.

It articulates the main point of your essay, and it is, therefore, the most
important sentence in the essay.
Your thesis is also important because it determines your essay’s mode of
discourse. A descriptive thesis will lead to a descriptive essay; an analytical
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
A P ro c e ss for Wri ting abou t Art
35

thesis will lead to an analytical essay; an argumentative thesis will lead to an

argument essay. For example:
• Descriptive thesis: Michelangelo’s David is a beloved work of art.
• Analytical thesis: Michelangelo’s David is beloved because it illus-
trates what is best about ourselves.
• Argumentative thesis: Michelangelo made a poor choice of moment
in his representation of David.

Exercise 2-2
Following are five proposed thesis statements for a three- to five-
page essay on Grant Wood’s American Gothic (the iconic painting of a
stern-looking farming couple in which the man is holding a pitchfork).
Choose two that could function effectively as the main point of an ana-
lytical essay.
_____ 1. What is the appeal of Grant Wood’s American Gothic?
_____ 2. American Gothic is popular for three reasons.
_____ 3. American Gothic represents conflicting American values.
_____ 4. American Gothic is typical of American art.
_____ 5. American Gothic expresses dissatisfaction with patriarchal
conventions.

Identifying the Counterargument If your paper is argumentative,

you must articulate the opposing argument in order to refute it. Your
opponent’s argument is your counterargument. Like your own argument,
it is controlled by a thesis and points of proof, which you will regard as the
counterthesis and counterpoints. Your essay will be most effective if you
anticipate and refute the opposition’s strongest, not weakest, arguments.

Designing the Points of Proof Your points of proof answer your proof
question. They are the reasons why you think your thesis is true. Each point
of proof should directly answer the proof question, but it will not, by itself,
provide a complete answer. Suppose the proof question is, “How does the
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
C HAPT ER 2 ■ Princi ples of Effective Writ ing
36

David illustrate what is best about ourselves?” One answer could be, “The
story of David and Goliath, as depicted by the sculpture, reminds us that we
humans are capable of extraordinary courage.” This is not a complete answer
to the proof question, but it is one answer. Together, your points of proof will
fully support your thesis.

Outlining the Essay Most writers find it helpful to organize their ideas
in the form of an outline. An outline is a condensed version of the essay—a
sketch—with the advantage of showing the order and hierarchy of ideas.

Outline for an Essay

I. Introduction
A. Topic overview
B. Thesis
C. Points of proof (briefly listed)
1. Point 1
2. Point 2
3. Point 3
II. Body (each point developed fully)
A. Point 1
B. Point 2
C. Point 3
III. Conclusion

Drafting Your Essay

Once you have planned your essay, the next step is to begin writing. Some
writers like to push through a first draft from beginning to end without giv-
ing much attention to details like spelling and punctuation, knowing that the
essay will cycle through several revisions before it is ready for editing and
then for submission. Some writers like to begin with the parts they are sure
of and can write quickly, saving the more difficult parts for later. Whatever
your method, in the end, your essay will have an introduction, a body, and a
conclusion. Following is advice about the contents of each.

Drafting the Introduction Begin by identifying the subject and the

issue at stake. As journalists say, tell who, what, when, and where. (The why will
be explained later.) Avoid beginning with a platitude, a truism, or a general
expression such as “Throughout history . . .” or “Artists have always. . . .” Instead,
engage your topic directly. Stick to the facts. This material that precedes the

thesis, often called a lead-in, should have unity, development, organization, and
coherence. Rather than a series of disconnected thoughts, all of the sentences that
compose the lead-in should be dedicated to the same purpose and be presented
in an order that is easy to follow. Sometimes your focus question works well as
a transition from your lead-in to your thesis.
Next comes the thesis. As a rule, let your thesis be the first general state-
ment in the essay so that it is easy to find. This is the most important sentence
in the entire essay, so construct it carefully. Be sure that the thesis is written in
the appropriate mode of discourse.
The final part of the introduction, in many essays, is a list of points of
proof. Use transitional expressions such as first, second, and finally to help
readers see that the points of proof are subordinate to the thesis and coordi-
nate with each other. Without such clues, readers will feel they are reading
several unrelated claims. Each point of proof should be stated in a separate,
complete sentence. End the introduction with the final point of proof. Resist
the urge to tack a summary statement on to the end of the introductory para-
graph because such a statement will only compete with the thesis.

Exercise 2-3
Following are two introductory paragraphs for a three- to five-page
analytical essay. Compare the two paragraphs in terms of their content,
organization, and clarity of purpose.
Paragraph A
Hunting has always been a necessity, as Winslow Homer’s After the Hunt
implies. A man, a dog, a boy, and a deer are depicted. The man, boy, and
dog are presented in shades of brown; the dog, water, and forest are col-
ored mostly black and white. The man is helping the dog into the boat
while the boy looks on. Everyone looks sad, probably because they have
killed the deer, which lies in the back of the boat, his hind legs hanging
over the boat’s stern. Watercolor, gouache, and graphite underdrawing on
off-white paper are the perfect media for expression of this sad scene.
Paragraph B
Winslow Homer’s watercolor titled After the Hunt depicts a man and a boy
in a boat with the carcass of a dead deer. The man is pulling a dog into the
boat. The scene depicts a method of hunting in the Adirondack Mountains
in New York in which a dog will chase a deer into the water where it will
drown. The hunters then pull the deer and the dog out of the water. To peo-
ple who do not hunt, this practice may seem cruel. Homer’s treatment of
the subject, however, expresses sympathy with the needs of working-class
people to survive. First, the man and boy are not rich people enjoying a
sport but humble people acting out of necessity. Also, the autumn twilight
setting implies an act of necessity. Finally, the deer and the dog are treated
with respect by both the actors in the painting and the painter himself.

Drafting the Body The body of an essay usually is organized according to

the points of proof. If you have listed the points of proof in your introduction,
develop them in the same order in the body.
The body of an essay is composed of paragraphs. A paragraph is a group
of sentences that are all dedicated to the illustration of a single idea. Some
points of proof can be developed in one paragraph; development of other
points of proof may require the space of several paragraphs.
Well-written body paragraphs generally contain four qualities: unity, de-
velopment, organization, and coherence.

Paragraph Unity Unity, in paragraphs, is the quality of having only one idea.
Unity is best achieved by use of a topic sentence stating that one idea. This
idea, or claim, will be illustrated with specific facts and examples. Think of
the topic sentence as the thesis of a paragraph. As such, it must be general
enough to need support, yet narrow and specific enough to be supportable
in the space of one paragraph.
Sometimes, when you have overwhelmed your reader with evidence for
your topic sentence, a concluding sentence for the paragraph is in order.
This sentence might reiterate the topic sentence (though not verbatim), or it
might address the broader implication of the evidence offered in the para-
graph and its connection to the thesis.
The following paragraph, excerpted from an essay by Guy Davenport
titled “Henri Rousseau,” demonstrates the concept of paragraph unity.
Rousseau, who said of Matisse’s painting that if it was going to be ugly it at least
ought to be amusing, was eminently a dramatic artist. His paintings have plots that
range from the hilarious to the sublime. Before La bohémienne endormie (The Sleeping
Gypsy) [Figure 2.5] we are meant to feel the frisson of realizing that the gypsy is not
asleep; the eyes are open a minim, watching the lion; the gypsy in terror is pretend-
ing to be dead, knowing that lions eat only live prey. Will the lion see through the
ruse, or will it move on? There is no hope of help. Only the indifferent moon gazes
down. The lion, like the cats of Paris, has raised his tail in curiosity. Will the gypsy
ever again play Hungarian airs on that mandolin, or drink from that water jug?
See how gay and bright the coat of the gypsy is! Are we not reminded of Joseph
in Scripture, whose blood-stained coat of many colors was brought by his wicked
brothers to his grief-stricken father, as evidence that “an evil beast hath devoured
him”? Pity and terror! You must realize it all in your imaginations, messieurs et
dames. For sentiment, could Bouguereau have done better?4

Paragraph Development Development is achieved by providing plenty of

evidence for the assertion made in the topic sentence. Evidence consists of
specific details, facts, and examples. Assume that your reader will not believe
anything you write unless you present accurate, specific, and relevant
supporting evidence for your assertions. When you have written a body
paragraph, count your general statements (assertions). Then count your
specific statements (evidence). To be sufficient, your specific statements
should far outnumber your generalizations. For practice in judging whether a

Figure 2.5. Henri Rousseau, The Sleeping Gypsy, 1897. Oil on canvas, 51 × 79 in.
(129.5 × 200.7 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY.

paragraph is sufficiently developed, examine Guy Davenport’s paragraph on

The Sleeping Gypsy [Figure 2.5]. What evidence does he offer for his assertion
that Rousseau is a dramatic artist?

Paragraph Organization Paragraph organization is achieved by presenting the

details in a logical order. Following are paragraph organization patterns that
writers frequently use:
• Spatial: Details of the object being described are recorded in the order
in which they appear to the viewer. The viewer’s eye may travel, for
example, from left to right or from top to bottom.
• Chronological: Events are told in the order in which they occurred in time.
• Question-Answer: The paragraph begins with a question that is
followed by an answer.
• Ascending: Details are recorded from least important to most
important.
• Descending: Details are recorded from most important to least
important.
• Block comparison: Details of one item are recorded, and then details of a
compared item are recorded.
• Point-by-point comparison: One detail of the first item is recorded,
followed by a corresponding detail of a second item. Then a second
detail of each item is presented in turn. Then a third detail of each
item is presented, and so forth.
Because comparison is a valuable tool in the study of art, it is particularly
important to be able to organize a comparison paragraph. The comparison

paragraph may be organized in either the block or the point-by-point pat-

tern, as defined above. The paragraph that follows, excerpted from an es-
say by Stephen Koch titled “Caravaggio and the Unseen,” demonstrates the
block method of comparison.
In the Galleria Doria in Rome hang Caravaggio’s two earliest extant religious
paintings. They were painted in the same year (1597) on the same commission,
and used the same woman as a model. One is the Repose on the Flight into Egypt.
Hanging directly beside it is a greater work, the Magdalene Repentant. In the Re-
pose, the exhausted Virgin sits on a rock to the right of a serenading angel, hold-
ing her Child in the classic cradling embrace, her head tilted to our right. Her
eyes are closed; she seems in fact to have fallen asleep; one of her hands (though
the baby is still held firm) has slipped down slack in her lap. Hanging directly to
the right of this picture is the Magdalene. She seems depicted from the model who
served for the Virgin. She also is in the same pose. It is in fact almost exactly the
same pose. She sits on a low stool. Her head likewise bends down to our right,
not in exhaustion, of course, but in penance and pain. Most important, her arms
are held in precisely the same cradling position as are the Virgin’s. The differ-
ence, of course, is that she holds no child; she is, as it were, cradling a child not
there. The arms are in precisely the classic maternal embrace; the crook of the left
arm is in precisely the position to rest the baby’s head, and the direction of her
eyes, which are not closed but half open, is directly into what would be a baby’s
upward-looking gaze. In short, the emblem of the prostitute’s simultaneous pen-
ance and redemption is an absent child, whom she simultaneously embraces and
grieves over.5

Paragraph Coherence Coherence in paragraphs is the smooth progression

from one sentence to the next. One way that coherence is achieved is by
the use of transitional expressions such as for example, nevertheless, and
however. These expressions keep the reader from getting lost in the maze
of evidence you are presenting. Listed below are some useful transitional
expressions.
• Additional idea: and, also, in addition, too
• Alternative idea: more importantly, furthermore, moreover, or
• Comparison: similarly, likewise
• Contrast: but, yet, however, on the other hand, conversely
• Numbered ideas: first, second, third, finally
• Result: so, hence, therefore, consequently, thus, then
• Exemplification: for example, for instance, in fact
• Summary: in short, on the whole, to sum up, in other words
The previous paragraph by Stephen Koch, which compares two paintings by
Caravaggio, uses the transitional expressions also, in fact, likewise, of course,
but, most important, as it were, and in short.
Repetition is another tool for bringing coherence to a paragraph. The
third sentence in Koch’s paragraph repeats the phrase “the same”: “They
were painted in the same year (1597) on the same commission, and used the

same woman as model.” Other repeated phrases in the paragraph include

“in precisely,” “the same pose,” and “simultaneous.”
Your reader has a difficult task, processing all of the information that you
are delivering. You can assist your reader by providing these clues to the
relationships among your ideas.

Drafting the Conclusion The conclusion is a very important part

of your essay. It is your last chance to evoke a nod of approval from
your reader as you reinforce your main idea without merely repeating it.
Conclusions, like body paragraphs, need unity, development, organization,
and coherence. Following are some ideas you might develop in your
conclusion.
• Return to an illustration or anecdote written in the introductory
remarks.
• Use a quotation.
• Tell the current status of the issue.
• Predict the future of the situation or issue.
• Discuss the subject’s broader implications.
• Call your readers to action.
The following is a concluding paragraph of an essay by Ralph Ellison on the
artist Romare Bearden. The paragraph concentrates on the broader implica-
tions of Bearden’s work.

Bearden seems to have told himself that in order to possess the meaning of his
Southern childhood and Northern upbringing, that in order to keep his memo-
ries, dreams, and values whole, he would have to re-create them, humanize
them by reducing them to artistic style. Thus, in the poetic sense, these works
give plastic expression to a vision in which the socially grotesque conceals a
tragic beauty, and they embody Bearden’s interrogation of the empirical values
of a society that mocks its own ideals through a blindness induced by its myth
of race. All this, ironically, by a man who visually at least (he is light-skinned
and perhaps more Russian than “black” in appearance) need never have been
restricted to the social limitations imposed upon easily identified Negroes.
Bearden’s art is therefore not only an affirmation of his own freedom and
responsibility as an individual and artist, it is an affirmation of the irrelevance
of the notion of race as a limiting force in the arts. These are works of a man pos-
sessing a rare lucidity of vision.6

Citing Sources If you have used sources in your essay in a way that
obligates you to credit them, consult Chapter 6 for instructions in documenting
sources. If you are using the Modern Language Association (MLA) system,
your citations will be parenthetical notes, usually at the end of sentences that
contain information obtained from sources, which correspond to entries on a
works-cited list at the end of your essay. If you are using the Chicago Manual

of Style (CMS) system, your citations will consist of superscripted numbers

at the end of sentences. These numbers correspond to footnotes or endnotes
as well as to entries on a bibliography at the end of your essay. You should
cite your sources for the following:
• quotations
• information not widely available
• statistics
• paraphrased or summarized ideas of others.

Writing a Title Some writers create a title for their essay early in the
process, saying it helps them narrow their topic and focus on the task.
Others wait until they have finished the paper to compose a title. Your title
may indicate your topic or your thesis. It may employ a play on words or
figurative language. Ideally, a title will both intrigue your readers, enticing
them to read on, and provide readers with a memorable phrase that helps
them recall the essay’s contents and main point. Some of the more attention-
grabbing titles of essays published or excerpted in this textbook include
Louisa Ferrer’s “An Art Class a Day Keeps Unemployment Away,” Jonathan
Jones’s “Worst Ideas of 2012—Damien Hirst Attempting Still Lifes,” and Joel
Senger’s “Express This!”

Revising and Editing Your Essay

Good writing nearly always entails extensive revision. William Strunk, coauthor
of The Elements of Style, writes “Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should
contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the
same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine
no unnecessary parts.”7 Such economy is rarely achieved without extensive re-
vision. Another proponent of revision, Ernest Hemingway, once told an inter-
viewer that he rewrote the ending of A Farewell to Arms 39 times. When the inter-
viewer asked him what the problem was, he replied, “Getting the words right.”8
Begin your revision by addressing the major issues of thesis and points
of proof. If they need adjustment, much of your essay will change. Then ex-
amine your introduction and conclusion. Do you perceive a shift in tone, at-
titude, emphasis, or even topic? If so, you will need to revise the essay until
the whole essay works as a unit. View your evidence critically: Is every piece
of evidence accurate, specific, and relevant? Have you offered sufficient evi-
dence for your assertions?
Next, examine your sentences individually. Each sentence should be
solidly constructed. Run-ons and fragments are serious errors. Consult the
“Handbook” section of this textbook for advice on sentence construction.
Once you have read the essay several times from beginning to end, try read-
ing your essay in reverse order, the last sentence first. This way, you are
reading each sentence out of context and can look at the sentence’s structure

rather than be distracted by its content. This is also the time to check each
sentence’s punctuation, especially of quoted material.
Next, look at your words individually. Is each word chosen carefully and
spelled correctly?
Finally, be sure that your essay is formatted according to your instructor’s
specifications.

Notes
1. Aldous Huxley, “Variations on El Greco,” in Writers on Artists, ed. Daniel Halpern
(San Francisco: North Point Press, 1988), 62.
2. Horst Janson, Sixteen Studies (New York: Abrams, 1973), 291.
3. William Safire and Leonard Safir, eds., Good Advice on Writing (New York: Simon,
1992), 29.
4. Guy Davenport, “Henri Rousseau,” in Writers on Artists, ed. Daniel Halpern (San
Francisco: North Point Press, 1988), 149–50.
5. Stephen Koch, “Caravaggio and the Unseen,” in Writers on Artists, ed. Daniel
Halpern (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1988), 79.
6. Ralph Ellison, “The Art of Romare Bearden,” in Writers on Artists, ed. Daniel Halp-
ern (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1988), 316.
7. Safire and Safir, 49.
8. Ibid., 210.

W riting A nalytically

The Formal Analysis Planning Your Formal Analysis

Drafting Your Formal Analysis
A Student’s Formal Analysis
Revision and Editing Checklist
The Analytical Essay Planning Your Analytical Essay
Drafting Your Analytical Essay
A Student’s Analytical Essay
Revision and Editing Checklist
The Analytical Comparison Planning Your Analytical Comparison
Drafting Your Analytical Comparison
A Student’s Analytical Comparison
Revision and Editing Checklist

Artists seldom explain their work. It is up to the viewer to derive meaning

from an artwork. This arrangement is fortunate for viewers for at least two
reasons: our appreciation of an artwork is enhanced by our efforts to under-
stand it; also, in our attempts to understand art, we find ourselves arriving at
a greater understanding of our own lives and values.
This chapter will guide you through the creation of analytical essays about
art, using three models, all written by students. First, Charles Thompson
presents a formal analysis of Matisse’s La Japonaise: Woman beside the Water
[Figure 3.1] to show how the artist creates meaning through lines, colors, and
brushstrokes. An essay by Olga Shatovskaya analyzes the work of Iranian
photographer Shadi Ghadirian, who captures the conundrum of women
living under the influence of both Eastern tradition and Western moderni-
ty [see Figure 3.2]. A third essay, by Rachel Gothberg, compares attitudes
toward subconscious desires in The Nightmare [Figure 3.3] by Henry Fuseli
and The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters [Figure 3.4] by Francisco de Goya.

44
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
T h e F o rm a l An alysis
45

Reading these essays may help to clarify the nature of analysis and some
approaches to analytical writing.

The Forma l Analysis

The formal elements of an artwork include line, color, value, texture, shape,
space, time and motion, and sound and smell. Principles of design include
balance, unity and variety, proportion and scale, and rhythm. (See Chapter 1
for further discussion of these elements.) A formal analysis uses the formal
elements and the principles of design, as well as the artwork’s medium and
style, to draw an inference about an artwork.
A formal analysis is a more ambitious undertaking than a formal description.
When writing a formal description, you focus only on what you are seeing. You
mention the objects depicted in the work, as well as some of the formal elements
and principles of design. For example, the following sentence might be found
in a formal description: “A woman in a bright scarlet dress arranges delicate
yellow flowers in three blue vases, evenly spaced on a tilted tabletop.” A formal
analysis, however, focuses not only on what is seen, but also on why it is there
and how it is presented. A formal analysis might begin just as the descriptive
example begins, but it would delve more deeply: “A woman in a bright scarlet
dress arranges delicate yellow flowers in three blue vases, evenly spaced on a
tilted tabletop. The dynamic energy emitted from the intensity of her red dress
is cooled by the blueness of the vases, as well as their symmetrical placement,
only to be heightened again by the implied careening of the vases suggested by
the slope of the table.” The second sentence discusses the effect that these differ-
ent elements have on one another and, eventually, on the overall work.

Planning Your Formal Analysis

The following steps in planning the formal analysis may help you get started.
1. To begin writing a formal analysis, record the identifying information
about the work, such as its title, artist, medium, dimensions, and cur-
rent location.
2. Look carefully at the work, and take notes regarding the subject mat-
ter, each formal element, each principle of design, the medium, and
style (or “ism”) as those terms have been explained in Chapter 1.
3. Decide which are the most important elements of the work. For
example, do you have enough notes to develop a paragraph-length
discussion of line? Could you develop a paragraph on color? Shape?
Perspective? Iconography?
4. Next, formulate a thesis. For the formal analysis, the thesis is a state-
ment about how the elements add up—in other words, the impression
that they work together to create.

5. The next stage of planning is to develop an outline of your formal

analysis, using the following template.

Template for Outlining Your Formal Analysis

Note: The number of formal elements will vary.

I. Introduction
A. Name of artwork, artist, relevant details
B. Thesis:
II. Body
A. Element 1:
B. Element 2:
C. Element 3:
D. Element 4:
III. Conclusion

Drafting Your Formal Analysis

Some writers like to freewrite their first drafts—push through the essay from
beginning to end without stopping to correct grammar or spelling. A blank piece
of paper can have a paralyzing effect, so sometimes it is best to put words on
paper as quickly as possible. Once the words are written, they can be managed.

Drafting the Introduction The lead-in of the formal analysis will

identify at least the work and the artist—and perhaps the medium; time
period in which the work was produced; and, if relevant, its location.
The lead-in might also give some biographical information about the artist
and discuss some of the influences upon him or her. You might describe your
and other viewers’ reactions to the work. Bear in mind, however, that the
lead-in should not be a collection of miscellaneous, unconnected sentences;
it should possess the qualities of unity and coherence, and it should lead the
reader to the thesis.
The thesis of a formal analysis might be placed anywhere, including the
conclusion, but often it is the last sentence of the introduction. The advan-
tage of this placement is that the thesis comes not too early and not too late.
The reader does not have to wait very long to learn the essay’s main point.
Also, when the reader knows the essay’s main point, the body of the analysis
immediately makes sense. The thesis of a formal analysis usually tells how
all of the formal elements combine to create a singular impression. The thesis
should arise naturally from the lead-in, not seem tacked on.

Drafting the Body Each body paragraph should discuss some particular
element of the work. Well-written body paragraphs possess the qualities
of unity, development, organization, and coherence. These qualities of the
well-written paragraph are elaborated upon in Chapter 2. Remember as you

write not to lose sight of your thesis. Discuss each element’s implications or
contributions to the overall impression stated in the thesis.
Cite your sources for any information that is not widely available as well as
for quotations and paraphrases or summaries of others’ ideas. Consult Chapter 6,
“Writing Research Papers,” for the mechanics of documenting sources.

Drafting the Conclusion The conclusion of your essay, like the body
paragraphs, should be unified, developed, organized, and coherent. It might
discuss why the work is important, how the work fits into the oeuvre of the
artist (or does not), why it works so well (or does not). You might discuss your
personal encounter with the work. Or you might create an analogy, as Charles
Thompson does in the conclusion to his analysis of Matisse’s La Japonaise:
Woman beside the Water, comparing the painting to a patchwork quilt.

Titling Your Formal Analysis Give your formal analysis a title that
will capture your readers’ attention and entice them to continue reading.
Your title might indicate your thesis, or it might borrow a particularly
euphonious phrase from the essay. Your title might use alliteration or a
phrase that will be familiar to the reader.

A Student’s Formal Analysis

Some works of art easily lend themselves to formal analysis. Matisse’s La
Japonaise: Woman beside the Water [Figure 3.1] is one such artwork. Most viewers
perceive the subject matter of the painting only after concentrated looking. In
the following essay, graduate student Charles Thompson explains Matisse’s use
of line, color, and perspective in creating what first seems an optical illusion—
not just a woman beside the water, but a portrayal of harmony with nature.

A State of Grace in Matisse’s La Japonaise:

Woman beside the Water
by Charles Thompson

In Henri Matisse’s Fauvist 1905 oil on canvas, La Japonaise:

Woman beside the Water [Figure 3.1], the viewer encounters a
classic Matisse subject, a female figure. In stark contrast to
his later Odalisques of the 1920s, which portray models boldly
outlined against colorful fabric patterns, this earlier figure is
barely distinguishable from her background. Matisse depicts
her in a contemplative pose, quietly reading a book. Through
his dynamic and diverse play of lines and colors on a flattened
spatial plane, Matisse creates a painting that is as vibrant as it
is calming and achieves a perfect pictorial balance reflecting his
subject’s state of grace as she literally and figuratively becomes
one with the world around her.

To allow for this communion between La Japonaise and her

surroundings, Matisse uses energetic, colorful brushstrokes on
white canvas to represent forms by diverse patterns of lines
that barely differentiate between the figure and the back-
ground. Delicately brushing her neck and surrounding her
head, there are soft, curving rectangular lines of pinks and reds
that form a loose mosaic suggestive of flowers. In the lower left
corner, hurriedly applied brushstrokes of green, orange and
pink lines create a loose rock formation that serves as her seat.

Digital Image © The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA / Art Resource, NY / © 2013 Succession H.
Matisse / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York

Figure 3.1. Henry Matisse, La Japonaise: Woman beside the Water, 1905. Oil and pencil
on canvas, 137⁄8 × 111⁄8 in. (35.2 × 28.2 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York,
NY. © 2013 Succession H. Matisse/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.

She seems to float in this light, airy world, where objects have no
clear boundaries. As if the contents of the woman’s book have
spilled onto the background from the pure white pages, the
darker staccato lines in the top left corner are text-like, whereas
the thin blue wave-like squiggles imprinting her kimono sug-
gest that she has assumed the properties of the water. This fluid
interflow of lines underscores this poetic exchange between the
figure and her environment.
By doing away with clearly delineated form, Matisse
achieves more than an exciting play between juxtaposed pat-
terns. He also de-emphasizes perspective, thus flattening the
sense of depth to the picture. There are no discernible objects
in the background that would suggest distance or scale. Only
the faint hint of a boulder on which La Japonaise perches gives
a sense of the foreground. Without a clear perspectival hierar-
chy, the picture’s individual elements become visual equals.
Thus La Japonaise exists at the center of a beautiful maelstrom
of foreground and background elements that swirl around her,
sharing her space. This adds to her intimate metaphysical con-
nection with her surroundings. Not separated by distance or
time, La Japonaise achieves a harmonious connection with the
physical world by her direct and eternal interaction with it.
Besides a playful patterning of lines and a conscious col-
lapsing of space, Matisse also uses color—and the absence
of it—to achieve true harmony in both the picture and in his
subject. La Japonaise has a pleasing, vibrant palette, but a big
part of its success is the negative space—the white canvas
between the brushstrokes—that heightens the value of the
hues and at once equalizes the cacophony of colors. For in-
stance, even though there are a lot of contrasting greens and
reds juxtaposed in the pictures, the results are not disturbing.
The white space between them creates a buffer that allows
the viewer to enjoy their energies independently without a
sense of the colors clashing. Having learned color theory in
the 1890s from the painter Peter Russel, it is no surprise that
Matisse would be thinking about this and other color prin-
ciples. To that end, it is worth having another look at that
magical kimono. The blue of its pattern has a receding qual-
ity that creates an optical effect, pushing the figure further
into the background as she is lost in meditation. This dis-
tancing effect contributes to the central theme of the paint-
ing, as the woman drifts into the world around her. It is only
her realistically flesh-colored foot that barely anchors her in
physical reality. The foot becomes a focal point and the only
solid figurative element that stands on its own without being
woven into the background.

The variety of colored line patterns forms a vibrant tapes-

try that holds together like a patchwork quilt. Matisse, who
descends from a family of fabric makers, deftly weaves the
background and foreground elements into a rich, unified
whole. In La Japonaise, he sews the subject into the world of
pure color and line that surrounds her. In her reverie, the words
of the book she reads dissolve to become the poetry of colors.
She herself becomes the sea. As viewers we no longer strain to
make out the objective form, but, like La Japonaise, surrender to
the harmony of Matisse’s space.

Exercise 3-1
Read Charles Thompson’s essay titled “A State of Grace in Matisse’s La
Japonaise: Woman beside the Water” and answer the following questions.
1. What is Charles’s thesis?
2. What elements of form and design does Charles analyze to sup-
port his thesis?
3. Does the introduction begin with a generalization, or does it
engage the topic directly? Explain.

Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Formal Analysis

You have planned and drafted your formal analysis and, hopefully, revised it
several times. Use the following checklist to be certain that your essay is ready
for submission. If you have questions about sentence structure, grammar,
punctuation, mechanics, and style, consult this textbook’s “Handbook.”
1. Your essay
uu fulfills your assignment in terms of length and subject matter
uu is sufficiently analytical.
2. The introduction of your essay contains
uu a lead-in
uu a thesis.
3. u If the thesis is not in the introduction, there is a good reason.
4. The lead-in
uu engages the topic directly
uu is specific
uu leads to the thesis.

5. u The thesis is a statement about how the formal elements work

together to create a single impression.
6. u The essay is logically organized.
7. u Each body paragraph discusses a formal element and how it con-
tributes to the single impression stated in the thesis.
8. Each body paragraph and the conclusion are
uu unified
uu developed
uu organized
uu coherent.
9. Sentences are
uu well constructed
uu correctly punctuated.
10. Words are
uu correctly chosen
uu correctly spelled.
11. u Sources are correctly cited.
12. u The title is appropriate.
13. u The essay is formatted according to your instructor’s specifications.

The A naly t i c al E ssay

At the heart of the analytical essay is an inference. In other words, the

writer posits a theory and then supports that theory with facts. There are
three basic approaches to analytical writing: evaluation (what a thing is
worth), interpretation (what a thing means), and speculation about causes
and effects. Beyond those basic purposes, however, are many variations:
an analytical essay might derive meaning from subject matter, or it might
derive meaning from form, as in a formal analysis. An analytical essay
might assess an artwork’s monetary value or its intrinsic value; it might
judge an art exhibition’s degree of success, as in an exhibition review.
An analytical essay might speculate about the causes of an artwork’s popu-
lar appeal or, conversely, its lack of appeal; it might speculate about the
reasons for the artist’s choices in composition or media. An analytical essay
may compare two artworks in order to support an inference about one or
both of the artists’ attitudes about politics, social structures, or the human
condition. These are only a few of the possibilities for writing analytically
about art.

Planning Your Analytical Essay

The list of topics for an analytical essay about art is endless but easily
reduced. Begin with your own interests: Are you drawn to a particular
artist, period style, or subject? To rein in the list of possibilities, you might
engage in any or all of the prewriting strategies discussed in Chapter 2.
Once you have chosen a topic, be sure it is narrow enough to pursue in
depth within the time and space available to you.

Posing a Focus Question One strategy for sharpening your focus on

the task at hand is to ask a focus question—a question that your essay will
answer. Following are three generally stated focus questions that are likely
to lead to analysis:

• What is the appeal of the artwork (or artist)?

• How do specific elements in the artwork contribute to general concepts?
• What might have caused the artist to make certain choices?

To function as a focus question, each of the above-listed questions

would have to be converted into a more specific question. Any of the fol-
lowing focus questions may be useful in several ways: (a) it may suggest
a topic for your paper; (b) it may suggest the narrowing of a topic you
have already chosen; (c) it may model the sort of question you would pose
about your topic.

What Is the Appeal of the Artwork (or Artist)?

• What is the appeal of the choppy application of paint in

Impressionism?
• What is the appeal of Louise Bourgeois’s sculptural works in an age of
women’s liberation?
• What is the appeal of the handling of fabric in the Three Goddesses from
the Greek Parthenon?
• What is the appeal of large, everyday objects in Claes Oldenburg’s
works, such as the Philadelphia Clothespin?
• What is the appeal of Turner’s handling of light and color in his
paintings?
• What is the appeal of unexpected combinations in Robert
Rauschenberg’s combine paintings?
• What is the appeal of the mother/child subject matter in Mary
Cassatt’s paintings?
• What is the appeal of the human element of Dorothea Lange’s
photograph, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California?
• What is the appeal of shape in Robert Smithson’s Spiral Jetty?
• What is the appeal of repetition in Andy Warhol’s silk screens of
Marilyn Monroe?
• What is the appeal of abstraction in African sculpture?
• What is the appeal of empty space in Japanese compositions?

How do Specific Elements Contribute to General Concepts?

• How do the facial and body gestures in Rubens’s The Rape of the Daughters
of Leucippus contribute to the Baroque nature of the painting?
• How does Leonardo’s use of sfumato contribute to the mood of the
Mona Lisa?
• How does the placement of the different images on the Palette of King
Narmer contribute to the Egyptians’ concept of horror vacui?
• How does Georgia O’Keeffe’s use of color contribute to the overall
sensuousness of her paintings?
• How do the elements of nature contribute to Frank Lloyd Wright’s
design of Fallingwater?
• How does the philosophy of existentialism contribute to the meaning
of Munch’s The Scream?
• How does Ribera’s use of light in The Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew
contribute to the sense of drama in the painting?
• How does Kandinsky’s use of line and color contribute to the explo-
sive quality in so many of his paintings?
• How does the use of diagonals contribute to the expression of charac-
ter in the ancient Greek sculpture The Laocoön Group?
• How does the young woman’s kicking off her shoe contribute to the
Rococo essence in Fragonard’s The Swing?
• How does Picasso’s depiction of the figures in Les Demoiselles
d’Avignon contribute to the Cubist treatment of time?
• How did Cézanne’s respect for geometry contribute to his painting style?
• How does the use of fur contribute to the sense of contradiction in
Meret Oppenheim’s Object?
• How do the hand gestures contribute to the meaning in many statues
from India?
• How does the element of music contribute to Paul Klee’s Twittering
Machine?
What Might have Caused the Artist to Make Certain Choices?

• What might have caused the Assyrians to employ the technique of

double aspect relief in their sculpted Lamassu figures?
• What might have caused Manet to depict the seated female figure
nude while the men are clothed in Le déjeuner sur l’herbe?
• What might have caused the Mannerists to crowd and elongate the
figures in their paintings?
• What might have caused the Egyptians to include an extra chamber
called the serdab in their pyramids?
• What might have caused van Gogh to use the color yellow so predom-
inantly in so many of his paintings?
• What might have caused the Greeks to stop clothing their sculpted
male figures in the Age of Colonization?
• What might have caused Kazimir Severinovich Malevich to adopt a
nonrepresentational style in his paintings?

• What might have caused Nicola and Giovanni Pisano to move

away from the Italo-Byzantine style, which was popular in the late
thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries?
• What might have caused Rosalba Carriera to depict herself in her
self-portraits so differently from the way she depicted her aristocratic
clientele in formal portraits?
• What might have caused the Impressionist style to be replaced by the
various styles of the Post-Impressionists?
• What might have caused the inhabitants of the Neolithic Anatolian
settlement of Çatal Hüyük to include so many shrines within their
dwelling structures?
• What might have caused the Greeks to have so many varied shapes to
their pottery?
• What might have caused so many painters, such as Artemisia Gentile-
schi, to follow Caravaggio’s style in the seventeenth century?
• What might have caused the public to be so affronted by Courbet’s
The Stone Breakers in the nineteenth century?
• What might have caused the American artists of the Ashcan School to
use so many dark, drab colors in their paintings?

Finding a Thesis Your thesis is the answer to your focus question. It articu
lates the main point of your paper, and it is, therefore, the most important
sentence in the paper. A workable thesis for an analytical essay will meet the
following criteria:
• It answers the focus question.
• It is one complete, unified statement about the topic.
• It is precise enough to limit the material.
• It is general enough to need support.
• It is defensible.
• It is not too obvious.
All of the preceding guidelines for a workable thesis are malleable to some
degree. At the beginning of the writing process, however, it is best to adhere
to them strictly in order to get a firm grip on a thesis that will guide you
toward a sharply focused, analytical essay.

Asking the Proof Question After you have found a thesis, you must
support or prove it. How do you do that? What constitutes support? One
way to ascertain what sort of information will support your thesis is to ask
a proof question. A proof question simply converts the thesis statement into
a question, beginning usually with how or why. For example, if your thesis is
“Edvard Munch’s The Scream conveys a sense of existential angst,” a question
arises naturally in response to that statement: “How does Edvard Munch’s The
Scream convey a sense of existential angst?” This is your proof question, and
answers to this question will support, or prove, your thesis. The proof question
is a critical step in designing your essay because it provides a good test of
whether you have a workable thesis. If you cannot answer the proof question,
or if answers are too simple and obvious, you need to rethink your thesis.

Designing the Points of Proof Your points of proof answer your proof
question. They are the reasons why you think your thesis is true. Each point of
proof should directly answer the proof question, but it will not, by itself, provide
a complete answer. For example, if the proof question is, “How does Edvard
Munch’s The Scream convey a sense of existential angst?” one answer could be,
“The main figure represents the sense of isolation that many people were feeling
at the turn of the century.” This is not a complete answer to the proof question,
but it is one answer. Together, your points of proof will fully support your thesis.
Ideally, each point of proof will be stated in a complete sentence. For
example, it would not do to write, “Munch uses colors, shadows, and setting
to convey his idea.” This sentence contains categories, but not points. What
will be your point about colors? What will be your point about shadows?
What will be your point about the painting’s setting? And how does each of
these points answer the proof question? When you can answer these ques-
tions, you will have points of proof.

Thinking Through Your Analytical Essay Following is a summary

of the process and a template for thinking through your analytical essay.
Topic: Choose a suitable topic for your essay.
Focus Question: Pose a specific question about your topic.
Thesis: Answer the focus question.
Proof Question: Convert your thesis into a how or why question.
Points of Proof: Give at least two answers to the proof question.

Template for Thinking Through Your Analytical Essay

Note: The number of points of proof will vary, but there should be at
least two.
Topic:
Focus Question:
Thesis:
Proof Question:
Points of Proof:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Outlining Your Analytical Essay When you are satisfied that you
have a suitable topic, an analytical thesis, and points of proof that will
support your thesis convincingly, you might create an outline of your essay.

An outline will save time in the long run because it will help you stay on task
and also serve as a constant, written reminder of your plan.

Template for Outlining Your Analytical Essay

I. Introduction
A. Lead-in
B. Thesis:
C. List of Points of Proof: (Fill in at least two blanks.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
II. Body: (Each point of proof is fully developed.)
A. Point #1:
B. Point #2:
C. Point #3:
D. Point #4:
E. Point #5:
III. Conclusion

Drafting Your Analytical Essay

Having a solid plan in place for your analytical essay makes the writing
seem relatively easy. But do remember that a first draft is almost never a
final draft. As you draft the essay, your understanding of your subject will
no doubt increase; therefore, you may find that your thesis needs revision,
or that your points of proof need to be improved or rearranged. Still, push-
ing through that first full draft is a major step toward completion of the
writing project.

Organizing Your Notes Before you begin the first draft of your analyti
cal essay, assemble your notes. The advantage of recording your notes on
index cards (one note per card) becomes apparent at this stage of the process.
1. Write your points of proof on separate index cards and lay them out
side by side.
2. Place each notecard beneath the point of proof that it supports.
Continue until each notecard is placed.
3. Organize the notecards for each point of proof in a logical order.
4. Judge whether you need more information to support any of your
points of proof.
Now that your facts are organized, all you have to do is supply the “voice”
of your essay.

Drafting the Introduction Your introduction should contain a lead-

in; a thesis; and, ideally, points of proof. The lead-in for your analytical
essay will orient the reader by identifying the subject of the essay, but most
importantly, it will identify the issue. If you have carefully articulated your
focus question, it could serve the purpose. The thesis will make the central
claim of your essay. You may prefer to list points of proof after the thesis of
your introduction, as it signals the reader that you know exactly what you
want to say and how you will say it, and thereby increases your credibility. If
you prefer not to list your points of proof in the introduction of the final draft
of your essay, you will find doing so in the early drafts advantageous. The
effort of stating each point of proof in one succinct statement clarifies your
thinking and consequently clarifies your writing.

Drafting the Body The body of your essay will develop the points of
proof in the order listed in the introduction. If full development of a point of
proof creates a too-long body paragraph, break the material into more than
one paragraph. Still, each paragraph should possess the qualities of unity,
development, organization, and coherence, as discussed in Chapter 2.
Cite your sources for any information that is not widely available as well as
for quotations and paraphrases or summaries of others’ ideas. Consult Chapter 6,
“Writing Research Papers,” for the mechanics of documenting sources.

Drafting the Conclusion Your essay’s conclusion is as important as

the introduction and the body. Find a creative way to reinforce your thesis
without repeating it (and your points of proof) verbatim. The conclusion
that uses concrete imagery will be more memorable than one that relies
on generalizations and abstractions. For example, the phrase natural setting
is general; the word meadow is more specific; the phrase field of daisies is
even more specific, and therefore more visual. Look for opportunities to
vitalize your conclusion with phrases that will create a vivid image in the
reader’s mind, in place of phrases that compel the reader to do the work of
visualizing.

Titling Your Analytical Essay Giving your essay a title presents

another opportunity to plant your ideas in your readers’ minds and
imaginations. Your title might indicate your thesis or the artist’s theme. It
might borrow a memorable phrase from the essay, or it might capitalize on a
phrase that is already familiar to your reader.

A Student’s Analytical Essay

When we interpret an artwork, or a body of work, we use its details to draw
an inference about the meaning of the artwork as a whole. In the following
essay, student Olga Shatovskaya uses the details of Shadi Ghadirian’s pho-
tographs of Iranian women to draw an inference about the meaning of the
artist’s body of work.

A Women’s Photographer
b y O l g a S h ato v s k aya

According to a well-established stereotype, it is hard to be a

woman in the Islamic world with its culturally accepted ideas of
female inferiority shaping public and private spheres. A lead-
ing Iranian photographer, Shadi Ghadirian, deals with this prin-
ciple on a regular basis, but has the courage and the talent to
express her rebellious thoughts through images. Simple com-
positionally, but ironic and provocative, Ghadirian’s pictures of
Iranian women at home represent them as individuals caught
between contradictions of the traditional East and the modern-
ized West. To achieve this effect, Ghadirian contrasts the bright
expectations with the reality of married life. She also contrasts
the expectations of modesty with the desire to be beautiful
and stylish. And third, she contrasts the desire to achieve and
express oneself with the need to remain tightly connected to
Islamic traditions in order to be respected and recognized.
Shadi Ghadirian was born in Tehran in 1974, five years before
the Islamic revolution that brought monarchy, censorship, and
the law mandating that Iranian women wear hijab outside the
house. Now, after more than thirty years, an Iranian woman
still has to cover her hair, arms, and legs while in public; does
not usually live by herself; can legally be forced into marriage
at the age of 13 and divorced at any time; and can be stoned for
adultery. Her testimony in court is worth half of what a male’s
is worth, and she is allowed to inherit no more than half what
her brothers inherit from their parents.1 Ghadirian’s series of
images introduce different approaches to questioning women’s
place and rights in modern Iranian society—from the require-
ments of what an Iranian woman should or should not wear,
do, or feel, to the trivial obligations of married life.
Ghadirian created the Like Every Day series, released in 2000,
a study in contrasts between the expectations and reality of
marriage, as a response to concerns about her impending mar-
riage and leaving her parents’ house for the first time. Driven
by personal involvement and inspired by the housewares she
received as wedding gifts, the photographer conveys her fears
of being bound to house chores through ironic portraits of
women defaced by domestic appliances. Compositionally, all
the images follow the same pattern: shapes covered in dense
ornamental fabrics are placed in the center of the frame before
a snow-white, seamless background. This contrast creates an
immediate feeling of contradiction between the lightness of

a white wedding dress and the everyday routine of marriage

that follows. The figures are completely covered because even
at home they are expected to follow the rules.
This contrast of idea and color is reinforced by the presence
of ordinary household equipment: a broom, an iron, a kettle, a
teacup, rubber gloves, a pot, a cheese grater, and even a kitchen
hatchet are placed where a woman’s face should be [see Figure 3.2].
The central position of the appliances framed by women’s figures
powerfully articulates the way men and society in general per-
ceive married women as indistinct creatures who accept and
perform their duties for the rest of their lives. The Like Every Day
series exhibits the wit of Ghadirian’s style that not only shaped
her later work but also induced criticism from certain public insti-
tutions that found her critique of traditions inappropriate.
Another series of portraits devoted to the theme of Iranian
women at home is Be Colorful, presented in 2005. This art project
uncovers the opposition of religious directions of modesty and
simplicity a woman ought to follow and her inner desire to be
beautiful and stylish. To manifest this opposition, the photog-
rapher employed a simple and effective technique—placing
her models, dressed in their favorite red, orange, and yellow
clothes, behind a grey glass wall. The results of her manipula-
tions are blurry, almost impressionistic images of women para-
doxically hidden and revealed as if captured at home through
the outside window. Ghadirian unveils the beauty, elegance
and dignity hidden behind their downcast appearance in pub-
lic. Reflecting self-analysis and even the artist’s personal fears,
these photographs say that Iranian women are more than meet
the eye, not just obedient full-time wives and mothers.
A third series of photographs titled Qajar shows Iranian
women, again at home, wearing combinations of Eastern and
Western attire as they pose with Western apparatus such as a
perfume spritzer, a bicycle, a camera, a can of Pepsi, and a boom
box. The photographs are in sepia tones, which give them an
old look, and the home furnishings and Eastern attire reinforce
Eastern traditions. Yet Ghadirian manipulates her images in
order to reveal in witty metaphors the ironic contrast between
a woman’s desire to express herself and her desire to remain
rooted in Islamic traditions.
Ghadirian is herself a contradiction. She is deliberate in
manipulating colors, textures and compositions, free in her
self-expression, and ready to share her private revelations in a
country that praises reticence in women. Living in Iran, Shadi
Ghadirian constantly faces the prejudice and restraints of a
female’s life and, to a certain degree, constantly has to prove
her right to be heard and accepted. She attempts to define the
place for Iranian women between two different dimensions and

Figure 3.2. Shadi Ghadirian, Like EveryDay #16, 2000. Photograph, 195⁄8 × 195⁄8
(50 × 50 cm). Photograph. © Shadi Ghadirian. Courtesy of the artist.

openly critiques the irrelevance of social life. Yet she refuses to

move to Europe or the United States where her works have
received outstanding recognition. As a Muslim, she belongs to
her culture, but as a professional photographer, she is true to
her art. By means of her photography she analyzes the prob-
lems and contradictions of female rights in her country and in
the long run touches upon common issues that unite all women
regardless of age, nationality, or religion.

Note
1. Nazila Fathi, “Starting at Home, Iran’s Women Fight for
Rights,” New York Times, February 12, 2009.

Exercise 3-2
Read the essay titled “A Women’s Photographer” by Olga Shatovskaya
and answer the following questions.
1. What is the thesis of the essay? What are the essay’s points of
proof?
2. What evidence does Olga offer in support of her thesis?
3. Are you convinced by Olga’s analysis? Why or why not?

Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Analytical Essay

You have planned and drafted your analytical essay and, ideally, revised it
several times. Use the following checklist to be certain that your essay is
ready for submission. If you have questions about sentence structure, gram-
mar, punctuation, mechanics, and style, consult this textbook’s “Handbook.”
1. Your essay
uu fulfills your assignment in terms of length and subject matter
uu is sufficiently analytical.
2. The introduction of your essay contains
uu a lead-in
uu a thesis
uu a list of your points of proof.
3. u If any of the above-listed elements are missing, there is a good
reason.
4. The lead-in
uu engages the topic directly
uu is specific
uu makes the issue clear
uu leads to the thesis.
5. The thesis is
uu one complete, unified statement about the topic
uu precise enough to limit the material
uu general enough to need support
uu defensible
uu not too obvious.
6. Each point of proof
uu answers the proof question
uu is stated in a complete sentence.
7. u The essay is organized in accordance with the points of proof.
8. Each body paragraph is
uu unified
uu developed
uu organized
uu coherent.
9. Evidence presented in the body paragraphs is
uu accurate
uu relevant
uu specific
uu sufficient.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
C HAPT ER 3 ■ Wri ting A naly tic ally
62

10. The conclusion

uu reinforces the thesis without repeating it verbatim
uu contains concrete imagery
uu is unified
uu is developed
uu is organized
uu is coherent.
11. Sentences are
uu well constructed
uu correctly punctuated.
12. Words are
uu correctly chosen
uu correctly spelled.
13. u Sources are correctly cited.
14. u The title is appropriate.
15. u The essay is formatted according to your instructor’s
specifications.

The A naly t ic al Com parison

An analytical comparison is no different in concept and purpose from any

analytical essay—to evaluate, interpret, or speculate about causes or effects.
The difference lies in form and content. The analytical comparison compares
two or more subjects in order to increase understanding of one, both, or all
of the subjects.

Planning Your Analytical Comparison

Complex ideas are difficult to communicate, but careful planning will
facilitate the reader’s understanding of your essay. Planning a comparison
essay is particularly important because it is not one but two or more sub-
jects under scrutiny, and a reader’s interest is easily lost unless the material
is organized.

Posing a Focus Question One strategy for sharpening your focus on

the task at hand is to ask a focus question—a question that you will dedicate
your essay to answering. In an analytical comparison, the focus question
might be one of the following:
• What do we learn when we compare artworks?
• What do we learn when we compare artists?
• What do we learn when we compare styles?

Following are more specific focus questions based on the above-listed

questions. Any of these focus questions might be useful in several ways:
(a) it may suggest a topic for your paper; (b) it may suggest the narrowing
of a topic you have already chosen; (c) it may model the sort of question you
would pose about your topic.

What do We Learn When We Compare . . . ?

• the treatment of space in the Greek Parthenon to that in the Roman

Pantheon?
• the Neoclassical elements of David’s painted, reclining figure of
Madame Récamier to those of Antonio Canova’s sculpted, reclining
figure of Pauline Borghese as Venus?
• the Minoans’ approach to architecture, as shown in their palaces, to
the Mycenaeans’, in their citadels?
• Rembrandt’s use of light to Poussin’s?
• the churches of the Romanesque period to Gothic churches in terms of
height and light?
• Cimabue’s use of space in his Madonna Enthroned with Angels and
Prophets to Giotto’s use of space in his Madonna Enthroned?
• the exterior decoration of Christian cathedrals from the Middle
Ages to the exteriors of Islamic mosques from the same time
period?
• the war theme of Maya Ying Lin’s Vietnam Veterans Memorial to the
treatment of war on the Roman Column of Trajan?
• the color palette of van Gogh’s early works, for example, The
Potato Eaters, to the color palette of his later works, such as
The Night Café?
• George Segal’s twentieth-century painted plaster sculptures to the
painted polyester and fiberglass sculptures of twentieth-century artist
Duane Hanson?
• the mood of Matthias Grünewald’s Crucifixion panel from the
Isenheim Altarpiece to the mood of its Resurrection panel?
• Helen Frankenthaler’s use of color and shape in her painting Bay Side
to Ellsworth Kelly’s Red Blue Green?

Finding a Thesis Your thesis is the answer to your focus question. Like the
thesis of an analytical essay, the thesis of a comparative analysis will meet the
following criteria:
• It answers the focus question.
• It is one complete, unified statement about the topic.
• It is precise enough to limit the material.
• It is general enough to need support.
• It is defensible.
• It is not too obvious.

Asking the Proof Question After you have found a thesis, you must
support or prove it. One way to ascertain what sort of information will
support your thesis is to ask a proof question. A proof question simply
converts the thesis statement into a question, beginning usually with how
or why. Suppose, for example, your thesis is, “A comparison of Titian’s
Venus of Urbino [Figure 7.2] and Manet’s Olympia [Figure 7.3] reveals
Manet’s modern feminist sensibility.” A question arises naturally in
response to that thesis: “How does a comparison of Titian’s Venus of Urbino
and Manet’s Olympia reveal Manet’s modern feminist sensibility?” This is
your proof question, and answers to this question will support, or prove,
your thesis.

Designing the Points of Proof Your points of proof answer your

proof question. They are the reasons why you think your thesis is true. Each
point of proof should directly answer the proof question, but it will not, by
itself, provide a complete answer. Suppose that the proof question is, “How
does a comparison of Titian’s Venus of Urbino and Manet’s Olympia reveal
Manet’s modern feminist sensibility?” One answer could be, “Titian’s Venus
exudes a willingness to exist for the pleasure of a man, whereas Manet’s
Olympia exudes an unwillingness.” This is not a complete answer to the
proof question, but it is one answer. Together, your points of proof will fully
support your thesis.
Ideally, each point of proof will be stated in a complete sentence.
For example, it would not do to write, “Titian uses images of love, seduc-
tion, and fidelity, whereas Manet uses images of the opposite values.”
This sentence contains categories, but not points. What will be your point
about images of love and its opposite? What will be your point about
images of seduction and its opposite? What will be your point about
images of fidelity and its opposite? And how does each of these points
answer the proof question? When you can answer these questions, you
will have points of proof.

Thinking Through Your Analytical Comparison Following is a

summary of the process and a template for thinking through your analytical
comparison.
Topic: Choose two or more subjects for comparison.
Focus Question: Pose a specific question about your topic, beginning
with, “What do we learn when we compare . . . ?”
Thesis: Answer the focus question.
Proof Question: Convert your thesis into a how or why question.
Points of Proof: Give at least two answers to the proof question.

Template for Thinking Through Your Analytical

Comparison
Note: the number of points of proof will vary, but there should be at
least two.
Topic:
Focus Question:
Thesis:
Proof Question:
Points of Proof:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Outlining Your Analytical Comparison A comparison essay is

usually organized according to one of two patterns: the block pattern and
the point-by-point pattern. In the block pattern, one subject is discussed in
full, and then the other subject is discussed in full. The advantage of this
pattern is that the reader’s attention has to be switched from one subject to
the other only once, so there is less chance of confusion than in the point-by-
point pattern.
In the point-by-point comparison, one point about a subject is discussed,
and then a corresponding point about a second subject is discussed. Next,
a second point about the first subject is discussed, followed by discussion of
a corresponding point about the second subject. It is actually less confusing
than it sounds, as the following sample outlines demonstrate.

Block Pattern Point-by-Point Pattern

I. Introduction I. Introduction
II. Body II. Body
A. Item A A. Point 1
1. Point 1 1. Item A
2. Point 2 2. Item B
3. Point 3 B. Point 2
B. Item B 1. Item A
1. Point 1 2. Item B
2. Point 2 C. Point 3
3. Point 3 1. Item A
III. Conclusion 2. Item B
III. Conclusion

Following are templates to assist you in outlining your analytical com-

parison essay.

Template for Outlining Your Analytical Comparison

Block Method
I. Introduction
A. Lead-in
B. Thesis:
C. List of Points of Proof: (Fill in at least two blanks.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
II. Body: (Each point of proof is fully developed.)
A. Item A:
1. Point 1:
2. Point 2:
3. Point 3:
4. Point 4:
B. Item B:
1. Point 1:
2. Point 2:
3. Point 3:
4. Point 4:
III. Conclusion

Template for Outlining Your Analytical Comparison

Point-by-Point Method
I. Introduction
A. Lead-in
B. Thesis:
C. List of Points of Proof: (Fill in at least two blanks.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
II. Body: (Each point of proof is fully developed.)
A. Point 1:
1. Item A:
2. Item B:

B. Point 2:
1. Item A:
2. Item B:
C. Point 3:
1. Item A:
2. Item B:
D. Point 4:
1. Item A:
2. Item B:
III. Conclusion

Drafting Your Analytical Comparison

An earlier section in this chapter, “Drafting the Analytical Essay,” offers
instruction that applies to drafting the analytical comparison. One additional
bit of advice: Use strong transitions when changing from one subject or
item to another. For example, “Like Artist A, Artist B employs the technique
of . . .” or, “Not only are Artist A and B similar in their use of color, they are
also similar in their use of . . . .” These strong signals make it easy for your
reader to follow your comparison.

A Student’s Analytical Comparison

Rachel Gothberg, the author of the following essay, has noticed that Fuseli’s
The Nightmare [Figure 3.3] and Goya’s El sueño de la razón produce monstruos
(The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters) [Figure 3.4] are similar in that they are

Figure 3.3. Henry Fuseli, The Nightmare, 1781. Oil on canvas, 40 × 50 in.
(101.6 × 127 cm). Detroit Institute of the Arts, Detroit, MI.

Figure 3.4. Francisco de Goya, The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, from
Los Caprichos, c. 1794-1799. Etching and aquatint, 8½ × 6 in. (21.3 × 15.1 cm).
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, CA.

both from the Romantic period and they both are interested in nightmares as
an avenue for exploring the subconscious. But how are the artists’ attitudes
toward their subjects different from each other? That is the essential question
that the author strives to answer in “Gothic Nightmares in Romantic Painting.”

Gothic Nightmares in Romantic Painting

by Rachel Gothberg

During the Romantic period, there was a revival of interest in

Gothic art and ideas. Through their Gothic paintings, Henry
Fuseli and Francisco de Goya were among the first artists to

explore the human subconscious and the darkest recesses of

the human mind. Fuseli’s The Nightmare and Goya’s El sueño
de la razón produce monstruos (The Sleep of Reason Produces Mon-
sters) are both disturbing pictures that show people having
nightmares. Although they are similar in subject, they differ in
attitude toward the release of subconscious desires inherent in
sleep. Henry Fuseli conveys the idea that although the deepest
desires of the subconscious are suppressed in order to follow
the expectations of society, the unexplored areas of the subcon-
scious that are able to be kept secret and hidden in the waking
hours resurface as monsters in sleep. Goya, on the other hand,
shows that these dark areas of the mind, when combined with
reason, can be manageable and even positive.
Fuseli combined contemporary notions about women’s
nightmares with his own fantasies to create an erotic yet
frightening depiction of the relationship between sleep and the
unconscious mind. Dreams, especially those of women, had
been the subject of many theories. Some people believed that
nightmares are caused by the menstrual cycle; others believed
that they come from women’s unconscious desire to be raped
and controlled by men. It was the belief of some that getting
married would stop the nightmares (Powell 53).
In Fuseli’s painting, a woman wearing a virginal white
gown reclines beneath a strange creature, which is often
referred to as an incubus. The woman is lying in an exagger-
atedly sexual position that leaves her vulnerable. Because of
the way her head falls so far back and her arms lie limply,
she looks as though she has fainted or died. Her face does
not show that she is resting peacefully; rather her features are
strained, and she appears to be frowning as if something were
tormenting her.
Because an incubus is believed to sit on or have intercourse
with women while they are sleeping, they are attributed with
the nightmares of innocent victims. In Fuseli’s painting, the
dark incubus, who in some versions wears a mask, rests in a
fetal position, weighing upon the woman’s body just as the
nightmare weighs upon her mind. By his position and his
bizarre appearance, the incubus resembles the frightening and
watchful gargoyles that perch upon Gothic architecture. There-
fore, in Fuseli’s painting the woman’s sexual desires, which she
had been able to suppress during her waking hours, have now
been freed in the form of the incubus.
Most likely the horse in the background is a play on words
and meanings. A mare is a female horse, but it is also an evil
creature that causes nightmares. The horse, or mare, as it peers
through the curtains into the woman’s bedchamber, subtly

i nforms the viewer that the scene is of a nightmare and that

the woman is in fact sleeping rather than dead. The mare’s
flowing mane suggests that she has just burst into the quiet
room, and with her arrives the manifestation of the woman’s
unconscious desire, the incubus. Literally and symbolically, the
nightmare has now burst in and burdens the sleeping woman’s
once-peaceful rest. The woman is a victim of her own uncon-
scious desires; she can neither eliminate nor act upon her urges
but can only suppress them, and therefore she will always be
vulnerable to them.
Goya’s artwork deals with the same dark urges, but his come
out in society both during the day and night. He believed that
these urges do not need to be repressed if they can be combined
with reason. The Enlightenment had held that reason should
direct the actions and thoughts of humanity; however, this ideal
was not evident in Goya’s society. Spain was troubled by the
Napoleonic wars, the corrupt church, and the horrifying Inqui-
sition, which bred sin, violence, and greed. If reason had been
used against these problems, society could have been safer and
more productive, but unfortunately, reason was abandoned,
and the situation escalated out of control. In a series of etchings,
Los Caprichos, people are shown as haggard and disgusting.
Their features are combined with those of animals in order to
show the dark, wild aspects of humankind.
Goya makes the importance of reason clear with his work,
The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters, which was the frontis-
piece of Los Caprichos. The print shows a man who has fallen
asleep on his work table while creatures of the night surround
him in a nightmarish frenzy. The caption beneath the engrav-
ing reads, “Imagination abandoned by reason produces impos-
sible monsters; united with her, she is the mother of the arts
and the source of their wonders.” In other words, while reason
is sleeping or is inactive, it is unable to control the monsters
that lie within the mind, but imagination and reason together
are the source of art.
Goya believed that art is a combination of reason and un-
reason and that nightmares and the imagination are linked
(Eisenman 78). The man in The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters
is most likely the artist himself. The figures that surround him
are those of his imagination—the creative, unreasonable side
of his art. The artist, who has unwillingly fallen asleep while
working, rests uncomfortably on his work table with paper
and drawing utensils nearby. He has chosen not to go to bed
for the night and allow sleep to overcome him, just as most
people do not generally choose to let reason abandon them and

thereby allow themselves to be overcome by the potential evils

of the mind. The man, therefore, represents not only Goya and
art, but also reason itself.
The cats, owls, and bats that surround the sleeping man
convey the idea that superstition is created by the mind
when logic is absent. The lynx that rests in the lower right-
hand corner mimics the sleeping man, his paws crossed in
the same manner in which the man’s arms are folded. The
use of animals acquiring human traits and vice versa is a
theme throughout Los Caprichos that shows how humans
are reduced to animals when they allow their urges to go
unchecked. In this instance, the lynx is more aware of his
surroundings and the evils of the mind than is the sleeping
man, which can be seen in the lynx’s alert facial expression.
Another cat, dark and half-hidden by the man’s body, lurks
in the background. Nightmares and cats are predators of the
night with wide and watchful eyes, waiting to attack their
prey when least expected.
Because owls are symbols of folly, Goya repeatedly used
them throughout the Los Caprichos prints in order to make a
strong statement against foolishness (Eisenman 78). The owls
seem to taunt the man; they are perched on his body, and one
even holds a drawing utensil in his talons, which again attri-
butes human traits to animals, but also shows the importance
of this part of the mind in the creation of art. Owls are birds
of prey that seek out and attack defenseless victims, just as
without reason, individuals are defenseless against foolish im-
pulses. The bats, although they are mostly just dark shadows
in the background, are nonetheless significant because they
represent blind ignorance, which is anathema to rationalism
(Eisenman 78).
Fuseli and Goya both explored the intricacies of the
human mind in their nightmarish pictures. According to
Fuseli’s painting, it is necessary to repress these individual
urges, usually sexual or violent, to fit into society; however,
when such urges and desires are repressed, a great burden
is placed on the mind, which allows the desires to attack
the defenseless sleeping mind in the form of nightmares.
Goya, who takes a different view in The Sleep of Reason Pro-
duces Monsters, implies that there would be no creativity or
imagination without the subconscious and that the most
magnificent things, such as art, come from the ability to com-
bine these unconscious thoughts and emotions with reason.
When reason is abandoned, however, the dark areas of the
subconscious make people selfish, irrational, and cruel, so

that they resemble demons or animals. The mysteries of the

mind may never be solved, but Fuseli and Goya provide in-
teresting interpretations in their artwork of the miraculous
subconscious.

Works Cited
Eisenman, Stephen F. Nineteenth Century Art: A Critical History.
New York: Thames, 1994. Print.
Powell, Nicolas. Fuseli: The Nightmare. London: Penguin, 1973.
Print.

Exercise 3-3
Read Rachel Gothberg’s essay titled “Nightmares in Romantic Painting”
and answer the following questions.
1. What is Rachel’s thesis?
2. Which comparison pattern does Rachel employ in her essay?
3. How does Rachel interpret the significance of the sleeping man
in Goya’s painting?

Revision and Editing Checklist for Your Analytical

Comparison
You have planned and drafted your analytical comparison and, hopefully,
revised it several times. Use the following checklist to be certain that your
essay is ready for submission. If you have questions about sentence struc-
ture, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and style, consult this textbook’s
“Handbook.”
1. Your essay
uu fulfills your assignment in terms of length and subject matter
uu is sufficiently analytical.
2. The introduction of your essay contains
uu a lead-in
uu a thesis
uu a list of your points of proof.
3. u If any of the above-listed elements are missing, there is a good
reason.

4. The lead-in
uu engages the topic directly
uu is specific
uu makes the issue clear
uu leads to the thesis.
5. The thesis is
uu one complete, unified statement about the topic
uu precise enough to limit the material
uu general enough to need support
uu defensible
uu not too obvious.
6. Each point of proof
uu answers the proof question
uu is stated in a complete sentence.
7. The essay is organized
uu in accordance with the points of proof
uu in either the block or point-by-point pattern.
8. u Strong transitions mark the places where the essay changes subjects.
9. Each body paragraph is
uu unified
uu developed
uu organized
uu coherent.
10. Evidence presented in the body paragraphs is
uu accurate
uu relevant
uu specific
uu sufficient.
11. The conclusion
uu reinforces the thesis without repeating it verbatim
uu contains concrete imagery
uu is unified
uu is developed
uu is organized
uu is coherent.

12. Sentences are

uu well constructed
uu correctly punctuated.
13. Words are
uu correctly chosen
uu correctly spelled.
14. u Sources are correctly cited.
15. u The title is appropriate.
16. u The essay is formatted according to your instructor’s
specifications.

W riting the E xhibition R eview

Audience and Purpose

Planning Your Exhibition Review Visiting the Gallery or Museum
Organizing Your Material
Finding a Thesis
Outlining Your Exhibition Review
Drafting Your Exhibition Review Drafting the Introduction
Drafting the Body
Drafting the Conclusion
Titling Your Exhibition Review
A Student’s Exhibition Review
Revision and Editing Checklist
for Your Exhibition Review

An exhibition review is an evaluation of an art show at a gallery or museum.

One might write a review of a one-time exhibition of an artist’s (or several
artists’) work, or a visiting exhibition, which will be shown for only a short
time before being dismantled and moved to another location. It is also pos-
sible to write a review of a permanent collection within a museum, using
many of the same guidelines. Keep in mind that the correct word for an art
show is exhibition, not exhibit. This chapter will guide you through the pro-
cess of writing an exhibition review.

Audience and Pur pose

The person who writes an exhibition review is referred to as an art

critic. As an art critic, you have the job of reviewing an exhibition for a

75
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
C HAPT ER 4 ■ Writ ing th e Exhibi tion Revie w
76

reading audience whose members probably fall into one of two categories:
(1) they are considering whether or not to attend the exhibition, or (2) they
are unable to attend the exhibition and are counting on the intelligent
writing of the critic to bring the essence and some of the details of the
exhibition to them.
The critic’s first obligation is to evaluate the merit of an exhibition.
Because unsupported judgments are not acceptable in art criticism, you must
prove that your assessment is a valid one by supplying specific evidence. For
example, critic Malcolm Jones wrote the following paragraph in a review of
an exhibition of Walker Evans’s photographs:

No matter how iconic Evans’s images have become, their disturbing power
remains undiminished. The portrait of Allie Mae Burroughs [Figure 4.1], a
sharecropper’s wife, is one of the last century’s most unnerving works of
art—and one of its most complicated. This is even more remarkable because
it is one of the quietest, simplest-looking pictures imaginable. Evans keeps his
angle as straight on as a passport photo, using available light that barely casts
a shadow. The illusion is that the camera isn’t there. But that was his genius:
to take a picture with so few prompts that the viewer stares a little harder.
Then you begin to notice the worry lines in her forehead, the way she bites her
lower lip, the severity of her countenance. You sense something trapped about
this woman, but also something resolute. Staring straight into the camera, she
almost dares you to stare back. Your curiosity aroused, you want to see deeper,
but at the same time, you feel uneasy, as though you’ve trespassed on some-
one’s privacy.1

To say, as Malcolm Jones does, that an artist’s work has “disturbing

power” is a strong claim that requires support. Jones immediately
p rovides a specific example, the photograph of Allie Mae Burroughs
[Figure 4.1]. He then supplies the details of the camera angle and the
use of light to reveal even finer points: the worry lines in her f orehead
and the way she bites her lower lip. By providing examples and concrete
details, you will support your judgments and validate your o pinions,
as Jones does.
A second obligation of the art critic is to entertain the reader. Exhibition
reviews are written in an energetic style, often employing humor and figura-
tive language. The style of writing in an exhibition review is less academic
than most other types of writing about art, written with the reader of a news-
paper or popular magazine in mind.
A final point to keep in mind in writing art reviews is the importance
of honesty. View the exhibition with an open and analytical mind before
arriving at an opinion. Have appropriate expectations. Do not be swayed
by whether or not your opinion will be popular. Not everyone will agree
with you, but if your opinion is carefully considered and supported, your
endeavor in art criticism will be successful.

Figure 4.1. Walker Evans, Allie Mae Burroughs, Alabama Tenant Farmer Wife, 1936.
Photograph, 8¼ × 5¾ in. (20.9 × 14.4 cm). Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

Pl a nning Your Ex hibi tion R evie w

Writing an exhibition review begins with a visit to a gallery or museum,

availing yourself of the materials provided to help you appreciate the art-
works, taking notes, and organizing your notes.

Visiting the Gallery or Museum

Your review will be written after you have visited an exhibition at a gallery
or museum. Not every student has the opportunity to view a blockbuster
art exhibition in a major museum in order to write the art review. However,
most cities, towns, colleges, and universities have smaller galleries with local
or visiting shows that provide ample opportunities for practicing the craft of
review writing.
You will discover that there are several types of written materials
to assist your viewing experience at the exhibition. In a small show, par-
ticularly a solo show of one artist’s work, a pamphlet or card describ-
ing the artist’s technique and style, and including an artist’s statement,
is often on hand. A larger exhibition usually has a brochure available.

Generally, the brochure gives information about the artists’ backgrounds, the
style or “ism” in which they are or were working, some historical informa-
tion about the times in which the works were done, and possibly some men-
tion of other major artists who are or were working at the same time or in the
same style. In addition, most significant exhibitions have larger catalogues
available for purchase. These scholarly catalogues, printed in book form, ex-
pand on the information included in the brochure and provide reproductions
of the works in the exhibition. Many museums furnish study areas within the
exhibition to facilitate your examination of the catalogue during your visit.
Also, as you move through the exhibition, read the valuable information that
is sometimes posted on the walls or displayed on panels throughout.
Nowadays, larger exhibitions often have audio programs available. They
are relatively inexpensive to rent and are well worth it. Audio programs allow
you to listen to information about selected works as many times as you desire.
While moving through the exhibition, take your time. Look at each work
carefully and read the accompanying text. When you reach the end, return to
the beginning and revisit selected works on which you would like to focus in
your review. Take thorough notes. Write in pencil, or use an electronic device,
because many museums do not allow note-taking in pen. If the information
is not included in a brochure or catalogue, write down the specifics about
the works you wish to discuss, including the title, artist, date, dimensions,
medium, and any other helpful information provided on the museum label.
Note the name of the show’s curator.
Above all, note your own responses while you confront the works. Your
review will do more than describe the exhibition; it will deliver your opinion
of it. As soon as you leave the museum, record any additional thoughts or
observations you have about the exhibition.

Organizing Your Material

The second step in writing the review is to organize your notes into criteria
for evaluation. You might use index cards, as advised in Chapter 2. If you
did not glean ample information at the exhibition, additional research might
be required. Make decisions about which criteria you will use for evaluation.
Although by no means exhaustive, the following is a list of the more com-
mon criteria evaluated in reviews:
• exhibition’s theme
• artist’s style or “ism”
• artist’s personal style
• artist’s influences
• subject matter
• formal elements
• principles of design
• medium
• message
• effectiveness of display.

Finding a Thesis
Your thesis, in an exhibition review, is a statement of your evaluation of the
exhibition as a whole. The thesis is often placed in the introduction of a
review. It should contain words that let your reader know whether your
evaluation is positive, negative, or mixed. Following are thesis statements
from exhibition reviews.

Positive Review
“The exhibition is entirely given over to wonder and it is all the
more wonderful for it.”2
—Laura Cumming, The Observer, Review of “Bronze”
Royal Academy, London, 2012

Negative Review
“Normal critical words of dismissal such as ‘leaden,’ ‘pretentious,’
‘crass,’ ‘empty,’ do not do justice to [Damien] Hirst’s still-life
paintings. All are applicable but none really captures the
magnitude of failure we are talking about.”3
—Jonathan Jones, The Guardian, Review of “Two Weeks One Summer”
White Cube Gallery, Bermondsey, London, 2012

Mixed Review
“‘Inventing Abstraction’ is so forcefully, lucidly, and
ersuasively wrongheaded that it achieves its own kind of
p
intellectual glory, instantly recognizable as the latest in a great
Museum of Modern Art tradition of shows that make arguments
that practically beg to be contradicted.”4
—Jed Perl, New Republic, Review of “Inventing Abstraction”
Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2013

Some critics prefer to use a working thesis in the early drafts of their exhibi-
tion reviews. A working thesis is a plain statement of evaluation—something
like, “The exhibition was good for the most part, but there were a few prob-
lems.” Later, it will become an elegant, creatively written statement that will
blend into your introduction.

Outlining Your Exhibition Review

When your notes are organized, you might create an outline of your ex-
hibition review. An outline will save time in the long run because it will
help you stay on task and also serve as a constant, written reminder of
your plan.

Template for Outlining for Your Exhibition Review

I. Introduction
A. Lead-in
B. Thesis:
II. Body (The number of criteria will vary.)
A. Criterion #1:
B. Criterion #2:
C. Criterion #3:
D. Criterion #4:
E. Criterion #5:
III. Conclusion

Dr a ft ing Your E xhibi tion R eview

The first draft of an exhibition review will undergo several revisions before it
is ready for final submission.

Drafting the Introduction

The introduction of the review is particularly important because it deter-
mines whether the reader’s attention is caught sufficiently to compel further
reading. The introduction is often a good place to include specific informa-
tion about the exhibition, such as its title, location, and dates.
There are many ways to write an introduction, not all of which can be
covered here. Therefore, what follows is advice on writing an introduction
that is versatile enough to be applied to nearly any art review. Your intro-
duction should:
• use specific names, times, and places
• be logically organized
• develop a controlling idea
• contain a thesis that expresses an opinion about the exhibition as
a whole.
Three of the preceding criteria are easy enough to understand, but the
term controlling idea may bear explanation. To be organized and developed,
introductions need a controlling idea—an idea that controls the selection of
material for the introduction. If you are sure what the controlling idea of
your introduction is, you know what sentences belong in the introduction
and what sentences do not belong in it. For example, if the controlling idea of
your introduction is to explain the political conditions under which the artist
worked, sentences about the artist’s medium probably do not belong in the

introduction. Knowing your controlling idea prevents the introduction from

becoming a series of disconnected ideas.
There are dozens, perhaps hundreds, of controlling ideas for exhibition
review introductions. Following are six examples, each labeled according to
its controlling idea. You will notice that some of these introductions comprise
more than one paragraph. Multi-paragraph introductions are especially com-
mon in newspaper reviews, as newspapers tend to present short paragraphs
for the sake of readability.

Why the Exhibition Is Important How does the exhibition help us see
art from a fresh perspective? The following introduction to a review of an
exhibition of Leonardo da Vinci’s paintings answers that question.
An exhibition that assembles, as far as is possible, all the painting by a great
artist during the most substantial and crucial period of his career is an extraor-
dinary event. However, Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan at the
National Gallery, London (to 5th February), achieves much more than this. Most
importantly it comprehensively affirms the centrality of painting to Leonardo’s
identity, setting out what he himself was to term in his will “l’arte sua et indu-
stria de pictori”—“his art and the endeavor of painters.” This is salutary, since
the painter is often lost by defining him widely as a free-ranging natural phi-
losopher or narrowly as a draughtsman, when in fact both these aspects spring
from painting.5

Unfulfilled Expectations Perhaps you had good reason to think you

would not like an exhibition, but you did! Or maybe you had the opposite
experience. In the following introduction to a review of a Jasper Johns
exhibition, the author expresses his disappointment that his expectations
were not fulfilled.
Despite my effervescing anticipation, Jasper Johns’s “New Sculpture and Works
on Paper” inspired but a cool response. This owed, no doubt, to the academicism
that has crept into Johns’s work over several decades now—that is, if we think
of academicism as the preservation of the model, the paradigm case, rather than
its overthrow. But let me quickly add that even the most conservative of Johns’s
works still overshadows the larger field of players.6

The Comparison Perhaps the introduction to your essay could develop a

comparison. Following is the introduction to a review of an exhibition titled
“Made in L.A. 2012.”
Have you seen “The Californians,” the Saturday Night Live sketch in which
Fred Armisen, Kristen Wiig, and Co. play bleached, surf-drawling dimwits
whose soap-operatic interactions always lead to discussions about the best
way through the traffic-clogged thoroughfares of Los Angeles? The acerbic
parody makes Portlandia seem like a swooning love letter, but of course, as
someone with his own deeply held opinions about how (not) to drive from
Westwood to Hollywood to Culver City, I’m biased. At first glance, the
regional purview of “Made in L.A. 2012”—on view this past summer at the

Hammer Museum and LAXART as well as the Los Angeles Municipal Art
Gallery at Barnsdall Art Park—might easily have suggested collective SoCal
navel-gazing comparable to the scene at the end of each of the SNL skits, when
the characters come together to stare into a mirror in a surrealistic act of group
narcissism.7

Changing Critical Opinions It often happens in the art world that

critical opinions of an artist’s work change over time. Such is the case for Roy
Lichtenstein, as the following introduction to a review demonstrates.
When Roy Lichtenstein first painted his comic-book hunks and lovelorn beauties
in the early Sixties, they didn’t have the glamour they now have. The American
artist was at first called a New Vulgarian; his Mad Men-era subjects were at-
tacked as contemptible gum-chewers, bobby-soxers and delinquents.
When the Lichtenstein retrospective—the first since his death in 1997—opens
next week at Tate Modern, few visitors are likely to share those early critics’
views. The girls in their pearl necklaces and Breakfast at Tiffany’s little black
dresses breathe the enchantments of a more elegant era than our own.
The hunks in their black polo necks and fighter-pilot uniforms are anything
but delinquent. They are dignified and unemotional and say little, except for
their heroic dogfight one-liners: “This hotshot jet outfit I’m in will treat me like
a vet pilot when I return from my No. 1 wingding with a report of . . . target
destroyed.”8

The Question One way to pique your reader’s interest is to ask a question,
as in the following introduction to a review of an exhibition of Ice Age art at
the British Museum.
“Ice Age Art” refers to figurative art made in Europe and Central Asia between
40,000 and 12,000 years ago. So, when British Museum curator Jill Cook describes
the amazing material on show as “deep-history art,” she really means it. How
many exhibitions have you been to that can claim to show the oldest known figu-
rative art? Have you ever read an exhibition label that described an object as the
“oldest known portrait of a woman” or the “oldest known ceramic figure”?9

The Quotation You might develop your introduction by discussing a

quotation. The following introduction to a review uses a quotation from
Édouard Manet to launch a discussion of Manet’s works on exhibit at the
Royal Academy.
Édouard Manet said to his friend Antonin Proust: “Museums have always driven
me to despair. I’m deeply depressed when I go in and see how wretched the
pictures look. There are visitors and guardians all milling around. The portraits
just don’t come alive. And yet some of them . . . those by Velázquez, Goya, Hals . . .
they really knew what they were doing.”
One recognizes the feeling. But one also recognizes his point about the paint-
ers who “really knew what they were doing.” Across the crowded room trav-
els the eye and locks on to the works of such masters. I remember exactly this
happening when, as a boy, I visited the National Gallery for the first time, and
noticed The Execution of Maximilian —by Manet.10

Drafting the Body

Which aspects of the exhibition have you found most striking? For which
aspects have you compiled the most notes? Answers to these questions will
determine the subject matter of your body paragraphs. Remember as you
write that each body paragraph should have four characteristics: unity, de-
velopment, organization, and coherence. The following are examples of body
paragraphs from published exhibition reviews, each labeled according to its
subject matter. Bear in mind that paragraphs in newspaper articles tend to be
short for the sake of readability; paragraphs in magazine articles and college
essays are usually longer.

Exhibition’s Theme What did all the artworks in the exhibition have
in common? In other words, what was the theme of the exhibition? The
following excerpt from a review explains the theme of an exhibition of Dutch
paintings.
This is the first exhibition to focus on the rich imagery of Dutch festivity, and
festivity is exactly the opposite of daily life. It occupies a special, separate time
when the regulations that order normal behaviour are put aside, when misrule
becomes the rule. Most often this joyous inversion involves a specific occasion,
either a public one based on the church calendar (kermis, Shrove Tuesday, St.
Nicholas day) or a transition in life such as birth or marriage. Festivities may be
arranged by select groups of men such as rhetoricians or civic guardsmen, who
liked to have themselves portrayed as bonded by a shared moment of celebra-
tion. In the pictorial world of the Golden Age, festive behaviour was also linked
to certain types: to rather wealthy young people or to carefree villagers. Peasants
rarely labour in Dutch art, but they always seem to be partying.11

Style or “Ism” of the Exhibited Works A body paragraph might explain

the period style of the artworks on display. The following paragraph explains
the short-lived English art movement now called Vorticism.
Lined up neatly in the first gallery, the sepia-soaked portraits of Vorticism’s lead-
ing lights––Wyndham Lewis in a suit, Edward Wadsworth in a bow tie––hardly
betray their subjects’ defiance of post-Edwardian propriety. Only Ezra Pound in
a broad-collared cloak––bearing some Napoléon III stubble, a shock of unkempt
hair, and the glazed expression of a poet—looks the part of bad boy. Of course,
Vorticism’s erratic boys’ club was not only male, and [the exhibition] goes a
long way in underscoring the contributions of female artists to its efforts. Yet
the aggressive, machinist affinities of its most infamous works remind us that
virility was the glue that most often bound the movement’s disparate compo-
nents. Launched as an Anglo-American venture in London between 1913 and
1914, Vorticism flourished under the direction of Pound and Lewis until 1918, by
which time World War I had dispersed its energy and claimed some of its notable
practitioners. Owing to the peaks of the movement’s achievement—characterized
by a hard-edge figuration derived from Cubism and Futurism—its members
constituted Britain’s first true avant-garde, who used the mechanized energies of
the war to propel England out of its genteel introversion.12

Artist’s Personal Style Most artists are not only working in a period
style, but also in a personal style. Such is the case for Gillian Wearing, a
videographer whose art is explained in the following paragraph.
Long before Facebook, Gillian Wearing was pulling apart the conflicted, medi-
ated relationship between our real selves and those we present to the world.
Whether photographing strangers on the street holding signs that state what
they’re thinking (“Signs that say what you want them to say and not Signs that
say what someone else wants you to say,” 1992–93), or documenting herself
dancing wildly in a public place (Dancing in Peckham, 1994), or filming adults as
they lip-synch to recordings of children speaking (10-16, 1997), she mixes and
matches the elements of identity—those elements that we assume compose our-
selves, our most private selves—and makes them public in ways that confound
personhood rather than cement it.13

Artist’s Influences The following review excerpt explains the influences

on the surrealist photographer Man Ray.
It is 100 years this month since the International Exhibition of Modern Art—
aka the notorious Armory Show—opened in New York. Containing canvases
by Cézanne, Van Gogh and Picasso, it attracted the ire of the American press,
who derided the avant-garde work on view as highfalutin and abstruse. At
the eye of the storm was Marcel Duchamp’s masterwork Nude Descending
a Staircase, No 2 (1912), which one journalist mocked as “an explosion in a
shingle factory.”
Some visitors, though, were stimulated rather than shocked, including a
22-year-old artist called Emmanuel Radnitzky, the eldest child of a Ukrainian im-
migrant. For several months already, Emmanuel had been signing his paintings
“Man Ray.” After initiating a lifelong friendship with Duchamp, who arrived
in New York in the summer of 1915, Man Ray went on to become a prominent
member of Dada and Surrealism.14

Medium Contemporary artists have expanded the definition of medium

until it has no boundaries. A recent trend is to use found and recycled
materials. African artist El Anatsui has received widespread acclaim for his
creation of shimmering metal cloths, as explained in the following excerpt
from a review of his works at the Brooklyn Museum.
The starting point is generously sized patches of the wirelinked metal bands,
assembled by a group of assistants, in various colors (often subtly varied by the
printing and patterning on the aluminum), and in various configurations—flat
and folded, twisted into rings, angled, and so on. . . . No explication is needed
for us to enjoy these engaging works, but once we know the story, they gain
in significance. The colored aluminum bands come from liquor bottles, intro-
duced to Africa by colonial powers, hardly to the benefit of society and, as
waste, hardly to the benefit of the continent’s ecology. Yet here, again, we are
presented with a triumphant transubstantiation by means of collective labor
and a directing intelligence, from polluting detritus into lavish, poetic, deeply
moving works of art.15

Message No exhibition review can be complete without some description

of the artwork, and often those descriptions are enhanced by the art critic’s
interpretation of the artwork’s message. Following is a paragraph from a
review of an exhibition of works of Yoko Ono.
Messages consisted of banners carrying phrases such as “War is Over” on the
stone wall outside the museum building, visible through binoculars that were
trained on them from inside the museum. But the setup evoked a shooting range
or even a firing squad, as if the spectators were meant to take aim with their eyes
and the slogans were the victims to be executed. The uncompromising evocation
of cruelty and the ambiguous connotations of the weathered posters with soiled
letters powerfully communicated Ono’s thought that the world has not improved
since she and John Lennon first put out the message that “War is over” in 1969,
but that we still have to sustain hope.16

Formal Elements A review from African Arts examines the use of sound
and space in an installation exhibition called “Thirty Minutes.” The theme of
the exhibition, installed at the Robben Island Museum in Cape Town, South
Africa, arose from the fact that visits with inmates at Robben Island Prison
were limited to thirty minutes.
[Lionel] Davis’s installation most directly captures the demands of the space; as a
former inmate, he experienced the thirty minutes first hand. His Untitled records
repressed words, distilled expression, and the intrusions of neighboring sounds
and monitored language that bore upon the prisoner and visitor. At the center
of the cubicle, a black face on a rope-bound pedestal wears a white plaster mask
without a mouth. As Davis describes it, the ensemble reflects his experience of
pretending that conditions were bearable so visitors would not worry. The ten-
sion of that performance was heightened by the sounds that engulfed him, given
presence here in the graffiti-scrawled walls surrounding the head. Fellow prison-
ers shouted to be heard; multiple languages competed, each monitored by a
warden who restricted the topics of conversation. The interaction of components
in this piece jars the viewer, leaving sorrow over the presence of too many words
unspoken amid so many said.17

Principles of Design The following excerpt, taken from a review of Ice

Age art on display at the British Museum, describes one particular object in
terms of its shape, balance, and rhythm.
Take for example the tiny ceramic figure [Figure 4.2] of an obese woman with
pendulous breasts, wide hips and a roll of fat around her middle which was
made of baked clay between 31,000 and 22,000 years ago. Whoever created it
made decisions that can have had no other purpose than to enhance its beauty or
add to its aesthetic perfection.
We will never know whether it was made as a fetish or talisman or as a
representation of a supernatural being. What we do know is what we can see: that
the head is as perfect an oval as anything by Brancusi, that the stylized shoulders
and breasts are symmetrically balanced and that the line of body fat below the
navel is shaped to “rhyme” with the inverted arc of the shoulder blades.18

Figure 4.2. Stylized female figurine, the so-called Vestonice Venus. Palaeolithic c.
38,000 BCE. From Dolni Vestonice. Clay, 4½ in. (11.5 cm) high. Moravske Museum,
Brno, Czech Republic.

Exhibition Display How is the exhibition as a whole displayed? How

are the individual pieces displayed? These questions might not enter the
consciousness of the museum visitor, but our enjoyment of the exhibition
can be greatly affected by this component. Who is the curator? Numerous
factors, such as the following, go into the decisions made by the curator in
charge of organizing the show:
• what color to paint the walls
• which pieces to place in which rooms
• what kind of lighting to use
• whether to separate the works of different artists or to mingle one art-
ist’s works with another’s
• whether to separate or mingle different mediums, subject matters,
time periods, and themes
• how much space to give each work.
In the following example, the critic questions the curator’s wisdom in
displaying the works of Francis Bacon and Henry Moore side-by-side.
But where exhibition pairings are concerned, side-by-side actually means head-
to-head. What may have been conceived, curatorially, as two artists in conversa-
tion always ends up as two artists in competition. And in such a scenario, I could
only really foresee one winner: bruiser Bacon. . . .

For me, Moore’s insipidity is only enforced by seeing his sedentary bronze
King and Queen (inspired by a hieratic Egyptian sculpture in the British Museum)
beside Bacon’s own seated, authority figure, Portrait of Pope Innocent X. The royal
couple seem inert compared to Bacon’s pontiff, a phantom of extemporised brush-
strokes who seems to be disintegrating before our very eyes, as if his throne were
an electric chair.
The show’s insurmountable problem remains the baggage and bias one brings
to it. I surely won’t be the only visitor harbouring a preference for one artist over
the other.19

In each of the preceding examples of body paragraphs, the critic expresses an

attitude about the artistic element under discussion, either overtly or by tone.
Just as judgment without the support of descriptive details will not suffice,
neither will description without the expression of judgment.

Drafting the Conclusion

The conclusion is of utmost importance in a review. It is your last opportu-
nity to convince your reader that your judgment of the exhibition is a worthy
one, so save some arresting comments for the conclusion.
When it comes to writing conclusions, like introductions, there are
innumerable possibilities. Since this book cannot possibly cover them all,
hopefully it contains enough suggestions to prompt ideas of your own for
developing a conclusion. Your conclusion should:
• use concrete imagery
• offer more than mere repetition of the points already discussed
• develop a controlling idea
• give the reader a sense of closure.
As in introductions, the concept of the controlling idea is quite important.
Without a controlling idea, conclusions can become a hodgepodge of unre-
lated statements, and it would be a shame to attach such a conclusion to an
otherwise scintillating review. Because controlling ideas can be a challenge
to conceive, following are several examples of conclusions, each labeled with
its controlling idea.

Recommendation One possibility for development of a conclusion is to

persuade the reader to attend (or not attend) an exhibition. In the following
excerpt, the critic makes a case that two blockbuster exhibitions are worth
attending, even though they will be crowded.
In recent years there has been a certain amount of snobbery about the notion of
blockbuster exhibitions such as these. Critics have argued that the crowds they
attract undermine their appeal; that there is no purpose in queuing to see a paint-
ing that you could see in peace in the context of its own gallery.

But this misses the point. The Hopper [exhibition in Paris] was heaving with
people; the Manet [exhibition in London] will be, too (though British galleries are
better than the French at avoiding bottlenecks of viewers). But both were full of
paintings that it would have taken me simply years to see if I had tried to track
them down. The Hoppers are gathered from across America, from Chicago to
Nebraska, from Philadelphia to Ohio. The Manets are also on loan from around
the world, from Toledo to New York, from Munich to São Paulo, from Paris to
Texas. Many are hidden in private collections.
Yet once on the gallery wall, brought together by the eye and judgment of a
curator, the paintings begin to talk to each other. They allow you to understand
and appreciate things that you would never have spotted had you come across
each work in isolation. And that is definitely worth putting up with a bit of push-
ing and bustle for.20

Assessment of the Artist’s Work Perhaps the intrinsic value of an

artist’s work is not certain, so a critic may take a stand on the issue, arguing
that an artist’s work is, or is not, worthy of respect. Or the critic may posit a
mixed assessment, saying the artist’s work is worthy in some ways but not in
others. The conclusion to a review of an exhibition of the works of surrealist
photographer Man Ray offers such a mixed assessment.
Man Ray taught us that it’s okay to be just minor. He knew he didn’t have a
chance of achieving much in an age that was far greater than he was, an age so
great that artists are still living in the shadows of its legacy. How can one ever
hope to compete with the amazing achievements of modernism? Like so many
contemporary artists, Man Ray got around that problem by forsaking any interest
in genuine innovation for the slight but sure rewards of cleverness. This repre-
sents a triumph of sorts, but a triumph of attitude rather than of imagination, and
one wishes his admirers would stop confusing the two.21

What to Look For In keeping with one of the critic’s responsibilities, you
might advise readers of particular artworks not to miss, or of particular ways
to view the art. The critic quoted in the following excerpt advises viewers of
works not to miss at a Manet exhibition.
Given there will be plenty of “visitors and guardians all milling around” at the
Royal Academy, what are the best of Manet’s distillations on display if you get
too tired trying to look at all of them? Study his four portraits of the painter
Berthe Morisot, who was married to Manet’s brother Eugene. Here you will
see public elegance—Manet had a great gift for beauty as expressed through
clothes—private grief, with his almost savage picture of Morisot in mourning,
and also, in a picture where Morisot is dressed for winter, a more fleeting quality,
almost as if she is walking down the street.
Look at the portraits of his friends Mallarmé and Zola (and use the catalogue
to decode all the references in the latter, which are more about Manet than about
his writer friend). Study Mme. Manet in the conservatory, and at the piano. Stop
at the charming, rarely seen little picture of her son Leon (who may have been
Manet’s son), cycling jauntily towards us on his velocipede. Spend a bit less time
on what the show calls the “status portraits” (but note that Manet seems not to

know quite how to paint horses). And make sure you look at everything in the
room called “Models.”
There are four self-portraits in the show. Two of them are unannounced in
their titles. It is part of your quest for Manet to try to find them for yourself.22

Praise for the Curator Behind every great art exhibition is a

knowledgeable and hard-working curator. Your conclusion may be the place
to acknowledge this person’s diligence and expertise, as in the following
conclusion to a review.
And finally, the person responsible for this unforgettable show is Maryanne
Stevens, who is also the editor of the first-rate catalogue and author of two of
its best sections. For more than 30 years she has organised scores of pioneering
exhibitions at the Royal Academy, and in doing so has helped more people to
appreciate and understand the history of art than any other single person in this
country. Now that was worth doing.23

Highlight of the Show Perhaps one particular artwork is a must-see

at the exhibition. Following is the conclusion to a review of an exhibition
of Dutch paintings at the Fitzwilliam Museum in London. The review ends
with a discussion of Vermeer’s The Lacemaker [Figure 4.3], which, this critic
says, “steals the show.”
Yet it’s undoubtedly Vermeer who steals the show, particularly with 1670’s The
Lacemaker [Figure 4.3]—on loan from the Louvre and showing in the UK for the
very first time. The subject is impenetrable, utterly absorbed in her task: she
bends her head right into it, totally unaware of our presence.
Vermeer’s main focus is on the young woman’s hands, which catch most of
the light and ply her bobbin lace with extreme delicacy. For Vermeer this is where
the action is, and the things beyond it—the plait in her hair, the colored threads
spilling off the sewing cushion beside her—are left slightly out of focus.
The artist shows an intuitive understanding here of how the human eye actu-
ally sees things: a matter of detail and blur (or macular and peripheral vision, as I
think the ophthalmologists call it).
The lady’s diligence, in short, matches Vermeer’s diligence. By today’s stan-
dards, she’s no busty Dutch bombshell, and her activity is, by its very nature,
repetitive and undramatic.
Yet, through Vermeer’s unrivalled talent for conjuring the idealised and natu-
ralistic at once, you just can’t take your eyes off her.24

Exhibition’s Theme Your review may have begun with a discussion of

its theme, or you may decide to conclude your review by explaining the
underlying message, or emphasis, of the exhibition. In the following excerpt,
the critic discusses the curator’s decision to focus less on Leonardo da Vinci’s
genius and more on his humanness.
Which brings us back to [curator Luke] Syson’s emphasis on the word “human.”
Leonardo always aimed high, it’s true, but he repeatedly took on tasks that were
just too sizeable for him, too sizeable for any man, tasks he left tantalizingly

Figure 4.3. Johannes Vermeer, The Lacemaker, 1669-70. Oil on canvas, 95⁄8 × 8¼ in.
(24.5 × 21 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris, France.

incomplete. As one of his exasperated later patrons, Pope Leo X, exclaimed:

“Crikey, he’ll never complete anything, for he’s always thinking of the end of a
work before the beginning.” His failures, his incompletions, his time-wasting are
a reminder that—for all the flirtings with the divine—Leonardo was human, after
all. Someone, in short, we can all relate to.
He tried to discover an inner unity shared by everything in the universe, and
failed. He tried to grasp an overarching system in nature, an order, a grand plan,
and failed too.
The National exhibition quite rightly, though, will be about admiring his
successes, not empathizing with his failures. It’s a chance to celebrate a questing
imagination that turned to every discipline known to man. And even if he never
did find the key to existence, who’s to say the failure wasn’t God’s rather than
Leonardo’s?25

Quotation Perhaps you overheard someone at the exhibition say

something memorable, or maybe in researching the artist you came across
a particularly astute comment from another artist. You might build your
conclusion around that quotation, as the writer of the following conclusion
has done in his assessment of Carl Andre’s sculptures.
Whether or not Andre’s art offers some kind of lament, there is no question about
its influence. Richard Serra is open about his debt to Andre: “He changed the his-
tory of sculpture.” Moreover, repercussions of Andre’s idea that sculpture could

be a “place,” such as a zone marked out beneath your feet, as much as a thing,
are still being felt today.
There is nothing new or revelatory about this exhibition, but it should excite
anyone being introduced to his work for the first time, and persuade doubters
that Andre isn’t a fraud.26

Point Back to the Introduction One way to bring a sense of closure

to the reader—the feeling that one has come full circle and is back at the
beginning—is to finish an anecdote begun in the introduction, or invoke a
phrase used in the introduction. The following example demonstrates the
technique. In the introduction, the writer describes an encounter with Eugène
Delacroix’s works at the Louvre in Paris in 1963. In the conclusion, having
reviewed a 1991 exhibition of Delacroix’s works at New York’s Metropolitan
Museum of Art, the writer compares her 1963 experience with her 1991
experience.
Introduction
In 1963, traveling as students used to during the summer vacation, I found
myself in Paris in time for the large exhibition organized by the Louvre to com-
memorate the centennial of the death of Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863). I am
sorry to report that this can be described only as a Significant Waste. As an art
history major, I dutifully visited the show, but I simply wasn’t up to it. I was too
young, too ignorant, too uninformed to deal with all that Romantic intensity. . . .
And the intense color I expected from what I had read about Delacroix and from
his Journals simply wasn’t visible through the yellowed varnish of the large-
format pictures, in the Louvre’s mediocre lighting.27

Conclusion
Filtering the Louvre’s Delacroix holdings through a recent memory of the Met-
ropolitan’s show also made me wish more than ever that I could see that “lost”
exhibition of 1963 with my 1991 eyes. And it made me wish more than ever that
the Louvre’s paintings were cleanable. Of course, the bicentennial of Delacroix’s
birth is coming up in 1998 and that no longer seems as implausible a date as it
once did—say in 1963. Something to look forward to.28

Titling Your Exhibition Review

Some publications have conventions for titles, simply titling the review with
the name of the exhibition. For example, a review of an exhibition titled “Erot-
ic Art” might be titled “Erotic Art” or “Review: ‘Erotic Art.’” However, if you
have creative license in titling your essay, invent a title that both attracts the
reader’s attention and captures the essence of the review. New York Times art
critic John Canaday titled his review “This Way to the Big Erotic Art Show”—
capturing the essence of his attitude toward the show (he thought it was
overhyped) while attracting his readership’s interest.
You could use a familiar phrase for your title, as Peter Schjeldahl does in
a review of an exhibition of Netherlandish still-life paintings, cleverly titled
“Going Dutch.” You could capture your thesis in your title, as Jed Perl does
in “The MOMA’s ‘Inventing Abstraction’ Is Exhilarating, Challenging, and

Completely Wrong.” You could ask, or imply, a question, as Alastair Smart

does in “Why Leonardo Continues to Captivate Us,” or use alliteration, as
Adrian Searle does in “Edvard Munch: A Head for Horror.” You could amuse
your reader with a subtitle, as Jonathan Jones does in “Worst Ideas of 2012—
Damien Hirst Attempting Still Lifes: Why, Oh Why Didn’t He Stick to Spot
Paintings and Pickled Sharks?” A brief, pertinent quotation could work, or
you could use a well-turned phrase from your own prose.

A St uden t ’s Exh ibi t ion Revie w

The following exhibition review by student Karin Holzmann demonstrates

many desirable qualities:
• The review is written in a lively, energetic style.
• The review expresses an opinion of the exhibition and supports that
opinion with specific details and examples.
• Both the introduction and the conclusion are controlled by a singular
idea.
• The review is organized according to Karin’s criteria for evaluation.

A Journey through an Imaginary World

by Karin Holzmann

Everyone has heard the saying, “The best things in life are
free,” but we all know it’s not true. When I think of what is free,
samples of mouthwash and win-a-free-cruise scams come to
mind. Even a free weekend in a deluxe timeshare comes with a
high-pressure sales pitch. Surely any free art exhibition would
also be second rate compared to one you have to pay for. For-
tunately, Waking Dreams: Mythic Visions of Frank Sampson and
Caroline Douglas at the Boulder Public Library is an exception.
The combination of Frank Sampson’s paintings and Caroline
Douglas’s sculptures has created an extraordinary environ-
ment, one not to be missed.
Waking Dreams creates a fairyland, as if a magical forest has
been placed in the library, where around every corner is anoth-
er strange sight. Caroline Douglas’s sculptures surround the
room. These sculptures, large and small, are full of wonder and
imagination. Animals are a constant theme, as well as figurines
of women. Bright colors such as blue, green, yellow, and red
are used, as well as a clever use of wires and beads, which adds
character. Frank Sampson’s paintings follow the sculptures’

theme of wonder and magic, as animals are constantly por-

trayed as human: bears and foxes having parties, monkeys in-
viting elephants over for tea. Humans are not left out of the
picture, though. Oftentimes they are shown integrated with the
animals, as if it were natural to have a rabbit as a best friend.
Books from your childhood are resurrected, and you feel your-
self traveling backward to when you were five years old. Back
then, bears and rabbits did have tea together, and sailing away
in a ship to the moon or journeying beneath the sea to converse
with the fish was common practice.
The location of the exhibition works well to enhance the
theme of childhood imagination. Set up directly across Boulder
Creek from the children’s section of the library, it allows easy
access to children, and many of them have visited the exhibi-
tion since its opening. The sculptures and paintings are not set
too high from the floor to allow children to see. One boy, while
looking at one of Sampson’s paintings, exclaimed, “That looks
fun!” The painting was Watery Ride, which depicts a giant gold-
fish under the sea with a man and woman riding on its back.
The presence of children only enhances the feeling that you are
walking in a storybook.
Each artist’s medium enhances the lively feeling of the show.
Sampson uses mainly acrylic on canvas to create a smooth, clean
surface where colors blend easily. Individual strokes are not
visible. Sampson’s paintings are slightly blurry, which, com-
bined with muted tones, creates a dream state. One example is
Mountain Picnic, an impressive mountain scene where couples
are having picnics. One person is walking a bear on a leash, as
if it were a friendly dog. Sampson uses browns and purples in
the foreground, and greens and blues in the background. Even
though these are bright colors to begin with, he lowers their
intensity by adding a bit of gray to the mix, which compels the
viewer to try to find all of the people in the painting.
Caroline Douglas’s sculptures are made primarily of stone-
ware and earthenware, both clays, which she molds into three-
dimensional pieces so alive they look as if they might walk
right off of their displays. Douglas chooses bright, vivid reds,
greens, blues, and yellows, which are true to the imagination.
In The Three Graces, bluebirds sit on the arms and heads of three
women, each about two feet high. All of these women’s faces
are white, as if they were clowns or porcelain dolls, both of
which are present in children’s worlds. The bright bluebirds
seem friendly, since you can usually only see a bird’s bright
plumage if you are up close to it. Even though Douglas and
Sampson use very different colors in their art, both use the col-
ors well to create an environment of the imagination.

Humor is another element present in the exhibition that

a ppeals to both adults and children. In The Monkey’s Guest
Sampson paints a monkey sitting at a table with an elephant.
The awkward way that the elephant is situated at the table
creates a comedy of manners—the elephant trying so hard to
be polite in spite of being terribly uncomfortable. Likewise,
in Yoga for When You’re Feeling Small, Douglas has created a
human, standing on a mat, feet shoulder-width apart, hands
on hips, with an enormous elephant head. The humor implied
in this piece appears more geared for adults, since grownups—
not children—are more likely to do yoga. Douglas has another
sculpture that plays on words: The Mothership. In this sculp-
ture, Douglas shapes a woman’s torso and head, but places a
large boat on this woman’s shoulders. The boat is filled with a
wide range of animals, which makes it resemble Noah’s Ark.
The woman’s neck and head come up through the center of the
ship. Clearly these different aspects of humor are attempting to
remind adults of the fun of using our imaginations.

© Caroline Douglas. Courtesy of the artist. www.carolinedouglas.com

Figure 4.4. Caroline Douglas, Fish out of Water, 2008. Sculpture, salt-fired stoneware,
17 × 14 × 8 in. (43.2 × 35.6 × 20.3 cm) © Caroline Douglas. Courtesy of the artist.

As I walked away from the exhibition under a blue sky,

crossing a wooden bridge with Boulder Creek surging below,
I couldn’t help but think how perfectly this event ended my
spring afternoon. I felt as though I was taking pieces of the ex-
hibition with me. Surely, as I breathed in the scent of blooming
flowers by the path, I saw a bear and a fox having a picnic by
the stream! Waking Dreams still hasn’t left me; my imagination
is still sailing, and if anyone wants to join this crazy adventure,
please stop by the Boulder Public Library for an experience
beyond your wildest dreams.

Exercise 4-1
Read the essay titled “A Journey through an Imaginary World” by
Karin Holzmann and answer the following questions.
1. What is the thesis of the exhibition review?
2. What criteria does Karin use to evaluate the exhibition?
3. What is the controlling idea of the introduction?
4. What is the controlling idea of the conclusion?

R evision a nd E diting Chec klis t

for Your E xhib it ion Revie w

You have planned and drafted your exhibition review and, ideally, revised
it several times. Use the following checklist to be certain that your essay is
ready for submission. If you have questions about sentence structure, gram-
mar, punctuation, mechanics, and style, consult this textbook’s “Handbook.”
1. Your exhibition review
uu fulfills your assignment in terms of length and subject matter
uu is written in an energetic style, intended to entertain the reader.
2. The introduction of your review
uu uses specific names, times, and places
uu is organized
uu develops a controlling idea
uu contains a thesis that expresses an opinion about the exhibition as
a whole.

3. u The review is organized according to criteria for evaluation.

4. u Each criterion is not only described but also evaluated.
5. Each body paragraph is
uu unified
uu developed
uu organized
uu coherent.
6. Evidence presented in the body paragraphs is
uu accurate
uu relevant
uu specific
uu sufficient.
7. The conclusion
uu uses concrete imagery
uu offers more than mere repetition of the points already discussed
uu develops a controlling idea
uu gives the reader a sense of closure.
8. Sentences are
uu well constructed
uu correctly punctuated.
9. Words are
uu correctly chosen
uu correctly spelled.
10. u The title is appropriate.
11. u The review is formatted according to your instructor’s
specifications.

Notes
1. Malcolm Jones, “An American Eye,” Newsweek, January 31, 2000, 62.
2. Laura Cumming, “Bronze—Review,” Observer, September 22, 2012.
3. Jonathan Jones, “Worst Ideas of 2012—Damien Hirst Attempting Still Lifes,”
Guardian, December 28, 2012.
4. Jed Perl, “The MOMA’s ‘Inventing Abstraction’ Is Exhilarating, Challenging, and
Completely Wrong,” New Republic, January 19, 2013.
5. Charles Robertson, “Leonardo da Vinci,” Burlington Magazine, February 2012,
132.
6. Robert Pincus-Witten, “Jasper Johns,” Artforum, September 2011, 342.
7. Micheal Ned Holte, “Made in L.A. in 2012,” Artforum, October 2012, 259.
8. Harry Mount, “Classical Training That Made Roy Lichtenstein a Pop Genius,”
Telegraph, February 10, 2013.

9. Richard Dorment, “Ice Age Art, British Museum, Review,” Telegraph, February 4,
2013.
10. Charles Moore, “Beauty That Defies Modernity to Last Forever,” Telegraph,
January 28, 2013.
11. Elizabeth Alice Honig, “Celebrating the Golden Age,” Burlington Magazine,
March 2012, 216.
12. Ara H. Merjian, “The Vorticists: Rebel Artists in London and New York, 1914–
1918,” Artforum, May 2011, 278.
13. Emily Hall, “Gillian Wearing,” Artforum, September 2011, 346.
14. Alastair Sooke, “Man Ray Portraits, National Portrait Gallery, Review” Telegraph,
April 4, 2013.
15. Karen Wilkin, “El Anatsui at the Brooklyn Museum,” Hudson Review 66, no. 1
(2013): 211–12.
16. Midori Matsui, “Yoko Ono,” Artforum, December 2011, 275.
17. Shannen Hill, “Thirty Nine Minutes: Installations by Nine Artists,” African Arts
(Summer 1999): 76.
18. Richard Dorment, “Ice Age Art, British Museum, Review,” Telegraph, February 4,
2013.
19. Alastair Smart, “Francis Bacon/Henry Moore,” Telegraph, September 13, 2013.
20. Sarah Crompton, “Manet Exhibition: Art Worth Queuing For,” Telegraph, January
26, 2013.
21. Deborah Solomon, “The Resurrection of Man Ray,” New Criterion 7 (March
1989): 28.
22. Charles Moore, “Beauty That Defies Modernity to Last Forever,” Telegraph,
January 28, 2013.
23. Richard Dorment, “Manet: Portraying Life, Royal Academy, Review,” Telegraph,
January 21, 2013.
24. Alastair Smart, “Vermeer’s Women at Fitzwilliam Museum, Seven Magazine
Review,” Seven Magazine, November 24, 2011.
25. Alastair Smart, “Why Leonardo Continues to Captivate Us,” Telegraph, November
7, 2011.
26. Alastair Sooke, “Carl Andre: Mass & Matter, Turner Contemporary, Margate,
Review,” Telegraph, January 28, 2013.
27. Karen Wilkin, “Delacroix at the Met,” New Criterion 9 (June 1991): 23.
28. Ibid., 29.

W riting A rguments

Planning Your Argument Choosing a Topic

Finding a Thesis
Anticipating the Counterarguments
Asking the Proof Questions
Designing the Points of Proof
Thinking Through Your Argument
Outlining Your Argument
Drafting Your Argument Drafting the Introduction
Drafting the Body
Drafting the Conclusion
Titling Your Argument
A Student’s Argument
Revision and Editing Checklist
for Your Argument

The essential difference between analysis and argument is that an argument en-
gages in refutation, whereas an analysis does not. The arguer disagrees with a
particular opinion, interpretation, or movement in art. The arguer’s job, then, is
not only to defend his or her opinion but also to refute someone else’s opinion.

Planning Your Argument

As with any writing endeavor, careful planning saves time and frustration, and
it yields superior results. Following are steps in planning an argument about art.

Choosing a Topic
For your argument, choose a topic that is controversial. Your professor, text-
book, and class discussions may alert you to some existing debates in the art

98
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
P l a n n i n g Your Argument
99

world, but be aware that new issues in art are constantly arising. Be on the
lookout for such topics as you read newspapers, magazines, journals, and
sources on the Internet.
You must also find an opinion against which to argue, one held by someone
who is both rational and educated. Arguing against a weaker opinion com-
promises the strength of your own. Your professor may suggest an opinion to
refute, or you may need to find credible opponents on your own through re-
search. You might consult Chapter 6 of this book, “Writing Research Papers,”
for advice on finding essays on art, particularly opinionated ones.
Avoid topics that are predicated on personal taste—for example, “Michel-
angelo was a better artist than Leonardo.” Also avoid topics that are predi-
cated on personal belief—for example, “Any art that offends God should be
censored.” It will be difficult, if not impossible, to convince a skeptical reader
of the validity of such opinions by means of verifiable facts.
In debate, arguments are based on propositions—statements that may
be either defended or refuted. You might defend or refute any of the fol-
lowing propositions, or you might use them as models to create your own
propositions.

• Damien Hirst’s The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone

Living (the tiger shark preserved in formaldehyde) is not art.
• The Turner Prize deserves praise, not ridicule, for its recognition of
conceptual art.
• Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain made a point, but not an artistic one.
• I. M. Pei’s glass entrance pyramid to the Louvre should be removed.
• Willem De Kooning’s paintings of women are expressions of
misogyny.
• Taxpayers’ money should not be used to fund art.
• Taxpayers’ money should not be used to fund sexually explicit art
exhibitions.
• Taxpayers’ money should not be used to fund sacrilegious art
exhibitions.
• Video games are a valid art medium.
• Art should be an educational priority in public schools, on a par with
math and science.
• Art can’t be functional.
• Tattoos are a legitimate art form.
• Canova’s Three Graces is pornographic.
• Andy Warhol was right when he said, “Art is whatever you can get
away with.”
• Government officials who interfere with freedom of expression in art
exhibitions such as Dread Scott’s What Is the Proper Way to Display a
U.S. Flag? should be held liable for resulting financial damages.
• Art in public places, such as Richard Serra’s Tilted Arc, should be
placed wherever the artist feels is appropriate to the artwork, without
regard for public opinion or convenience.

• Criticisms of Lei Yixin’s Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial are
the products of nationalism.
• The Guerilla Girls’ billboard Do Women Have to Be Naked to Get into the
Met. Museum? represented a simplistic opinion.
• Americans should boycott the Crystal Bridges Museum in Arkansas,
built by Alice Walton, heiress to the Walmart fortune, while Walmart
employees subsist on below-poverty wages.

Finding a Thesis
The thesis of an argument is a statement of opinion. It either states or refutes
the proposition. Ideally, your thesis will have the following characteristics:
• It is one complete, unified statement about the issue in contention.
• It is precise enough to limit the material.
• It is general enough to need support.
• It is defensible by means of verifiable facts.
• It respectfully refutes the counterthesis.
• It makes a statement with which a rational, educated person could
disagree.
• It is not a statement of personal taste.
• It is not a statement that is predicated on personal belief.

Exercise 5-1
Use the preceding guidelines to determine which of the following
thesis statements would be workable for an argument essay about art.
1. The Body Worlds exhibition is educational.
2. The Body Worlds exhibition challenges preconceived notions
about what can be defined as art.
3. People who don’t like the Body Worlds exhibition are simply
narrow-minded.
4. The government should withhold funding from the Contempo-
rary Art Museum until it agrees not to exhibit Body Worlds.
5. The Body Worlds exhibition offends many people’s religious
beliefs.

Anticipating the Counterarguments

Counterarguments represent the opposing view. You will need to know
the counterarguments so that you can refute them. Counterarguments

are composed of a counterthesis (the opposition’s thesis) and counter-

points (the opposition’s points of proof). There should be at least two
counterpoints, and your own argument should contain refutations of
each counterpoint.

Asking the Proof Questions

In an argument there are two proof questions:
1. Why don’t you think each counterpoint is valid?
2. What other reasons support your thesis?

Designing the Points of Proof

Answer the first proof question, and you have refutations. Refutations
are always necessary in an argument; it is unlikely that you will persuade
a skeptical audience if you have not explained why the counterpoints are
unconvincing.
There are essentially four ways to refute a counterpoint:
1. Show that the counterpoint is not true.
2. Show that the evidence presented for the counterpoint is insufficient.
3. Show that the evidence presented for the counterpoint does not logi-
cally support it.
4. Show that the counterpoint is irrelevant.
Answer the second proof question, and you have constructive arguments.
Constructive arguments may not be necessary; some arguments are won on
refutation alone.

Thinking Through Your Argument

Following is a summary of the process for planning an argument essay.
Topic: Choose a controversial subject for debate.
Thesis: State the proposition.
Counterarguments: State the counterthesis and counterpoints.
Proof Questions: Ask:
1. Why don’t you think each counterpoint is valid?
2. What other reasons support your thesis?
Points of Proof: Answer the proof questions.

Template for Thinking Through Your Argument Essay

Topic:
Thesis:
Counterthesis:
Counterpoints: (There should be at least two.)
1.
2.
3.
Proof Questions:
1. Why don’t you think each counterpoint is valid?
2. What other reasons support your thesis?
Points of Proof:
Refutations—Answers to the first proof question: (There should be
one for each counterpoint.)
1.
2.
3.
Constructive Arguments—Answers to the second proof question:
1.
2.

Outlining Your Argument

When you are satisfied that you have a suitable topic, counterarguments,
an argumentative thesis, and points of proof that will support your thesis
convincingly, you might create an outline of your argument. An outline will
save time in the long run because it will help you stay on task and also serve
as a constant written reminder of your plan. Notice that the items in an argu-
ment essay outline are not in the same order in which they appeared in the
“thinking through” process.

Template for Outlining Your Argument Essay

I. Introduction
A. Background information and statement of the issue in contention:

B. Counterthesis:
C. Counterpoints: (There should be at least two.)
1.

2.
3.
D. Thesis:
E. List of Points of Proof
Refutations: (There should be one for every counterpoint.)
1.
2.
3.
Constructive Arguments (optional):
4.
5.
II. Body (The number of points of proof will vary.)
A. Point of Proof #1:
B. Point of Proof #2:
C. Point of Proof #3:
D. Point of Proof #4:
E. Point of Proof #5:
III. Conclusion

Exercise 5-2
Read the essay by Liana Van de Water on page 107 titled “Unpopular
Opinions in a Free Society” and create an outline of it, using the preced-
ing template for guidance.

Drafting Your Argument

Now that you have a solid plan for your argument, it is time to begin writ-
ing. Many writers find it beneficial to push through the first draft from
beginning to end without dwelling too long on details, grammar, spell-
ing, and punctuation. The idea is to have a full draft on paper (or on your
computer screen), and then revise and edit until the essay is polished to
perfection.

Drafting the Introduction

The introduction of your argument will probably contain the following:
• a statement of the issue in contention
• the counterthesis and counterpoints
• your thesis
• your points of proof.

You might compare your introduction to a lawyer’s opening arguments. The

idea is to tell the jury what points will be raised by each side during the trial.
Save the development of each point for the body of the essay.
The counterthesis and counterpoints should be clearly attributed
to others. If you can name a specific person or group who holds this
opposing view, all the better. State the counterarguments respectfully, in
terms that the opposition would approve. Trying to undermine the oppo-
sition’s arguments with invective or sarcasm only undermines your own
credibility.
Speak for yourself when stating your own thesis and points of proof.
These statements belong to you and should not be attributed to anyone
else.
Use transitional expressions such as first, second, and finally to mark
the counterpoints and your own points of proof. Also use a transition
such as however to introduce your thesis and to signal the reader that you
are about to shift perspective from the counterarguments to your own
arguments.
The counterarguments and your thesis and points of proof should be
stated in no more than one sentence each so that the introduction does not
become too long. However, if the introduction, despite your best efforts at
conciseness, seems unwieldy, you could break it into two parts, just before
the thesis.

Drafting the Body

The body paragraphs of your argument ideally will be organized in accor-
dance with your list of points of proof. In other words, if you have listed
reasons 1, 2, and 3 in your introduction, the body of your essay will develop
reasons 1, 2, and 3—in that order.
Not every point of proof must be fully developed in one paragraph. For
some points of proof, the evidence is too plentiful to fit into one paragraph.
Use as many paragraphs as you need to develop your point, but do be sure
to head each paragraph with a topic sentence—a sentence that summarizes
the paragraph.
Every paragraph for an argument essay should contain the qualities of
unity, development, organization, and coherence. The evidence in every
body paragraph should be accurate, specific, relevant, and sufficient. See
Chapter 2 for a full discussion of these qualities.
A body paragraph that develops a refutation typically begins with a state-
ment of the counterpoint. Sometimes a brief explanation of the counterpoint
is necessary. State the counterpoint in fair and unbiased terms to exhibit un-
derstanding of the opposition’s point. Attribute the counterpoint to some-
one else—this is what the opposition is saying, not what you are saying.
Next comes a transition word or phrase to let your reader know that you
are about to contradict the opposition’s point. Then come your refutation

statement and the evidence for it. It is not necessary to give equal time and
space to the counterpoint. The bulk of this section of the essay will support
your refutation statement. Use the following template to organize each of
your refutations.

Template for Organizing a Refutation Paragraph

Counterpoint:
Evidence for the counterpoint (if necessary):
1.
2.
Refutation statement:
Evidence for the refutation statement: (The number of pieces of evidence
will vary.)
1.
2.
3.
4.

A body paragraph that develops a constructive argument typically begins

with a statement of the point of proof followed by evidence. Use the follow-
ing template to organize each of your constructive arguments.

Template for Organizing a Constructive

Argument Paragraph

Constructive argument:
Evidence for the constructive argument: (The number of pieces of evi-
dence will vary.)
1.
2.
3.
4.

If your essay uses sources, be certain to cite them correctly. You will likely be
expected to use either the MLA (Modern Language Association) system or the
CMS (Chicago Manual of Style) system for documenting sources. Both docu-
mentation systems are explained in Chapter 6, “Writing Research Papers.”

Exercise 5-3
Read the third paragraph of the essay by Liana Van de Water on
page 107 titled “Unpopular Opinions in a Free Society.”
1. Underline the counterpoint.
2. Highlight in yellow the evidence for the counterpoint.
3. Circle the word that signals a transition from counterpoint to
refutation.
4. Double underline the refutation statement.
5. Highlight in pink the evidence for the refutation statement.
6. State which of the four ways for refuting a counterpoint Liana
has employed in this paragraph.

Drafting the Conclusion

The conclusion of your argument must do more than simply repeat your
thesis and points of proof. A conclusion should develop an idea that illus-
trates the thesis in a way that the body of the essay has not done. Consider
the following possibilities:
• Develop an analogy; for example, compare the opposition’s argument
to another clearly flawed argument.
• Create a picture of society where artists must live under the opposi-
tion’s rules.
• Create a picture of society where artists live under the rules you
advocate.
• Discuss the broader implications, as Liana Van de Water does in her
essay “Unpopular Opinions in a Free Society.”

Titling Your Argument

Your argument essay needs a title that will capture the reader’s attention
and convey the subject of the argument. Your title might ask a question, such
as Steve Worthington’s “Am I an Art Bigot If I Don’t Like Most 20th Cen-
tury Art?” Your title might indicate your thesis, as in film critic Roger Ebert’s
“Video Games Can Never Be Art” or Robert J. Lewis’s “The Heterosexual
Dictatorship versus Robert Mapplethorpe.” Your title might use a play on
words or alliteration, like Jonathan Jones’s “Sticking It Out with the Stuck-
ists.” Think of your title as one more strategy for persuading your reader to
appreciate your opinions about art.

A Stud ent’s A rgument

The following argument essay by student Liana Van de Water demonstrates

principles of effective argument writing in several ways:
• The introduction states the issue, counterarguments, thesis, and points
of proof.
• The introduction is broken into two paragraphs for readability.
• The essay articulates the counterarguments in respectful terms, with-
out bias or invective.
• The essay refutes each counterpoint.
• In the body paragraphs, each counterpoint is stated before it is
refuted.
• The conclusion develops an idea, rather than merely repeating the
thesis and points of proof.

Unpopular Opinions in a Free Society

b y L i a n a Va n d e Wat e r

Blue Wall of Violence [Figure 5.1], an art installation by Dread

Scott, has caused much controversy since its presentation
in February 2008 at the Museum of Contemporary African
Diasporan Art (MoCADA) in Brooklyn, New York. The con-
troversy surrounds the work’s bold exposure of police bru-
tality. The installation displays six shooting-range targets,
each with a protruding hand holding a household object
the police have mistaken for a weapon, such as house keys,
a candy bar, and a squeegee. Each target is labeled with a
date when police shot an unarmed New Yorker. In front of
the targets is a coffin with three mechanized police batons
that smack its top every ten seconds. The show quickly drew
criticism. The police union called for the city and state to de-
fund the museum because of this work. They argued that the
artwork is an inaccurate portrayal of the New York police
force. Furthermore, they claimed that the artwork slanders
their reputation. Finally, they said, it is a misuse of tax dol-
lars, which also fund the police, to generate hatred toward
police officers.
Although it is not surprising that the police union would
react personally to Blue Wall of Violence, they have no cred-
ible argument against Dread Scott for creating it nor against

the museum for displaying it. The installation is an accurate

portrayal of the New York police force. It does not slan-
der police officers because slander is by definition untrue.
Furthermore, the museum is only fulfilling its duty to the
public and the art world by using tax dollars to support cre-
ative freedom.
Scott’s artwork has been criticized as an inaccurate repre-
sentation of New York’s police department. The exhibition
was vilified in the New York Daily News as a “cop bashing
art exhibit at a taxpayer-funded museum in Brooklyn [that]
portrays the city’s Finest as trigger-happy racists who have
put bull’s-eyes on the backs of black New Yorkers” (Seder-
strom). Admittedly, Blue Wall of Violence does present a nega-
tive view of the police, focusing on cases of brutality and
mistaken killings. Yet Dread Scott’s art brings awareness to
a very real issue. This is why he uses real objects like those
belonging to innocent victims and the real dates of their
tragedies. For example, Amadou Diallo was shot forty-one
times while holding his wallet on February 4, 1999. Nicho-
las Hayward, Jr., a thirteen-year-old, was killed holding a
brightly colored oversized water pistol. These are facts, not
inaccuracies.
Likewise, the Police Department’s argument that they are
being slandered is unconvincing. “Does police brutality not
exist? Is that what the police union is saying by protesting
the whole exhibition?” Pia Wilson asks in her online blog, Pia
Quarterly. “Are people never supposed to comment on the vio-
lence committed by some police officers? Notice I said ‘some’
and not ‘all.’ Artists are supposed to speak for the people who
can’t speak for themselves.”
Much of the argument against the exhibition focuses on
the fact that taxes shouldn’t be funding a negative view of
another tax-funded organization. However, taxes are not
being used to fund propaganda, but rather to fund a muse-
um. The tax dollars given to the museum did not specifical-
ly fund Scott’s show, but went towards supporting the en-
tire museum and all the works within. In an article for the
online news magazine Alternet, Dread Scott addresses the
injustice of defunding museums that exhibit politically con-
troversial art: “[T]he police response has done nothing but
affirm the themes in the show. What kind of society do you
have when cops not only have unrestrained power to shoot
unarmed people but then demand that artists and muse-
ums that shine the light on these crimes be punished?” Fur-
thermore, it is hypocritical for the police union to demand
that MoCADA be defunded. “They say they don’t like the
fact that government money funded this exhibit, but no one

seems to be talking about the fact that government money

also funded these instances of police brutality,” said an
interviewee in The Brooklyn Paper (qtd. in Muessig).
One of art’s purposes is to present issues in provocative
ways. If we banned every piece of art that negatively por-
trays a group or raises controversy, we would have consid-
erably fewer works by Goya, David, or Picasso. Blue Wall of
Violence is just the tip of the iceberg. It is an example of how
we can be robbed of our right to free speech as Americans
by the very system that is appointed to protect them. “These
works are against police brutality and murder,” said Scott
in an interview. “What should be controversial are these
killings, not this artwork” (qtd. in Muessig).

Works Cited
Muessig, Ben. “Cops: Art Show Is ‘Brutal’ to Us.” The Brooklyn
Paper. The Brooklyn Paper, 8 Mar. 2008. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
Scott, Dread. “Outrage and Controversy at NY Museum Depicting
Police Brutality.” Alternet, 28 Mar. 2008. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
Sederstrom, Jotham. “Museum Exhibit in Brooklyn on Police
Shootings Draws Fire from Police Union.” [New York] Daily
News. Daily News, 29 Feb. 2008. Web. 9 Nov. 2009.
Wilson, Pia. “Dread Scott: Welcome to America.” Pia Quarterly,
11 Mar. 2008. Web. 10 Nov. 2009.

Figure 5.1. Dread Scott, Blue Wall of Violence, 1999. Installation, 8 × 16 × 4 feet
(243.8 × 487.9 × 121.9 cm). © Dread Scott. Courtesy of the artist.

R evision an d Editing C hec klist

for Your Argument

You have planned and drafted your argument and, ideally, revised it several
times. Use the following checklist to be certain that your argument essay is
ready for submission. If you have questions about sentence structure, gram-
mar, punctuation, mechanics, and style, consult this textbook’s “Handbook.”
1. Your argument
uu fulfills your assignment in terms of length and subject matter
uu addresses a controversial topic about which rational, educated
people disagree.
2. The introduction of your essay contains
uu a statement of the issue
uu a counterthesis
uu a list of the counterpoints
uu a thesis
uu a list of your points of proof.
3. u If any of the above-listed elements are missing, there is a good
reason.
4. The thesis
uu is one complete, unified statement about the issue in contention
uu is precise enough to limit the material
uu is general enough to need support
uu is defensible by means of verifiable facts
uu respectfully refutes the counterthesis
uu makes a statement with which a rational, educated person could
disagree
uu is not a statement of personal taste
uu is not predicated on personal belief.
5. u Each counterpoint is refuted in the essay.
6. Body paragraphs are
uu unified
uu developed
uu organized
uu coherent.

7. Evidence presented in the body of the argument is

uu accurate
uu specific
uu relevant
uu sufficient.
8. u Sources, if used, are correctly cited.
9. The conclusion
uu develops an idea
uu does not merely repeat the thesis and points of proof.
10. Sentences are
uu well constructed
uu correctly punctuated.
11. Words are
uu correctly chosen
uu correctly spelled.
12. u The title is appropriate.
13. u The essay is formatted according to your instructor’s
specifications.

W riting R esearch P apers

Planning Your Research Paper Choosing a Topic

Researching the Topic
Taking Notes
Outlining Your Research Paper
Drafting Your Research Paper Using Sources
Citing Sources
Two Student Research Papers
Revision and Editing Checklist
for Your Research Paper

The term research paper refers generally to several types of papers that
use sources. Term paper may be the more specific term for a paper that is
required to fulfill the requirements of an undergraduate course. Thesis is a
term for a paper required in graduate school. A dissertation is a book-length
paper written in pursuance of a doctoral degree.
A research paper is different from an essay in that it makes more conscious
use of sources. The research paper’s purpose is to contribute to the existing
dialogue on art. Many papers published in journals such as The Art Bulletin
are research papers. Characteristically, the writers of these papers refer to
each other’s comments and observations as they pursue a particular idea
about art, thus expanding and extending the public discussion. In writing
the research paper, you will capitalize on ideas contained in previously pub-
lished papers to advance your own ideas. You might use your sources in
several ways: as corroboration of your own ideas, as a springboard for your
own ideas, or as an opinion against which to argue.
This chapter contains guidance in planning, drafting, revising, and edit-
ing research papers. It also contains information on quoting, paraphrasing,

112
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
P l a n n i n g Your Research Pa per
113

and summarizing sources, as well as avoiding plagiarism. The chapter

teaches two types of documentation systems: the MLA (Modern Language
Association) system, often used in the humanities, and the CMS (Chicago
Manual of Style) system, often used in art history.

Planning Your R esearch Pa per

As with any writing project, sufficient time spent planning saves time and
frustration, and yields superior results.

Choosing a Topic
Before you decide on a topic for your research paper, be sure you under-
stand your assignment. A major consideration is the mode of discourse you
are expected to use. Will your research paper be descriptive, analytical, or
argumentative? The organizational pattern of your paper will be determined
by its mode of discourse. Also, your thesis statement will reflect your paper’s
main point as well as your mode of discourse. For example:
Descriptive Thesis: Chris Ofili’s painting titled The Holy Virgin Mary
precipitated intense controversy about First
Amendment protections of artistic expression.
Analytical Thesis: Chris Ofili’s choice of media in The Holy Virgin
Mary reflects reverence for the survival of African
culture.
Argumentative Thesis: Chris Ofili’s amateurish painting titled The Holy
Virgin Mary does not merit exhibition in any
taxpayer-supported museum.
In the preceding examples, the descriptive thesis promises an impartial
paper, one that describes the issue without taking sides. The analytical the-
sis promises a paper that will support the author’s own idea about the
issue. The argumentative thesis promises a paper that will take a posi-
tion on the issue, both advancing the author’s own idea and refuting the
opposing view.
Your professor may have a specific design in mind for your paper that
combines the modes of discourse. For example, you may be assigned to
describe an artist’s life and influences, and then to interpret that artist’s
work, and finally to take a position in a debate about the art.
After you have settled generally on a topic, you will probably find that it
needs narrowing. The analytical thesis above, for example, does not prom-
ise a paper on every aspect of Chris Ofili’s The Holy Virgin Mary, but more
narrowly about the media used in the artwork’s creation.

Researching the Topic

After you have chosen and narrowed your topic, you will collect as many
books and articles on your topic as time and practicality will allow. Your
library is likely to be your best resource for both print and electronic
materials.

Searching the Library With so much information available online, it

may seem archaic to visit a library in person. However, physical presence in
a library often yields unexpected rewards. For example, you may be looking
for one particular book on a library shelf and discover several others nearby
that provide information you hadn’t thought of seeking. When visiting a
library, remember these two rules of library research:
1. When in doubt, ask a librarian.
2. Allot more time than you think you need.

Finding Books To find books, use the library’s computerized catalogue.

First, you will probably search by keyword. On the “Search” screen, type
a word that will be contained in the title or the description of the book.
For example, if you were writing a paper on classical Greek sculpture, you
would type “Greek sculpture” as your keyword. The computer would then
generate a list of books on that topic. When you decide you want to obtain
one of the books from the generated list, note the book’s call number and
use it to find the book on your library’s shelves. If there are too many
results, you can limit your search by use of another keyword, such as
“classical.” A search at the library of the University of Colorado yielded
a list of sixty-two books using the keyword phrase “Greek sculpture.”
The list was reduced to twelve when the search was limited by use of the
additional keyword “classical.”

Finding Periodical Articles Periodicals are magazines, journals, and

newspapers, so called because they are issued periodically. Magazines
and newspapers are written for general audiences; journals are written
for specialized audiences. To find articles in periodicals, use the library’s
electronic databases. Each database contains thousands of abstracts of
articles that tell the author, title of the article, title of the periodical, and
publication date, among other items. Many databases feature links to the full
text of the article.
Your library pays a subscription fee for these databases, and through them
you have access to many more reliable, substantive, peer-reviewed articles
than an Internet search is likely to yield. To gain access to these databases,
you will need to log in to your library account and begin your search there.
Many libraries offer remote access so that you can search for articles without
being physically present in the library.

Following is a list of databases that may prove useful in your electronic

search for articles on your topic:
• Academic Search Premier: A multi-disciplinary database indexing over
8,000 publications, with full text for a majority of those titles.
• Art Full Text: An index of journal articles in a wide range of fields
encompassing art, design, and architecture. Many articles in the
database are available in full text.
• Bibliography of the History of Art (Getty Archive): Indexes and abstracts
of articles, art-related books, conference proceedings, dissertations,
and art exhibition and dealer’s catalogues that cover the range of art
history from late antiquity to contemporary. Indexing coverage ended
in 2007; for continuing coverage see the International Bibliography of Art.
• International Bibliography of Art: Indexes and abstracts of articles,
art-related books, conference proceedings, dissertations, and art exhibition
and dealer’s catalogues since 2007. Some articles are available in full text.
• Jstor: Full-text online access to selected scholarly journals in history,
economics, political science, demography, mathematics, and other
fields of the humanities and social sciences.
• Oxford Art Online: Online encyclopedia for all aspects of the visual
arts worldwide from prehistory to the present day. Includes the Grove
Dictionary of Art, which contains encyclopedia entries on artists, styles,
periods, and techniques.
If you want an article that is not available in full text online, you may be able
to find it in print on your library’s shelves. Note the name of the journal,
author, title of the article, and page number provided by the abstract. Then
find the journal, magazine, or newspaper that published the article. If your
library does not hold that particular periodical, it may be available through a
library loan program. Again, if you need help, ask a librarian.

Searching the Internet The Internet is another possible source of

information on your topic, but you should realize that the results of an Internet
search are often unsatisfactory. One reason is that articles retrieved from the
Internet often have not gone through the filtering processes of editing, peer
review, and library selection. Still, some sources are more credible and useful
than others. An organization’s website name carries a suffix that reveals the
organization’s purpose.
• The suffix .edu in the website address indicates that the source is from
an educational institution.
• The suffix .org denotes a nonprofit organization, which may have a bias.
• The suffix .com denotes commerce; this site’s purpose may be to sell
something.
Wikipedia is a popular online source of information, and it can be a good place
to begin informing yourself about the topic. It is not, however, generally
regarded as a deep or scholarly source.

Taking Notes
As you read your sources, use index cards to record information that is
pertinent to your research paper. While some methods, such as copying and
pasting important passages into your research paper, are quicker, taking
notes in a slower, more painstaking fashion has advantages:
1. You learn the material more thoroughly, understand it more deeply,
and use it more wisely.
2. You are less likely to commit an accidental act of plagiarism.
3. You are more likely to remember where you found the information.
Following are a sample content note card, a sample bibliography card for an
article, and a sample bibliography card for a book. Create a stack of blank
cards like these and fill in the information as you find worthy sources.

Content Note
[A fact, paraphrase, summary, or quotation goes here.]

Source:
Page number (if available):
Chapter or section heading (if available for electronic sources):
Point of proof that this fact will support:

Record only one piece of information on a content note card. The cards are
then easily shuffled and rearranged until they reflect the order in which you
want each piece of information to appear. When your facts are thus organized,
all you have to do is supply the author’s voice for the research paper: Introduce
the material and tell why it is important and how it relates to other material.

Bibliographic Information for an Article

Author(s):
Title:
Periodical, anthology, or reference book:
Date of publication:
Volume/Issue:
Page numbers:
Electronic database or URL:
Date retrieved:

Bibliographic Information for a Book

Author(s):
Editor(s):
Translator(s):
Title:
Publisher:
City of publication:
Date of publication:

Outlining Your Research Paper

If your research paper will be descriptive or analytical, use the process
for thinking through your essay described in Chapter 3 for guidance in
formulating a thesis and points of proof. Use the template in Chapter 3 for
assistance in outlining your material.
If your paper will be argumentative, use the process for thinking through your
essay described in Chapter 5 for guidance in formulating a thesis and points of
proof. Use the template in Chapter 5 for assistance in outlining your material.

Draf ting Your R esearch Pa per

Having researched your topic, taken notes, and planned and outlined your
paper, you are ready to begin writing. If your paper is descriptive or analyti-
cal, follow the instructions for drafting your essay in Chapter 3. If your paper
is argumentative, follow the instructions for drafting your essay in Chapter
5. In addition to the advice given in those chapters, following are points that
apply specifically to writing research papers:
• Incorporate the words of other authors who have written on the same
or related topics, avoiding plagiarism.
• Synthesize sources of information to create a unique view of the topic.
• Give credit for borrowed words and ideas to their originators.
• Use your sources to corroborate your ideas, not to speak for you.
• Assume the voice of authority. You have read extensively and have
assimilated a wealth of information on your topic. You are qualified to
postulate a unique point of view.

Using Sources
The qualifying characteristic of a research paper is its use of sources. The
following sections offer instruction in paraphrasing, summarizing, and
quoting sources without plagiarizing.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPT ER 6 ■ Wri ting R esearch Pap ers
118

Plagiarism To plagiarize is to present someone else’s words or ideas as

your own. Plagiarism is not only a serious breach of ethics but also a crime.
The most flagrant act of plagiarism is to submit an entire essay or research
paper written by someone else as having been written by you. Many acts
of plagiarism, however, are less flagrant and more the result of having
committed one or more of the following mistakes:
• copying the passage word-for-word without using quotation marks
• merely substituting synonyms for the passage’s original words
• merely rearranging the sentence structure.
Any act of plagiarism is unacceptable, whether it is intentional or
unintentional.

Paraphrasing Sources Much of your research paper will contain

information gleaned from sources and then paraphrased. To paraphrase is to
relate a source’s ideas accurately, using your own words and style and giving
your source credit in your text for those ideas.
Consider the following examples. First is a passage copied from an article
written by Julie Van Camp in the Journal of Aesthetic Education.1

Original Passage from Source

The First Amendment protects only speech against which Congress has
passed a law abridging it. Suppressions of speech are not violations
of the First Amendment unless the State is doing the suppressing. The
“State” could be either the Federal government or (now) a State govern-
ment. Many mistakenly think that any suppression of speech, including
suppression by private citizens, violates the First Amendment. What if a
record company decides to drop a certain recording artist from its roster
or a U.S. Senator makes a speech in which he says he personally wishes
that Hollywood would stop making X-rated movies? Such a private
action may be objectionable for ethical or social reasons, but it does not
present a constitutional issue.

Plagiarized Paraphrase
Only speech against which Congress has passed a law abridging it is
protected by the First Amendment. Suppressions of speech aren’t in
violation of the First Amendment unless the government is doing the
suppressing. That could be either the federal government or the state
government. Some people mistakenly think that any suppression of
speech, including that by private citizens, violates the First Amendment.
But if a record company drops a recording artist or a U.S. Senator makes
a speech saying he or she wishes that Hollywood would stop making
X-rated movies, those are not constitutional issues.

1 Julie Van Camp, “Freedom of Expression at the National Endowment for the Arts: An Opportunity

for Interdisciplinary Education,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 30, no. 3 (1996): 44.

In the preceding paragraph, the writer has made some word substitutions
and rearranged some sentences, but the paraphrase is plagiarized. It matches
the original too closely. Even worse, the writer has presented Van Camp’s
idea as his own.
In the following, legitimate paraphrase, the idea of the original passage
is accurately conveyed, in the writer’s own words and style. Also, the para-
phrase begins with an acknowledgment phrase that identifies the author of
the original passage. Finally, the paragraph ends with an MLA-style page
number that tells the reader on which page of Van Camp’s article the pas-
sage can be found. A works-cited list would give the title of the article and
journal. If the paraphrase were documented CMS-style, there would be a
superscripted number at the end of the passage and a corresponding foot-
note or endnote.

Legitimate Paraphrase
According to lawyer and philosopher Julie Van Camp, only the federal
or state government can violate the First Amendment. Private citizens
who try to suppress speech are not in violation of the First Amendment.
For example, record companies have a right to decide which artists they
will employ. And Congressional Representatives can express personal
wishes for the elimination of X-rated movies. We can disagree with
private citizens’ decisions and opinions, but they haven’t done anything
unconstitutional (43).

Summarizing Sources Summarizing is much like paraphrasing: The

summarizer is obligated to relate the source’s ideas accurately, in his or her own
words and style, and to give the source credit in the text. However, whereas a
paraphrase retains most of the original passage’s details, a summary conveys
only the main ideas. Consider the following two summaries of the original
passage from Julie Van Camp’s article.
Plagiarized Summary: Suppressions of speech are not in violation of the
First Amendment unless it is the State that is doing
the suppressing.
Legitimate Summary: According to lawyer and philosopher Julie Van
Camp, private citizens cannot violate the First
Amendment; only the government can do that (43).

Quoting Sources To quote a source is to repeat the source’s words exactly

and to set them in quotation marks. Some writers make the mistake of over-
quoting their sources. You should quote only in certain circumstances:
• when the source’s phrasing is so apt, so well written, that you could
not possibly say it better yourself; or
• when it is important that the reader see the source’s original words.

If quoting is warranted, you should weave the quotation into your paper, not in-
sert it abruptly. Each quotation should be accompanied by an acknowledgment
phrase that tells:
• who is being quoted
• the source’s credentials
• the relevance of the quotation.
Consider the following examples.
Unacknowledged Quotation: Incorrect
There is a difference between private citizens suppressing speech and
the government doing it: “What if a record company decides to drop a
certain recording artist from its roster or a U.S. Senator makes a speech
in which he says he personally wishes that Hollywood would stop
making X-rated movies? Such a private action may be objectionable for
ethical or social reasons, but it does not present a constitutional issue”
(Van Camp 43).

The preceding quotation names Van Camp in parentheses at the end of

the sentence; however, this is not acceptable. The person who is being quoted
should be named in the text, as in the following example.
Acknowledged Quotation: Correct
Lawyer and philosopher Julie Van Camp explains the difference
between government and private citizens’ suppressions of speech:
“What if a record company decides to drop a certain recording artist
from its roster or a U.S. Senator makes a speech in which he says he
personally wishes that Hollywood would stop making X-rated movies?
Such a private action may be objectionable for ethical or social reasons,
but it does not present a constitutional issue” (43).

The first time you name a source, you should give both first and last names
as well as that person’s credentials as an authority on the subject. After that,
you may simply refer to this person by last name.

Citing Sources
You should cite your source for:
• quotations
• facts not widely available
• paraphrased or summarized ideas of others.
There are several guides for citing sources, but the ones currently in favor
for arts and humanities papers are the MLA (Modern Language Association)
system and the CMS (Chicago Manual of Style) system, both of which are
modeled in the following sections of this chapter. Other possibilities include
the Turabian style guide and The Art Bulletin style guide, both of which are
variations on the CMS style guide, and for which guidelines are available on
the Internet. A good online guide is at the OWL at Purdue website.

MLA (Modern Language Association) The MLA (Modern Language

Association) system uses in-text parenthetical notes plus a list of works
cited. The following condensed instructions may be comprehensive enough
for your research paper on art, but if they are not, refer to the latest edition of
the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers.

The Works-Cited List A sample works-cited list is at the end of the research
paper titled “An Art Class a Day Keeps Unemployment Away” by Louisa
Ferrer, on page 138. The works-cited list is an alphabetical list of the sources
cited in the paper. As you study the works-cited list, notice the following:

• The works-cited list is double-spaced.

• The works-cited list uses a hanging indent. The first line of each
entry is at the left margin; subsequent lines of the entry are indented a
half-inch.
• Titles of books, periodicals, films, television series, and artworks are
italicized.
• Titles of articles in periodicals are set in quotation marks.
• City names are not accompanied by state names unless a city is
obscure or multiple states contain a city with that name.
• Names of publishers are shortened to one word when possible.
• Omit the word The at the beginning of names of journals, magazines,
and newspapers.
• UP means University Press.
• Disregard the words A, An, and The when alphabetizing works cited;
use the second word for alphabetical placement.
• Dates are European style: day month year.
• The months except for May, June, and July are abbreviated.
• When two or more works by the same author are listed, use three
hyphens, followed by a period, in place of the name of the author in
every entry after the first by that author.
• URLs (uniform resource locators) are not included in a works-cited entry.
• Each entry contains the source’s medium, such as Print, Web, or CD.

Models for Works-Cited List Entries

Print Books
1. A Book with One Author
Okediji, Moyo. Western Frontiers of African Art. Rochester: U of Rochester
P, 2011. Print.
2. A Book with Two or Three Authors
Hudson, Suzanne, and Nancy Noonan. The Art of Writing about Art. 2nd
ed. Boston: Cengage, 2015. Print.
Kerchache, Jacques, Jean-Louis Paudrat, and Lucien Stéphan. Art of
Africa. New York: Abrams, 1993. Print.

3. Two or More Works by the Same Author

Lippard, Lucy R. Get the Message?: A Decade of Art for Social Change.
New York: Dutton, 1984. Print.

---. On the Beaten Track: Tourism, Art, and Place. New York: New Press,
1999. Print.
4. A Book with a Corporate or Group Author
Courtauld Institute of Art. The Conway Library. Surrey, Eng.: Emmett,
1987. Print.
5. A Book with a Translator
Dube, Wolf-Dieter. Expressionists and Expressionism. Trans. James
Emmons. New York: Skira, 1983. Print.
6. A Book with an Editor instead of an Author
Dorontchenkov, Ilia, ed. Russian and Soviet Views of Modern Western Art:
1890s to Mid-1930s. Trans. Charles Rougle. Berkeley: U of California
P, 2009. Print.
7. A Book in a Later Edition
Tansey, Richard G., and Fred S. Kleiner. Gardner’s Art through the Ages.
10th ed. Fort Worth: Harcourt, 1996. Print.
8. A Book in a Series
Herbert, Janis. Leonardo da Vinci for Kids: His Life and Ideas, 21 Activities.
Chicago: Chicago Review, 1998. For Kids Series. Print.
9. A Multivolume Book
• If you are using two or more volumes of a multivolume book:
Grabar, Oleg. Constructing the Study of Islamic Art. 4 vols. Aldershot,
Eng.: Ashgate, 2005–06. Print.
• If you are using only one volume of a multivolume book:
Grabar, Oleg. Constructing the Study of Islamic Art. Vol. 3. Aldershot,
Eng.: Ashgate, 2005–06. Print.
• If you are using only one volume of a multivolume book that
has its own title:
Grabar, Oleg. Islamic Visual Culture, 1100 to 1800. Aldershot, Eng.:
Ashgate, 2006. Print.
10. A Selection from an Anthology
Calvino, Italo. “The Birds of Paolo Uccello.” Writers on Artists. Ed.
Daniel Halpern. San Francisco: North Point, 1988. 3–4. Print.
11. An Article in an Encyclopedia or Other Reference Book
John, Richard. “Goût Grec.” The Dictionary of Art. Vol. 13. Ed. Jane
Turner. London: Macmillan, 1996. Print.

12. An Introduction, Preface, Foreword, or Afterword

Pavord, Anna. Introduction. Flower Power: The Meaning of Flowers in Art.
Ed. Andrew Moore and Christopher Garibaldi. London: Wilson,
2003. 11–15. Print.
13. A Pamphlet
Whitney Museum of American Art. Nam June Paik: Whitney Museum of
American Art, April 30–June 27, 1982. New York: Whitney Museum
of American Art, 1982. Print.

Print Periodicals
1. An Article in a Magazine
Schjeldahl, Peter. “Going Pop: Warhol and His Influence.” New Yorker 24
Sept. 2012: 94–95. Print.
2. An Article in a Journal
Gever, Martha. “Like TV: On Barbara Kruger’s Twelve.” Art Journal 66.3
(2007): 6–19. Print.
Note: The number “66.3” refers to the volume and issue of the journal.
3. An Article in a Newspaper
Cummings, Mary. “What Is an Artist’s Style, and Is It Her Own?” New
York Times 23 Nov. 1997, late ed.: 3. Print.
4. An Editorial
“Iraqi Art ‘Looting’ Was Grand Theft.” Editorial. Boston Herald 20 Apr.
2003: 16. Print.
5. A Letter to the Editor
Tilton, Cash. Letter. Wall Street Journal 5 Oct. 1999, Eastern ed.: A27. Print.
6. A Review
Hilton, Tim. “It Isn’t Art. It Isn’t Fashion. And It Isn’t Stylish.” Rev. of art
exhibition “Addressing the Century” [London] Independent 11 Oct.
1998: 10. Print.
7. An Article with an Unidentified Author
“Collectors, Artists, and Lawyers.” Economist 24 Nov. 2012: 69–70. Print.
Notes:
• An unidentified author is not referred to as “Anonymous”
unless he or she has signed the work by that name.
• A news service, such as Associated Press (AP), is not listed as the author.

Other Sources
1. An Audio Recording
Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright: His Living Voice. Vol. 1. Fresno:
P at California State U, 1987. Audiocassette.

2. A Film, DVD, or Video Recording

Frida. Dir. Julie Taymor. Book by Hayden Herrera. Screenplay by Clancy
Sigal. Mexico: Handprint Productions, 2002. Film.
3. A Television or Radio Program
The Joy of Painting. “Wilderness Day.” Written and produced by Bob
Ross. Public Broadcasting System. KRMA, Denver. 17 May 1994.
Television.
4. A Lecture
Ferris, David. “When Art Goes to Work: The Politics of the Useless.”
London School of Economics, University of London. 23 Mar. 2011.
Lecture: Forum for European Philosophy.
5. An Interview
Haynes, Deborah. Personal interview. 18 Sept. 2009.
Rauschenberg, Robert. Interview by Charlie Rose. Charlie Rose. Natl.
Public Radio. KRMA, Denver. 27 Feb. 1998. Television.
6. An Unpublished Letter, Memo, or E-Mail
Sturtevant, Joseph. Letter to Eben G. Fine. 26 June 1890. MS. Carnegie
Library, Boulder.
Douglas, Caroline. Message to the author. 8 May 2012. E-mail.
Note: MS means “manuscript” (written by hand); TS means “typescript”
(prepared by machine).

Internet and Electronic Sources

1. An Online Book
Kunz, George Frederick. Ivory and the Elephant in Art, in Archaeology, and
in Science. 1916. The Online Books Page. Web. 31 Mar. 2013.
Note: The date at the end of the citation is the date the researcher
accessed the source.
2. A Print Periodical Accessed on the Publication’s Website
Rawsthorn, Alice. “Female Pioneers of the Bauhaus.” New York Times.
New York Times, 22 Mar. 2013. Web. 3 Apr. 2013.
Colacello, Bob. “How Do You Solve a Problem Like MOCA?” Vanity
Fair. Vanity Fair. Mar. 2013. Web. 14 Apr. 2013.
Note: The title of the article is followed by the name of the periodical,
italicized, and then the name of the website, not italicized.
3. A Nonprint Periodical Accessed on the Publication’s Website
Brooks, Katherine, “Steve Cohen’s Picasso: After Insider Trading
Payout, Hedge Fund Billionaire Spends $155 Million on Master-
piece.” Huffington Post. 26 Mar. 2013. Web. 22 May 2013.

4. A Work Accessed from an Online Database

Kaplan, James. “Women behind the Masks.” New York Magazine 16 Dec.
1996. 40. Academic Search Premier. Web. 3 Dec. 1998.
5. An Online Encyclopedia Article
“Grandma Moses.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 2013. Web.
25 Mar. 2013.
“Conceptual Art.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Founda-
tion, Inc. 14 Mar. 2013. Web. 22 June 2013.
Note: When citing a Wikipedia article, the date of creation is the date the
article was most recently modified, found at the bottom of the article, just
above the copyright information.
6. An Online Review
Cembalest, Robin. “The Art that Made Peru Peru.” Rev. of “Peru:
Kingdoms of the Sun and the Moon.” ARTnews. ARTnews. 21 Mar.
2013. Web. 25 Mar. 2013.
7. An Article on an Individual’s or Organization’s Blog or Website
“Inspirational Student Overcomes Adversity to Be Brilliant.” Art for
Progress. New York: 16 Mar. 2013. Web. 18 June 2013.

Models for Parenthetical Notes The parenthetical note should refer the
reader to the first word on the left margin of the corresponding works-
cited entry. For example, if the parenthetical note is (Jones 12), look for the
word Jones on the left margin of the alphabetical list of works cited. The
parenthetical note usually is placed at the end of the sentence. Following are
guidelines for creating parenthetical notes in the text of your research paper:
1. Standard source citation: Name the author and page number.
The reins of the 8th century Tang dynasty sculpture of a woman on
horseback, known as Equestrienne, have been lost (Beckett 129).
2. Author of the quotation or borrowed idea has been named in the
passage: Do not name the author again in parentheses.
According to Sister Wendy Beckett, the 8th century Tang dynasty
woman on horseback, known as Equestrienne, exhibits rapport with
her horse (129).
3. If the author of the source is unidentified, use the first word or two
from the title. If the source is an article, enclose the shortened title in
quotation marks. If the source is a book, italicize the shortened title.
The National Assessment of Educational Progress’s 2007 study
demonstrated that of the fourth grade students eligible to receive
free lunch, only 16% could read proficiently for their age and grade,
compared with the 44% of students whose families were above the
cutoff for free lunch (“New Study”).

The reported concluded that “the arts can be a powerful vehicle for
motivating the student at risk to remain in school; thus it is recom-
mended that high school administrators and their faculty seek ways
to incorporate the arts into dropout prevention programs” (Role 28).
4. One source is quoted in another: Use qtd. in. Include only the source
you accessed on the works-cited list.
Edward Pauly, the director of research and evaluation at the Wallace
Foundation, which finances arts education, said it well: “There is no
substitute for listening to jazz, seeing Death of a Salesman performed,
reading To Kill a Mockingbird, seeing the Vietnam War Memorial,” he
said. “Those powerful experiences only come about through the arts”
(qtd. in Pogrebin).
5. The works-cited list contains more than one work by the same author:
Insert a shortened title between the author and page number.
(Daley, “Beware” 57).
6. Multiple references for the same assertion: Use a semicolon to separate
the sources.
(Thoroughgood 63; Wells 98; Fitzhugh 316).
7. A work with two or three authors: List the names in the same order
that they are listed on the title page of the work.
(Baker and Appleby)
(Jones, Griswald, and Stephens)
8. A work with more than three authors: Use et al. after the first name
listed on the title page of the work.
(Archambault et al. 651)
9. Two authors with the same last name: Include the authors’ first
initials.
(M. Fried)
(S. Fried)
10. A multivolume work: The volume number precedes the page
number(s).
(Gray 2:98)
11. A reference to a work as a whole: No page numbers are listed.
(Gombrich)
12. An interview, short electronic publication, or other source without
pages: Use only the author’s name. If the author has been named in
the passage, no parenthetical note is necessary.
(Keynes)
13. The source is lengthy and has no page numbers: Use ch. for chapter,
sec. for section, par. for paragraph. If the source has subheadings, use
a shortened subheading title, set in quotation marks.
(Keynes, sec. 2, par. 9)
(Keynes “Diasporan”)

Punctuating Quotations with Parenthetical Notes Certain adjustments to the

usual rules of punctuating quotations are made when source citations are
present.

1. A quotation ending in a period: The period follows the note.

The exhibition was vilified in the New York Daily News as a “cop
bashing art exhibit at a taxpayer-funded museum in Brooklyn [that]
portrays the city’s Finest as trigger-happy racists who have put
bull’s-eyes on the backs of black New Yorkers” (Sederstrom).
2. A quotation ending in a question mark or exclamation mark: The end
mark remains as in the original, and a period follows the note.
Sister Wendy Beckett asks, “[W]ho were the potters of these Zuni
bowls, or the sculptors who chiseled striding gods out of Mesopo-
tamian stone, or the painters who decorated a wall in the doomed
Roman city of Pompeii?” (9).
3. Indented quotations (more than four lines): The note follows the final
period.
Rexroth maintained that the revolt against the entire culture of the
interbellum period was more solidly based in San Francisco than on
the East Coast:

eft artists’ and writers’ organizations were proportionally much

L
larger than in New York. In San Francisco there was scarcely a
writer or artist who was not at some time involved, and involved
in a freer, less doctrinaire fashion than in New York or Chicago. . . .
Perhaps even more important, San Francisco was far away from
the literary marketplace. (136–38)

CMS (Chicago Manual of Style) The CMS (Chicago Manual of

Style) system uses superscripted numbers that correspond to notes (either
footnotes or endnotes) and a bibliography entry. Some publishers do not
require a bibliography if the notes contain the necessary information. The
following condensed instructions may be comprehensive enough for your
research paper on art, but if they are not, refer to the latest edition of the
Chicago Manual of Style.

The Bibliography A sample bibliography is at the end of the research paper

titled “Express This!” by Joel Senger on page 143. This is an alphabetical list
of the sources cited in the paper. As you study the bibliography, notice the
following:

• Double space the bibliography unless the publisher specifies

otherwise.
• Bibliography entries use a hanging indent. The first line of each entry is
at the left margin; subsequent lines of the entry are indented a half-inch.

• Entries are arranged alphabetically by author’s last name or by

editor’s last name if no author is listed.
• If no author or editor is available, entries are alphabetized by the first
word of the title.
• If the title begins with the words A, An, or The, entries are alphabet-
ized according to the second word of the title.
• The publisher’s name is either in full or in shortened form. Short
forms omit words such as The, Inc. and Co. and include words such as
Books and Press.
• Add the state or country, abbreviated, if the city of publication is
obscure.
• When two or more works by the same author are listed, use six
unspaced hyphens instead of the author’s name in every entry after
the first by that author.
• The elements of a bibliography entry are separated by periods.

Models for Notes Footnotes and endnotes correspond to passages in the text
and also to bibliography entries. Following is an example of a passage from
a text with its corresponding note and bibliographic entry:

Passage from text:

Courbet’s painting titled Etude de femmes, or Study of Women, which has disap-
peared, shows Venus gazing at Psyche while she sleeps.1
Note:
1. Petra Ten-Doesschate Chu, “Gustave Courbet’s Venus and Psyche: Uneasy
Nudity in Second Empire France,” Art Journal 51, no. 1 (1992): 38.

Bibliography Entry:
Chu, Petra Ten-Doesschate. “Gustave Courbet’s Venus and Psyche: Uneasy
Nudity in Second Empire France.” Art Journal 51, no. 1 (1992): 38–44.

Notes that refer to sources fully identified in a previous note can be shortened,
as follows:
1. Petra Ten-Doesschate Chu, “Gustave Courbet’s Venus and Psyche: Uneasy
Nudity in Second Empire France,” Art Journal 51, no. 1 (1992): 38.
2. Ibid., 40.
8. Chu, 42.

• In note #2 above, Ibid. is a Latin abbreviation for Ibidem, meaning “in

the same place.” It refers to the source immediately preceding it. No
page number is necessary if the note refers to the same page as the
previous note.
• Note #8 above refers to the previously cited work by Chu, which is
listed in the bibliography. If there is more than one work listed by that
author, add a shortened version of the title of work:
8. Chu, “Gustave Courbet’s,” 42.

Following are guidelines for creating notes:

• Numbers of notes are not superscripted and are followed by a period
and a space.
• Notes are set in a smaller type font than the text.
• The first line of a footnote/endnote is indented a half inch.
Subsequent lines are flush with the left margin.
• The elements of a note are separated by commas or parentheses.
• Notes should be double-spaced unless the publisher to whom the
manuscript is being sent specifies otherwise.

Models for Notes and Bibliographic Entries Each of the following examples
offers a note, followed by its corresponding bibliography entry.

Books
1. A Book with One Author
1. Moyo Okediji, Western Frontiers of African Art (Rochester: University of
Rochester Press, 2011), 231.
Okediji, Moyo. Western Frontiers of African Art. Rochester: University of Rochester
Press, 2011.

2. A Book with Two or Three Authors

2. Suzanne Hudson and Nancy Noonan, The Art of Writing about Art, 2nd ed.
(Boston: Cengage, 2015), 67.
Hudson, Suzanne, and Nancy Noonan. The Art of Writing about Art. 2nd ed. Boston:
Cengage, 2015.

3. Two or More Works by the Same Author

3. Lucy R. Lippard, On the Beaten Track: Tourism, Art, and Place (New York: New
Press, 1999), 77–78.
4. Lucy R. Lippard, Get the Message?: A Decade of Art for Social Change (New York:
Dutton, 1984), 234–36.
Lippard, Lucy R. Get the Message?: A Decade of Art for Social Change. New York: Dutton,
1984.
------. On the Beaten Track: Tourism, Art, and Place. New York: New Press, 1999.
Note: In the bibliography, works by the same author are alphabetized according to the
titles of the works.

4. A Book with a Corporate or Group Author

4. Courtauld Institute of Art, The Conway Library (Surrey, Eng.: Emmett
Publishing, 1987), 76.
Courtauld Institute of Art. The Conway Library. Surrey, Eng.: Emmett Publishing, 1987.

5. A Book with a Translator

5. Wolf-Dieter Dube, Expressionists and Expressionism, trans. James Emmons (New
York: Skira, 1983), 110.
Dube, Wolf-Dieter. Expressionists and Expressionism. Translated by James Emmons.
New York: Skira, 1983.

6. A Book with an Editor

6. Ilia Dorontchenkov, ed. Russian and Soviet Views of Modern Western Art: 1890s
to Mid-1930s, trans. Charles Rougle (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009),
313–15.
Dorontchenkov, Ilia, ed. Russian and Soviet Views of Modern Western Art: 1890s to Mid-
1930s. Translated by Charles Rougle. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 2009.

7. A Book in a Series
7. Janis Herbert, Leonardo da Vinci for Kids: His Life and Ideas, 21 Activities,
For Kids Series (Chicago: Chicago Review, 1998), 21–22.
Herbert, Janis. Leonardo da Vinci for Kids: His Life and Ideas, 21 Activities.
For Kids Series. Chicago: Chicago Review, 1998.

8. Multivolume Book
8. Oleg Grabar, Islamic Visual Culture, 1100 to 1800, vol. 3 of Constructing the Study
of Islamic Art (Aldershot, Eng.: Ashgate, 2006), 225–26.
Grabar, Oleg. Islamic Visual Culture, 1100 to 1800. Vol. 3 of Constructing the Study of
Islamic Art. Aldershot, Eng.: Ashgate, 2006.

Selections from Books

1. A Selection from an Anthology
1. Italo Calvino, “The Birds of Paolo Uccello,” in Writers on Artists, ed. Daniel
Halpern (San Francisco: North Point, 1988), 3.
Calvino, Italo. “The Birds of Paolo Uccello.” In Writers on Artists, edited by Daniel
Halpern, 3–4. San Francisco: North Point, 1988.

2. An Entry in an Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Thesaurus, Handbook, or Almanac

2. The Dictionary of Art, s.v. “Goût grec.”
Notes:
• Cite the title of the work, the edition if not the first, and the title of the entry,
preceded by s.v., meaning sub verbo, or “under the word.”
• The Chicago Manual of Style does not require inclusion of these reference
works in the bibliography.
3. A Preface, Introduction, Foreword, or Afterword
3. Anna Pavord, introduction to Flower Power: The Meaning of Flowers in Art, edited by
Andrew Moore and Christopher Garibaldi (London: Wilson, 2003), 12.
Pavord, Anna. Introduction to Flower Power: The Meaning of Flowers in Art, edited by
Andrew Moore and Christopher Garibaldi, 11–15. London: Wilson, 2003.

Periodicals and Newspapers

1. An Article in a Magazine
1. Peter Schjeldahl, “Going Pop: Warhol and His Influence,” New Yorker,
September 24, 2012, 95.
Schjeldahl, Peter. “Going Pop: Warhol and His Influence.” New Yorker, S
eptember 24,
2012, 94–95.

2. Article in a Journal
2. Martha Gever, “Like TV: On Barbara Kruger’s Twelve,” Art Journal 66, no. 3
(2007): 8.
Gever, Martha. “Like TV: On Barbara Kruger’s Twelve.” Art Journal 66, no. 3 (2007):
6–19.

3. An Article in a Newspaper
3. Mary Cummings, “What Is an Artist’s Style, and Is It Her Own?,” New York
Times, November 23, 1997, late edition.
Cummings, Mary. “What Is an Artist’s Style, and Is It Her Own?” New York Times,
November 23, 1997. Late edition.
Note: Page numbers may be omitted.

4. An Unsigned Newspaper Article

4. “A Survey of Heated Rhetoric on Andres Serrano’s ‘Piss Christ,’” Los Angeles
Times, April 19, 2011.
Los Angeles Times. “A Survey of Heated Rhetoric on Andres Serrano’s ‘Piss Christ.’”
April 19, 2011.

5. A Letter to the Editor

5. Cash Tilton, letter to the editor, Wall Street Journal, October 5, 1999, Eastern
edition.
Tilton, Cash. Letter to the Editor. Wall Street Journal, October 5, 1999. Eastern edition.

6. A Review
6. Tim Hilton, “It Isn’t Art. It Isn’t Fashion. And It Isn’t Stylish,” review of
“Addressing the Century,” Independent (London), October 11, 1998.
Hilton, Tim. “It Isn’t Art. It Isn’t Fashion. And It Isn’t Stylish.” Review of “ Addressing
the Century.” Independent (London), October 11, 1998.

Other Sources
1. Audio Recording
1. Frank Lloyd Wright, Frank Lloyd Wright: His Living Voice, vol. 1 (Fresno: Press at
California State University, 1987), audiocassette.
Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright: His Living Voice. Vol. 1. Fresno: Press at Cali-
fornia State University, 1987. Audiocassette.

2. Film, DVD, or Video Recording

2. Frida, directed by Julie Taymor (Mexico: Handprint Productions, 2002), film.
Frida. Directed by Julie Taymor. Mexico: Handprint Productions, 2002. Film.

3. Television or Radio Program

3. The Joy of Painting, “Wilderness Day,” written and produced by Bob
Ross (Washington, D.C.: Public Broadcasting Service, 1994), television series.
The Joy of Painting. “Wilderness Day.” Written and produced by Bob Ross. Washington,
D.C.: Public Broadcasting Service. 1994. Television series.

4. Lecture
4. David Ferris, “When Art Goes to Work: The Politics of the Useless” (lecture,
London School of Economics, University of London, March 23, 2011).
Ferris, David. “When Art Goes to Work: The Politics of the Useless.” Lecture,
London School of Economics, University of London, March 23, 2011.

5. Pamphlet
5. Whitney Museum of American Art, Nam June Paik: Whitney Museum of American
Art, April 30–June 27, 1982 (New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1982).
Whitney Museum of American Art. Nam June Paik: Whitney Museum of American Art,
April 30–June 27, 1982. New York: Whitney Museum of American Art, 1982.

6. Personal Interview or Unpublished Personal Communication

6. Deborah Haynes, interview by author, Boulder, CO, November 14, 2009.
7. Marcelee Gralapp, letter to Frank Sampson, July 15, 2008.
8. Caroline Douglas, email message to author, January 11, 2013.
Note: Do not include unpublished interviews, letters, emails, surveys, or
questionnaires in the bibliography, unless they are archived and/or a vailable for
public viewing.
9. Weldon Kees to James Broughton, September 25, 1950, Weldon Kees Papers and
Archives, The Jane Pope Geske Heritage Room of Nebraska Authors, Bennett Martin
Public Library, Lincoln, NE.
Kees, Weldon. Letter to James Broughton. September 25, 1950. Weldon Kees Papers
and Archives. The Jane Pope Geske Heritage Room of Nebraska Authors, Bennett
Martin Public Library, Lincoln, NE.

7. Citations Taken from Secondary Sources

Note: Both sources are named in the note; only the secondary source is listed in the
bibliography.
7. Stuart Preston, “Among the Early Shows,” New York Times, September 17, 1950,
quoted in Irving Sandler, “The Irascible Weldon Kees,” in Weldon Kees and the Arts at
Midcentury, edited by Daniel A. Siedell (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 44.
Sandler, Irving. “The Irascible Weldon Kees.” In Weldon Kees and the Arts at Midcentury,
edited by Daniel A. Siedell. 39–50. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003.

Internet and Electronic Sources

1. An Online Book
1. George Frederick Kunz, Ivory and the Elephant in Art, in Archaeology, and
in Science (1916; The Online Books Page), http://www.farlang.com/gemstones/
kunz-ivory-elephant/page_001.
Kunz, George Frederick. Ivory and the Elephant in Art, in Archaeology, and in Science.
Reprint of the 1916 edition. The Online Books Page. http://www
.farlang.com/gemstones/kunz-ivory-elephant/page_001.

2. A Print Periodical Accessed on the Publication’s Website

2. Alice Rawsthorn, “Female Pioneers of the Bauhaus,” New York Times, March 22,
2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/arts/25iht-design25.html?_r=0.
Rawsthorn, Alice. “Female Pioneers of the Bauhaus.” New York Times, March 22, 2013,
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/25/arts/25iht-design25.html?_r=0.

3. A Nonprint Periodical Accessed on the Publication’s Website

3. Katherine Brooks, “Steve Cohen’s Picasso: After Insider Trading Payout, Hedge
Fund Billionaire Spends $155 Million on Masterpiece,” Huffington Post, March 26,
2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/26/steven-cohen-buys-picasso-after-
insider-trading-payout-billionaire-buys-art_n_2955732.html?utm_hp_ref=arts.
Brooks, Katherine, “Steve Cohen’s Picasso: After Insider Trading Payout, Hedge Fund
Billionaire Spends $155 Million on Masterpiece.” Huffington Post, March 26, 2013.
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/03/26/steven-cohen-buys-picasso-after-
insider-trading-payout-billionaire-buys-art_n_2955732.html?utm_hp_ref=arts.

4. Work Accessed in an Online Database

4. James Kaplan, “Women behind the Masks,” New York Magazine, December 16,
1996, http://www.ebscohost.com/ehost.
Kaplan, James. “Women behind the Masks.” New York Magazine, December 16, 1996.
http://www.ebscohost.com/ehost.

5. An Online Encyclopedia Article

5. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, s.v. “Grandma Moses,” accessed March 26, 2013,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/393588/Grandma-Moses.
6. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, s.v. “Conceptual Art,” accessed June 22, 2013,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_art.
Note: Do not include these reference works in the bibliography.

6. An Individual’s or Organization’s Blog or Website

Note: If no date of publication of an article is available, give the date the article was
accessed.
6. “Philosophy,” Art for Progress, http://www.artforprogress.org/art_ed.php,
accessed June 18, 2013.
“Philosophy.” Art for Progress. http://www.artforprogress.org/art_ed.php. Accessed
June 18, 2013.

Exercise 6-1
Assume that the following passages are taken from the same
research paper. Information about their sources is given in brackets
following each passage. Supply documentation using either MLA
or CMS style.
A. MLA-style directions: First create a works-cited list that would
appear at the end of the research paper, assuming that these
are the paper’s only sources. On a separate sheet of paper titled
“Passages,” copy and number the sentences 1–8, and supply
parenthetical notes.
B. CMS-style directions: First, on a sheet of paper titled
“Passages,” copy and number sentences 1–8, and supply a
superscripted number at the end of each sentence. On a second
sheet of paper, create a list of endnotes that correspond to the
superscripted numbers at the end of each sentence. On a third
sheet of paper, create a bibliography that would appear at the
end of the research paper, assuming that these are the paper’s
only sources.

Passages

1. Although Art Deco is a style developed in the 1920s and 1930s,

the term was not coined until 1966, when an exhibition in Paris
titled “Les Années 25” was subtitled “Art Deco.”
[You obtained this fact from page 21 of a book titled Art Deco
Style by Bevis Hillier and Stephen Escritt. The book was
published by Phaidon Press Ltd. in London, England, in 1997.]
2. Smithsonian writer Stanley Meisler explains the difference
between Art Nouveau and Art Deco: “Whereas worshipers of
Art Nouveau—the previous stylistic rage—were obsessed with
nature and decadent symbolism and filled their designs with
arabesques, whiplash curves, tendrils and images of seductive
women, Art Deco designers embraced machinery and power.”
[You obtained this quotation from the November 2004 issue
of Smithsonian, volume 35, issue 8. Stanley Meisler wrote the
article titled “Art Deco: High Style.” The article spans pages
56–61 of the magazine. You found an electronic version of the

article on the Academic Search Premier database at http://web.

ebscohost.com/ehost/resultsadvanced?sid=a9c0a2c3-997f-
48b0-82ab-71fd387357ca%40sessionmgr14&vid=10&hid=25&bq
uery=(TI+(art+deco))+AND+(AU+(Meisler))&bdata=JmRiPWF
waCZ0eXBlPTEmc2l0ZT1laG9zdC1saXZl.]
3. According to Timothy F. Rub, in 1915 Joseph Urban—Viennese-
born architect, illustrator, and theater set designer—trans-
formed the Ziegfeld Follies from a naughty display of female
flesh into a pageant of beauty and grace: “Ziegfeld needed a
designer with the skill Urban had, but he also needed a de-
signer with a taste for the extravagant, and there is no doubt
that Urban had the true Viennese taste for the spectacular. That
kind of esthetic was absolutely in sync with what Ziegfeld was
after.”
[You obtained this quotation from a journal article written by
Beth Dunlop titled “Interview: Timothy F. Rub on the Work of
Joseph Urban.” The journal is titled Journal of Decorative and
Propaganda Arts. The article appeared in the spring 1988 is-
sue, volume 8. The article spans pages 104–119. This particular
quotation appears on page 109. You accessed this article on the
electronic database Jstor at http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf-
plus/1503973.pdf?acceptTC=true.]
4. The Art Deco style was influenced not only by neo-Classicism
and Modern art, but also Cubist painting, the Russian ballet,
and the exotic imagery of Egyptian and Native American
traditions.
[You obtained this fact from page 32 of Hillier and Escritt’s
book.]
5. As art historian Alastair Duncan points out, lamp shades from
the era seem to be upside down; they direct the light toward the
ceiling, which has a softening effect.
[You obtained this fact from page 22 of a print copy of an ar-
ticle titled “Art Deco Lighting” in the Journal of Decorative and
Propaganda Arts. The article appeared in the spring 1986 issue,
volume 1. The article spans pages 20–31.]
6. Evidence of Art Deco’s influence can be found in Southern
California, as an article in Ontario’s National Post indicates:

Attracted by celebrity money and a chance to create a new

architectural landscape, Modernist architects such as Swiss-
born Albert Frey, Los Angeleno William Cody and Austrian
Richard Neutra came to the city. From the 1930s to the 60s,
they and their peers built 262 Modernist buildings in Palm
Springs. (Modernist structures are distinguished by clean
lines, the expansive use of glass and steel, large roof over-
hangs and the mingling of interior and exterior spaces.)
Scores of the structures are still standing, including many ho-
tels and resorts that have been restored to conditions exceed-
ing their former glory. It is said that Modernist architecture is
doing for Palm Springs what Art Deco did for Miami Beach.
[This quotation appeared in an article by Neil Dunlop titled
“Desert Cool: Yesterday’s Rat Pack Playground, Palm Springs
Still Knows How to Swing.” The article was published in the
September 7, 2002, issue of The National Post, Toronto edition,
on the front page. You retrieved the article from the Proquest
Central database at http://search.proquest.com/docview/3299
84736?accountid=14503.]
7. Although the Art Deco style was pervasive in drawing,
painting, sculpture, interior decorating, manufacturing,
furniture making, and pottery, most people point to architec-
ture, and to the Chrysler Building in particular, as the most
obvious example. As Alastair Duncan says, “For one brief
and glorious moment in the 1930s, the Chrysler Building
soared above all others. Today it remains the period’s most
exhilarating structure and romantic symbol.”
[You found this quotation on page 13 of Alastair Duncan’s
The Encyclopedia of Art Deco, published by Grange Books in
1998. Grange Books’s head office is in Rochester, Kent,
England.]
8. Societies for the preservation of Art Deco architecture have
arisen throughout the United States. At a gathering in Miami,
activist Vyonne Geneve of the Art Deco Society of Western
Australia told the story of their efforts to save a chapel built
in 1936 from demolition because, according to an official,
it had become outdated. “So has the Parthenon,” answered
Geneve.
[This information was in The New York Times, late edition, on
January 17, 1991, on page C11. The title of the article is “Art
Deco Lovers Gather in Miami.” You found the article through

the Proquest Central electronic database. The document’s URL

is http://search.proquest.com/docview/427943768?account
id=14503.]

Figure 6.1. Art deco elevator doors, Chrysler Building,

1928–30. New York, NY

Two St u den t Research Pa pers

Following are two research papers written by students. The first, Louisa Ferrer’s
“An Art Class a Day Keeps Unemployment Away,” is an analytical paper docu-
mented using MLA style. The second, Joel Singer’s “Express This!” is an argument
documented using CMS style.

Louisa Ferrer’s research paper models effective analytical research paper

writing in the following ways:
• Louisa’s introduction contains a statement of the issue, a thesis, and a
list of her points of proof.
• The body of the research paper is organized in accordance with the
points of proof listed in the introduction.
• Assertions are supported with facts gleaned from research.
• Sources are correctly documented.

An Art Class a Day Keeps

Unemployment Away
by Louisa Ferrer

Parents may feel as though art class is simply a clever way for
their child’s school to fill up their refrigerators and closets with
handprint butterflies and pinch-pots, never suspecting that
those art classes may make the difference between dropping
out and graduating. With the recession recovery moving at a
snail’s pace, and new regulations to measure students’ success
in reading, math, and science, schools have been forced to make
tough choices regarding what will best prepare America’s fu-
ture leaders for the road ahead. Under financial pressure,
funding for the arts in public schools is too often dismantled.
The truth, however, is that art education has proven repeatedly
to teach kids exactly what we want them to learn. An arts edu-
cation provides alternative avenues to learning, which in turn
decreases the drop-out rate and the subsequent deleterious
effect on the economy. An arts education improves students’
success rates in essential subjects such as reading, math, and
science. And an arts education has intrinsic value, providing
an essential component of a well-rounded education.
In the world of education, the playing field is not level. To
put it simply, students with the most access to resources do bet-
ter; students from lower economic areas have less access and
do worse in school. The National Assessment of Educational
Progress’s 2007 study demonstrated that of fourth grade stu-
dents eligible to receive free lunch, only 16% could read pro-
ficiently for their age and grade, compared with the 44% of
students whose families were above the cutoff for free lunch
(“New Study”). Students who need help the most are not being
reached. An arts education is a resource for reaching under-
privileged children.

It has been well documented by experts such as Harvard’s

Howard Gardner, co-director of Project Zero, that there are
multiple kinds of intelligences. Project Zero, a leader in the
research of multiple intelligences, is an educational research
group at Harvard University whose mission is to understand
and enhance learning, thinking, and creativity in the arts at
the individual and institutional levels. Multiple intelligence
research has transformed the way we view how humans gain
knowledge and how diverse the road to realizing potential can
be. This is where the arts come in. The arts speak to myriad
learning styles, ultimately giving all students a chance to learn
in a way that makes sense to them, as opposed to traditional
education systems that primarily teach to linguistic and logical
mathematical systems (Gardner). The Social Science Research
network discovered that 65% of the general population are
visual learners. Schools that incorporate the arts as staples into
their education programs have seen substantial improvements
in the overall success of their students (“Fact Sheet”).
When a school’s curriculum is weighted heavily on one
learning style, students who may have excelled in other styles
become bored or frustrated with their work. Boredom and
complacency ultimately are barriers to success. Lack of inter-
est in school and boredom have been cited as two of the top
three reasons given by students to explain why they decided to
drop out (Bloch). In 2002, Florida State University conducted a
study at a school for at-risk youth over the course of one year to
identify the effects of the arts in populations of “potential drop-
outs.” The study was conducted for the purpose of making rec-
ommendations to the Florida Department of Education on the
topic of dropout prevention. The reported concluded that “the
arts can be a powerful vehicle for motivating the student at risk
to remain in school; thus it is recommended that high school
administrators and their faculty seek ways to incorporate the
arts into dropout prevention programs” (Role 28).
Ultimately, students who do not complete high school have a
significant effect on the economy. According to America’s Promise,
cutting the number of high school dropouts in half would generate
an estimated $45 billion in new tax revenue annually. Conversely,
the National Dropout Prevention Center estimates that each year
dropouts represent $320 billion in lost lifetime earning potential
and that the lifetime salary difference between a graduate and
a dropout is about $300,000 (Fields). The ripple effect of the stu-
dents who do not make it to graduation is profound. Experience
has shown us that students who do not complete high school are
much more likely to depend on various types of government as-
sistance, to be unemployed, to be incarcerated, and for their own

children to face the same challenges (Bloch). We already know

the cost to society is in the billions. For critics who claim that arts
education is too costly to include in public school curriculums, we
must acknowledge the cost of not providing proven strategies for
students to succeed. Cutting the arts to save on school budgets is
a shortsighted solution when the impact of unsuccessful students
is taken into account. Furthermore, funding exists to make arts
education possible in public schools on the federal, state, and local
level through organizations such as the U.S. Department of Educa-
tion, the National Endowment for the Arts, the National Assembly
of State Arts Agencies, and Grantmakers in the Arts, to name a few.
Aside from benefiting at-risk students, the arts have been
shown to benefit average and successful students as well.
Boredom and complacency affect students who are doing well
in school but have outgrown traditional teaching methods
(Archambault et al. 651). The arts offer these students infinite
challenges in their education. The arts have been attributed to
teaching children life skills valuable to all students, such as
multiple solutions to a problem, craftsmanship, self-discipline,
and articulation of a vision (“Fact Sheet”). As the world chang-
es, seemingly at warp speed, these skills have never been more
relevant. Students who are currently in school are training for
jobs that likely do not yet exist. In this rapidly altering econ-
omy, students need the skills to adjust, think outside the box,
and adapt—just to be employable. Learning to solve problems
creatively will be imperative to solving some of our world’s
most pressing problems such as over-population, diminishing
natural resources, and disease.
But if you’re wondering how improving a student’s creative
skills translates into actual, measurable success in the school
arena, you’re not alone. With educational watchdog programs
such as No Child Left Behind came increased pressure on
schools and students to perform on standardized testing, leav-
ing difficult questions concerning where resources should be
focused to best prepare students. Arts supporters can rejoice,
however, as data from the College Board confirmed that stu-
dents who had taken four years of arts classes while in high
school scored an average of 91 points higher on their SATs than
students who took one half-year or less (“Americans”).
Another study conducted by the Guggenheim over a two-year
period tested third graders who had participated in their pro-
gram, called Learning through Art, as well as other third grad-
ers who had not participated. The study concluded that students
who participated in the program out-performed the students
who had not in such categories as literacy and critical thinking,
including description, hypothesizing, and reasoning (Kennedy).

So, if the value of the arts is to make students better at math

and science, then why not just give them more math and science?
I will tell you. Because the arts are awesome. While it is compel-
ling to note the facts about increased motivation to learn, high
school retention rates, and improved SAT scores, an argument
for the arts is art for art’s sake. An impressive 93% of Americans
believe that the “arts are vital to providing a well-rounded edu-
cation” (“New Harris”). This figure illustrates that as a society
we already recognize that the arts provide something that is
distinctive and exceptional, without which something would be
missing. Edward Pauly, the director of research and evaluation
at the Wallace Foundation, which finances arts education, said
it well: “There is no substitute for listening to jazz, seeing Death
of a Salesman performed, reading To Kill a Mockingbird, seeing
the Vietnam War Memorial,” he said. “Those powerful expe-
riences only come about through the arts” (qtd. in Pogrebin).
Although the arts have other broad benefits that are related to
performance in other subjects, they also have their own intrin-
sic value for which there is no substitute.
An investment in the arts creates a real return in a variety of
ways. Whether we want our kids to perform well on standard-
ized testing, to develop marketable skills desperately needed
in our country’s leadership, or just to have the experience being
inspired by the artistic endeavors of others, we simply cannot
afford to underestimate the value of the arts in school.

Works Cited
“Americans for the Arts Responds to the Administration’s FY 2006
Arts and Culture Funding Recommendations.” Americans for
the Arts. 7 Feb. 2005. Web. 25 Apr. 2012.
Archambault, Isabelle, Michel Janosz, Jean-Sebastien Fallu, and
Linda S. Pagani. “Student Engagement and Its Relationship
with Early High School Dropouts.” Journal of Adolescence 32.2
(2009): 651–70. Print.
Bloch, Deborah P. “Missing Measures of the Who and Why of
School Dropouts: Implications for Policy and Research.”
Career Development Quarterly 40.1 (1991). Web. 26 Apr. 2012.
“Fact Sheet about the Benefits of Arts Education for Children.”
Americans for the Arts. 2002. Web. 25 Apr. 2012.
Fields, Gary. “The High School Dropout’s Economic Ripple
Effect.” Wall Street Journal. Wall Street Journal, 21 Oct. 2008.
Web. 30 Apr. 2012.

Gardner, Howard. Frames of the Mind: The Theory of Multiple

Intelligences. New York: Basic, 1993. Print.
Kennedy, Randy. “Guggenheim Study Suggests Arts Education
Benefits Literacy Skills.” New York Times. New York Times, 27
July 2006. Web. 25 Apr. 2012.
“New Harris Poll Reveals that 93 Percent of Americans Believe
that the Arts are Vital to Providing a Well-Rounded Educa-
tion.” Americans for the Arts. 13 June 2005. Web. 25 Apr.
2012.
“New Study Suggests that Underprivileged Students May Ben-
efit the Most from College.” Education Insider. 5 Apr. 2010.
Web. 30 Apr. 2012.
Pogrebin, Robin. “Book Tackles Old Debate: Role of Art in
Schools.” New York Times. 4 Aug. 2010. Web. 25 Apr. 2012.
Role of the Fine and Performing Arts in High School Dropout Preven-
tion. Center for Music Research, Florida State University,
Tallahassee: 1990. ERIC (ProQuest). Web. 30 Apr. 2012.

Exercise 6-2
Read Louisa Ferrer’s research paper titled “An Art Class a Day Keeps
Unemployment Away” and follow these instructions.
1. Underline Louisa’s thesis. Double underline her list of points of
proof in her introduction.
2. Place a star beside the paragraph that begins development
of Louisa’s first point of proof. Place two stars beside the
paragraph that begins development of Louisa’s second point
of proof. Place three stars beside the paragraph that begins
development of Louisa’s third point of proof.
3. Circle each parenthetical note in the text of the research paper
and draw a line from it to its corresponding entry on the
works-cited list.

The following research paper by Joel Senger models effective argument

research paper writing in the following ways:
• Joel’s introduction contains counterarguments, a thesis, and points of
proof that refute the counterpoints.
• The body of the research paper is developed in accordance with the
points of proof listed in the introduction.
• Joel uses sources to support his argument, not to speak for him.
• Sources are correctly documented.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
T wo Stud en t R esearch Pa pers
143

Express This!
by Joel Senger

People react to art with a wide array of emotions; some reactions

are tepid, others explosive. In 1987, Andres Serrano took a pho-
tograph that he titled Piss Christ. As the title reveals, Serrano had
photographed a small wood and plastic crucifix submerged in a
glass of the artist’s urine. Chris Ofili painted The Holy Virgin Mary,
which was exhibited in 1999 at the Brooklyn Museum of Art.
Ofili included elephant dung in his work and encircled the Black
Madonna with pictures of breasts and buttocks. Many mem-
bers of the public believed that these works deserved censure.
Some were outraged that the Brooklyn Museum of Art received
public funding and that Serrano was awarded a prize from the
National Endowment for the Arts. Organized religions believed
both pieces were blasphemous because the artists desecrated the
sacrosanct images of Christ and Mary. However, these attempts
at censure were not warranted. The First Amendment protects
artists from both censorship and litigation. Also, both artworks
have intrinsic aesthetic value, and neither is sacrilegious.
Many people were incensed that their taxes were used to
support Serrano’s and Ofili’s artistic endeavors. They wondered
why they should pay through the National Endowment for the
Arts (NEA) to support art that offends them. Offensive art main-
tains an extensive catalog: from Édouard Manet’s Olympia and
Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain to Ron English’s Mousetrap, which
depicts Mickey Mouse crucified inside a mousetrap. The reasons
for controversy are disparate: from religious, sexual, political,
and violent content to the banal defining of Norman Rockwell
as an artist rather than an illustrator. And the ideas translated
into works of art causing offense are as prolific as the imagina-
tions of artists and viewers alike. But what subjects for art would
remain if only those deemed inoffensive were exhibited—flow-
ers and puppies? Long gone are the days when the Church was
the major benefactor to the arts, resulting in biblical scenes ad
nauseum. Artists, as freely as people conversing on the street, can
express opinions, thoughts or feelings, no matter how unsavory.
Some people condone artistic expression but dislike pay-
ing taxes that support artistic expression they find abhorrent.
However, taxes pay for government actions and public works
that citizens find objectionable: wars, roads, schools, welfare,
and food stamps, for example. No matter the form of govern-
ment, dissatisfied minorities always exist. To live peaceably in
a democracy as protected under our Constitution, concessions
must be made by all to accept people’s inherent differences.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPT ER 6 ■ Wri ting R esearch Pap ers
144

Art perceived as sacrilegious may offend certain groups or in-

dividuals in America, but the freedoms afforded under the First
Amendment of our Constitution protect those expressing them-
selves, including expressions deemed blasphemous. Rudolph
Giuliani, the mayor of New York in 1999, threatened to withhold
funding from the Brooklyn Museum and remarked, “You don’t
have a right to government subsidy for desecrating somebody
else’s religion.”1 Despite holding a law degree, Rudolph Giuliani
appeared not to understand how fully the First Amendment
protects freedom of speech. The 1952 Supreme Court ruling,
Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, protected a film titled The Miracle,
which some deemed sacrilegious, from censorship and affirmed
its protection under the First Amendment.2 This freedom cov-
ers not only speech but every form of expression, from film to
how one dresses. The only modes of expression not protected by
the Constitution are expressions used to intimidate, threaten, or
potentially cause harm to others.3 A federal judge ruled against
Giuliani and the City of New York in their attempts to withhold
funding from the Brooklyn Museum of Art.
An Arizona Republic editorial asked, “What if it were the
image of the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. in that jar of
urine? Would the NEA for an instant consider underwriting
the production of a blatantly racist or anti-Semitic work un-
der the rubric of artistic freedom?”4 These rhetorical questions
cannot be answered without legal precedent, but if funding to
support such art were challenged, there seems little doubt that
First Amendment protections would be upheld. After all, it is
not the artistic content being challenged, but rather the right to
express through art.
Similar attempts to censure works of art under Islamic law
parallel Serrano and Ofili’s cases. In 1988 Salman Rushdie pub-
lished a book titled The Satanic Verses, which some Islamists be-
lieve blasphemes Mohammed, the prophet of Islam. Subsequent-
ly, the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the Supreme Leader of Iran
in 1989, issued a fatwa, or religious edict, which encouraged any-
one of the Islamic faith to murder Rushdie without fear of punish-
ment. Another case involving Islamic law occurred when Geert
Wilders, a Dutch politician, produced a film titled Fitna, which
addresses the ways in which the Koran incites violence. The film
created a firestorm in the Islamic community, and in 2010, Feiz
Muhammad, an imam, or spiritual leader, ignoring the incredible
irony, issued a fatwa commanding Wilder’s beheading.
Some religious groups believe both Serrano and Ofili’s art
blasphemes their faiths. Catholics primarily use the crucifix
symbolically, attach great religious importance to Mary, and
believe both works of art specifically target their church. Also
offended were Protestants and Muslims; both groups revere

Mary and Christ. However, art and artists are protected by civil
law from litigious action by churches, so what remains are ec-
clesiastical censures. Neither the Catholic Church nor Muslim
clerics deemed these artists’ transgressions egregious enough
to censure the artists through their most serious channels: ex-
communication or fatwa. But religious groups have the right
to organize boycotts, and calls to picket the Brooklyn Museum
of Art were made. Rudolph Giuliani, a Catholic, threatened to
withhold funding for the museum because he thought Ofili’s
artwork desecrated another’s religion. But then, Ofili is a fellow
Catholic. And the artists’ explanations for their methods were ei-
ther ignored or proved unsatisfactory to these religious groups.
Serrano, a Christian, said he used his urine because the “use
of bodily fluids, especially in connections with Christianity, has
been a way of personalizing and redefining [my] relationship
with Christ.”5 Ofili, who is British and of Nigerian descent, used
elephant dung because it is a traditional African symbol of fer-
tility and used small pictures of women’s buttocks and breasts
surrounding the Madonna (arranged as cherubim, alluding to
traditional portraits of Mary) because, while growing up, he no-
ticed depictions of Mary and “how sexually charged they are.”6
Some individuals think Christ and Mary are sacrosanct, and to
knowingly desecrate their images deserves the strongest possi-
ble censure. There have been aborted and successful physical at-
tacks on both pieces, and litigation and death threats were issued
against one or both artists. In April 2011, a copy of Piss Christ,
exhibited at the Collection Lambert Contemporary Art Museum
in Avignon, France, was attacked with hammers by two Catholic
activists.7 Serrano, when interviewed about the attack, said that
he is a Christian artist and has no tolerance for blasphemy.8 If
unaware that the medium was urine, and given its beauty, Ser-
rano’s photograph might have found its way into many church-
es. Art critic Lucy R. Lippard thought Piss Christ “a darkly beauti-
ful photographic image. . . .[T]he small wood and plastic crucifix
becomes virtually monumental as it floats, photographically en-
larged, in a deep rosy glow that is both ominous and glorious.”9
But everybody knows it’s urine. The powerful symbolism,
Serrano’s and art critics’ explanations and glowing reviews
aside, undeniably elicits revulsion in some. Could Serrano and
Ofili have been more sensitive to their feelings? Surely, but ar-
tistic expression cannot be hampered. Those injured must take
responsibility for their emotions and temper them through
realizing and accepting that divergent avenues for envision-
ing religious figures exist. The onus is upon the offended to
seek out deeper, layered meanings, the underlying beauty,
or perhaps adopt a greater humility in realizing their limited
aesthetic sensibilities. For instance the nun and art scholar, Wendy

Beckett, said, “I thought [Serrano] was saying, in a rather simplis-

tic, magazine-y type of way, that this is what we are doing to
Christ. We are not treating him with reverence. His great sacrifice
is not used. We live very vulgar lives. We put Christ in a bottle
of urine—in practice.”10 Another cogent observation by Brooklyn
museum guards to those decrying Ofili’s piece was, “It’s not the
Virgin Mary. It’s a painting.”11 With such levels of censure and
violence directed at these artists and their art, the enraged exhibit
something disturbing about themselves, not the art.
Understandably, people are offended when their convictions
are attacked, but the harsh criticism The Holy Virgin Mary, Piss
Christ, and their creators have drawn is unreasonably inflated.
American citizens, Giuliani included, who incorrectly stated,
“There’s nothing in the First Amendment that supports horri-
ble and disgusting projects!”12 must understand the protections
afforded them under the Bill of Rights when examining artists’
freedom of expression. When the artwork seems to assault re-
ligious icons, one understands why some are initially shocked.
But when others, like Sister Wendy Beckett, delve into richer,
metaphoric interpretations, compelling ideas are revealed. Ser-
rano and Ofili did not deserve censure; had the offended set
aside their stringent preconceptions, these artworks would
have broadened their scope and illumined their imaginations.

Notes
1. Michael Kimmelman, “Critic’s Notebook: Cutting through
Cynicism in Art Furor,” New York Times, September 24, 1999, http://
www.nytimes.com/1999/09/24/nyregion/critic-s-notebook-cutting-
through-cynicism-in-art-furor.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm.

2. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, s.v. “Joseph Burstyn, Inc.

v. Wilson,” accessed May 1, 2012, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Joseph_Burstyn,_Inc_v._Wilson.

3. Julie Van Camp, “Freedom of Expression at the National

Endowment for the Arts: An Opportunity for Interdisciplinary Edu-
cation,” Journal of Aesthetic Education 30, no. 3 (1996): 46–51, http://
www.jstor.org/.

4. “When Art Imitates Garbage,” Arizona Republic, May

11, 1989, quoted in Wendy Steiner, The Scandal of Pleasure (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1995), 13.

5. Mark Stevens, “Sacred and Profane,” New York Magazine,

February 27, 1995, 119, http://books.google.com/books?id=mOMCAA
AAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&lr=&rview=1#v=onepage&q&f=false.

6. Kimmelman.

7. “‘Piss Christ’ Art Piece Attacked in France,” CBS News, April

18, 2011, http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-202_162-20054966.html.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
T wo Stud en t R esearch Pa pers
147

8. “A Survey of Heated Rhetoric on Andres Serrano’s ‘Piss

Christ,’” Los Angeles Times, April 19, 2011, http://latimesblogs.
latimes.com/culturemonster/2011/04/memorable-quotes-on-andres
-serranos-piss-christ-through-the-years.html.

9. Lucy R. Lippard, “Andres Serrano: The Spirit and the

Letter,” Art in America, April 1990, 239.

10. Sister Wendy Beckett, Interview, “Bill Moyers in

onversation with Sister Wendy,” Bill Moyers (Washington, D.C.:
C
Public Broadcasting Service, 1998), television series. http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=L9pAKdkJh-Y.

11. Jerry Saltz, “Man in the Middle: Chris Ofili Africanizes

an Icon,” Village Voice, October 5, 1999, http://www.villagevoice.
com/1999-10-05/news/man-in-the-middle/full/.

12. “Cardinal, Activists Take Sides on Virgin Mary with El-

ephant Dung,” Lodi News-Sentinel, September 27, 1999, http://news.
google.com/newspapers?nid=2245&dat=19990927&id=--c0AAAAI
BAJ&sjid=NyEGAAAAIBAJ&pg=3618,2989078.

Bibliography
Beckett, Sister Wendy. Interview. “Bill Moyers in Conversation
with Sister Wendy.” Bill Moyers. Washington, D.C.: Public
Broadcasting Service, 1998. Television series. http://www
.youtube.com/watch?v=L9pAKdkJh-Y.
CBS News. “‘Piss Christ’ Art Piece Attacked in France.” April 18,
2011. http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-202_162-20054966.html.
Kimmelman, Michael. “Critic’s Notebook: Cutting through
Cynicism in Art Furor.” New York Times. September 24,
1999. http://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/24/nyregion
/critic-s-notebook-cutting-through-cynicism-in-art-furor
.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm.
Lippard, Lucy R. “Andres Serrano: The Spirit and the Letter.” Art
in America. April 1990, 238–45.
Lodi News-Sentinel. “Cardinal, Activists Take Sides on Virgin Mary
with Elephant Dung.” September 27, 1999. http://news.
google.com/newspapers?nid=2245&dat=19990927&id=
— c0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=NyEGAAAAIBAJ&pg=3618,2989078.
Los Angeles Times. “A Survey of Heated Rhetoric on Andres
Serrano’s ‘Piss Christ.’” April 19, 2011. http://latimesblogs.
latimes.com/culturemonster/2011/04/memorable-quotes
-on-andres-serranos-piss-christ-through-the-years.html.
Saltz, Jerry. “Man in the Middle: Chris Ofili Africanizes an Icon.”
Village Voice. October 5, 1999. http://www.villagevoice.
com/1999-10-05/news/man-in-the-middle/full/.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPT ER 6 ■ Wri ting R esearch Pap ers
148

Steiner, Wendy. The Scandal of Pleasure. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1995.
Stevens, Mark. “Sacred and Profane.” New York Magazine,
February 27, 1995, 118–119. http://books.google.com/books
?id=mOMCAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&lr=&rview=
1#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Van Camp, Julie. “Freedom of Expression at the National
Endowment for the Arts: An Opportunity for Interdisciplin-
ary Education.” Journal of Aesthetic Education 30, no. 3 (1996):
43–65. http://www.jstor.org/.

Exercise 6-3
Read Joel Senger’s research paper titled “Express This!” and follow
these instructions.
1. Underline Joel’s thesis. Double underline the counterthesis.
2. In the introduction of Joel’s research paper, number the
counterpoints C1 and C2. Number the corresponding
refutations of the counterpoints R1 and R2.
3. Place a star beside the paragraph that begins development of
the first refutation. Place two stars beside the paragraph that
begins development of the second refutation.
4. Explain the contents of endnotes 4 and 6, and draw lines from
them to their corresponding bibliography entries.

R e vis ion an d Ed it ing C hecklis t for Your

R esearch Pa per

You have planned and drafted your research paper and, ideally, revised it
several times. Use the following checklist to be certain that your research
paper is ready for submission. If you have questions about sentence struc-
ture, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and style, consult this textbook’s
“Handbook.”
1. Your research paper
uu fulfills your assignment in terms of length and subject matter
uu is written in an appropriate mode of discourse.
2. The introduction of your research paper contains
uu a statement of the issue
uu a thesis
uu a list of your points of proof.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
R e v i s i o n a n d Edi ting C hecklis t for You r R es earch Pa per
149

3. If your research paper is an argument, the introduction contains

uu a counterthesis
uu a list of the counterpoints.
4. u If any of the above-listed elements are missing from the
introduction, there is a good reason.
5. The thesis
uu is one complete, unified statement about the issue in contention
uu is precise enough to limit the material
uu is general enough to need support
uu is defensible by means of verifiable facts
uu is not a statement of personal taste
uu is not a statement that is predicated on belief.
6. u If the research paper is an argument, each counterpoint is refuted
in the essay.
7. Body paragraphs are
uu unified
uu developed
uu organized
uu coherent.
8. Evidence presented in the body of the argument is
uu accurate
uu specific
uu relevant
uu sufficient.
9. u Sources are correctly cited.
10. The conclusion
uu develops an idea
uu does not merely repeat the thesis and points of proof.
11. Sentences are
uu well constructed
uu correctly punctuated.
12. Words are
uu correctly chosen
uu correctly spelled.
13. u The title is appropriate.
14. u The essay is formatted according to your instructor’s
specifications.

W riting the E ssay E xamination

Preparing for the Examination Study Checklists

Mind Maps
Flashcards
Plan a Strategy
Taking the Examination Before You Begin Writing
Preparing to Answer the Essay Question
Writing the Essay
Sample Essay Examination Question
Answer
Before Turning In the Examination

Most art appreciation, art history, and humanities students are called upon to
write essay examinations in class. Knowing how to prepare for such examina-
tions and how to approach the task of writing the essay exam will lead to success.

Pre paring for t he Examination

Preparing for an art history exam is an ongoing process. Reviewing the mate-
rial on a weekly basis is integral to your success. Following are aids to use in
reviewing the material.

Study Checklists
Keep a checklist of each week’s reading assignments, such as the following.
Be sure you have a checklist for every week’s assignments that will be covered
on the test.

150
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
P r e pa r i n g for the E xamination
151

Study Checklist: Art History

April 8–14

Reading Assignments
◆◆ Gardner’s: pages 689–690 __✓__
◆◆ Rosenblum: pages 288–310 __✓__
◆◆ Writing about art: pages 62–74 __✓__
◆◆ Lecture notes: April 1–7 _____
Subjects
◆◆ Impressionism __✓__
◆◆ Degas __✓__
◆◆ Renoir _____
◆◆ Cassatt _____
◆◆ Monet _____
◆◆ Pissarro _____

Mind Maps
A mind map can help you envision connections. Make several maps, with each
one focusing on a different period or style that will be covered in the exam. Use
varied shapes and colors to help you visualize the material during the test.
Figure 7.1 is an example of a mind map that focuses on nineteenth-century
Impressionism.

Technique:
Short,
visible
Subject Matter : brushstrokes
Contemporary, Era:
everyday life Late
1860s
Artists :
Monet
Degas Impressionism
Renoir
Pissarro Colors:
Cassatt Separate - the
viewer’s eye does
the blending

Composition :
Asymmetrical, Light:
informal Soft,
reflected

Figure 7.1. Aiding your memory with a mind map.

Flashcards
Flashcards such as the one below are particularly useful in preparing for both
the identification of the artwork and the essay parts of an exam. You might
use variously colored cards to help you remember an artwork’s category. For
example, use yellow cards for the Impressionist style and blue cards for the
High Renaissance. Paste a copy of the illustration on the front of the card and
print the verbal information on the back.

Front of Flashcard

Back of Flashcard

Olympia

Édouard Manet

1863

Precursor to Impressionism

A courtesan with her servant and cat. Frank, unashamed.

S candal at the Salon. Inspired future Impressionists. Inspired
by Titian’s Venus of Urbino (1538) and Giorgionne’s Sleeping
Venus (1510). Olympia covers herself to show she makes
decisions about her own body.

The act of creating the flashcards reinforces your memory of the facts, and
then using them to review the material again immediately before the test
gives your short-term memory a quick boost.

Plan a Strategy
• Ask the instructor what to expect on the examination if that has not
been made clear.
• Make up your own essay test and then take it.

Taking the Exa mination

The following advice is designed to help you succeed as you take the
examination.

Before You Begin Writing

• Pay attention to verbal directions given as the test is distributed. A
surprising number of students stop listening as soon as they have the
test in their hands and thus miss important instructions and hints.
• Look over the whole test immediately.
• Evaluate the importance of each section.
• Decide how much time to spend on each section.
• Read the directions slowly.
• Jot down memory aids in the margins.

Preparing to Answer the Essay Question

• Underline key terms, as demonstrated in the following sample essay
question.
Identify the two paintings shown: Name the artists who painted them and give the
date the art was produced. Compare these two works: Discuss their subject matter,
how they reflect their particular styles/periods, and the differences between the two.

• Create a quick outline of your answer. If the assignment is to compare,

be sure to list the points of comparison. The following outline would
work for the preceding essay question.
I. Identify paintings: artists, styles, dates, subject matter.
II. Similarities
III. Differences
A. Composition
B. Setting
C. Theme

• Understand who your audience is. Although your professor is obvi-

ously the person who will be reading your essay, think of your reader
as someone who is not as knowledgeable as your professor, and you
will explain your answer more carefully and patiently.

Writing the Essay

• Get to the point quickly. Skip the mindless introduction, such as

“There are many interesting facets to this difficult question.”
• Stick to the point of the question.
• Answer the whole question. Many essay questions have more than
one part.
• Include details. For example:

Olympia’s bedroom is darker; through a crack in the curtains, we can see

that it is nighttime. Olympia’s servant is delivering flowers, possibly from
a client, which Olympia doesn’t notice. Olympia’s pet is a cat, a symbol of
promiscuity, and it is awake, also looking directly at the viewer. The harsh
light on Olympia’s body gives her skin a yellow tint.

• As you write, leave space to add more material.

• Adjust your outline if, as you write, you realize you should add,
delete, or rearrange material.

S amp le Essay Exa mination

Question

Identify the two paintings shown: Name the artists who painted them and give the date
the art was produced. Compare these two works: Discuss their subject matter, how they
reflect their particular styles/periods, and the differences between the two.

Figure 7.2. Titian, Venus of Urbino, 1538. Oil on canvas, 467⁄8 × 65 in.
(119 × 165 cm). Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy.

Figure 7.3. Édouard Manet, Olympia, 1863. Oil on canvas, 513⁄8 × 74¾ in.
(130.5 × 190 cm). Musée d’Orsay, Paris, France.

Answer

Titian painted Venus of Urbino during the High

Renaissance in 1538. It is a portrait of the Roman

goddess Venus the way Titian imagines her. Édouard

Manet painted Olympia in 1863. It is a portrait

of a courtesan, or high-class prostitute. Manet’s

innovative style influenced many artists of his

time; some of those artists later became known as

Impressionists.

At first glance, these two paintings look very

much alike. In both paintings, the women are re-

clining on a bed with rumpled sheets. Both are

nude and are accompanied by servants and pets.

Both are propped up on one elbow, looking at the

viewer. Each figure’s left hand is placed over her

genitalia. However, the paintings are different in

subtle ways that convey vast differences in mean-

ing and attitude.

Titian’s Venus looks seductively at the viewer.

Her head is tilted to one side, and she gazes at

the viewer sideways. Her blonde curls trail over

her neck and shoulders. In her right hand she holds

a bouquet of roses, a symbol of love, and wears

only a gold bracelet and an earring. Her posture

is relaxed; with her left hand she seems to be

touching herself in an erotic way. Olympia, on the

other hand, looks at the viewer in a frank, un-

ashamed, straight-on, not seductive way. She, too,

wears a bracelet and earrings, but also she wears

shoes and a black ribbon around her neck, which

have the effect of emphasizing her nakedness. Her

hair is reddish-brown and pinned back in a severe

style, despite the flower in her hair. With her

right hand, she pulls upward on a silk shawl. Her

posture is more rigid. She covers herself with a

flat left hand.

Through Venus’s open window, we can see that

she lives in a beautiful place with gardens and

marble columns. The soft light indicates that it

is morning and gives her skin an ivory tone. Ve-

nus’s servants seem to be gathering clothes for

her, and her dog, a symbol of fidelity, is curled

up at the foot of her bed. Olympia’s bedroom is

darker; through a crack in the curtains, we can

see that it is nighttime. Olympia’s servant is

delivering flowers, possibly from a client, which

Olympia doesn’t notice. Olympia’s pet is a cat, a

symbol of promiscuity, and it is awake, also look-

ing directly at the viewer. The harsh light on

Olympia’s body gives her skin a yellow tint.

Although both paintings have raised eyebrows,

it is odd that of the two, Olympia, which is the

less erotic, is the one that caused a public up-

roar. High Renaissance art’s typical subject mat-

ter was scenes from the Bible or mythology. Ti-

tian’s Venus is a classical figure; it is not

unusual for her to be nude. Manet’s subject mat-

ter, on the other hand, was modernity—scenes from

modern life—which was innovative. Olympia is not a

classical figure; she is clearly a prostitute and

therefore immoral (in the eyes of Manet’s public).

Another reason the public was outraged by Olympia

is her feminist attitude. Titian’s Venus wants to

please the male viewer with her seductive powers

and promise of love and fidelity. Olympia is less

pleasing, more defiant. Her rigid posture and her

efforts to cover herself say that she is not con-

ducting business at the moment and doesn’t appre-

ciate the intrusion. She is a real, modern woman,

not an idealized one like Venus. She, and no one

else, is in charge of her sexuality.

Before Turning In the Examination

Save a few moments at the end of the writing period to relax and reread
your answer. Use the remaining time to improve connections among your
ideas. Add any pertinent additional information that will strengthen your
essay.

G rammar and S tyle

Definitions Parts of Speech

Sentence Parts
Sentence Structures Sentence Types
Fragments
Run-ons
Syntax
Choosing Words Choosing Verbs
Choosing Pronouns
Wordiness
Biased Language
Style
Punctuation Comma
Semicolon
Colon
Dash
Apostrophe
Quotation Marks
Mechanics Capitalization
Numbers
Italics
Hyphens

159
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Grammar and Style
160

To retain your reader’s interest, take the final step—editing your essay—to
ensure that there are no distracting errors in sentence structure, grammar,
usage, punctuation, and mechanics. This section of The Art of Writing about
Art is designed as a reference manual to assist you in avoiding such errors.
Throughout this handbook, incorrect sentences are marked with an X.

Definition s

In communicating about art, one must command the language of art—be

conversant in the terms used by artists and critics. By the same token, in com-
municating about writing, one must command the language of grammar. For
example, your instructor may tell you that your sentence contains a dangling
modifier, but you will not be able to correct the mistake until you know what
a dangling modifier is. This section of the handbook provides definitions and
examples to enhance your command of the language of grammar.

Parts of Speech
The eight parts of speech are the basic elements of English grammar. An
understanding of these parts of speech is prerequisite to understanding gram-
mar. In every sentence, every word functions as one part of speech. A word,
however, can function as one part of speech in one sentence and as another part
of speech in another sentence. In the sentence, “Henry Moore’s sculptures ap-
peal to senses other than sight,” the word appeal is a verb. In the sentence, “The
genius of Henry Moore’s sculptures lies in their appeal to our senses,” the word
appeal is a noun. Knowing the parts of speech enables you to use words correctly.

Noun A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing. Nouns can
be possessive, singular or plural, proper or common, concrete or abstract.
Possessive nouns contain apostrophes; proper nouns are capitalized. Verb
forms known as gerunds (ending in ing) are nouns. The nouns are underlined
in the following sentences.
Henry Moore decided in school, after learning about Michelangelo, to become a
sculptor. His decision to enter the Leeds School of Art led to a long and brilliant
career in sculpting.

Pronoun A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns

occur in the subjective, objective, and possessive cases. They also can be first,
second, and third person. Pronouns possess gender: masculine, feminine,
and neuter. Pronouns can be singular or plural. There are many types of
pronouns: personal, possessive, intensive, reflexive, relative, demonstrative,
indefinite, reciprocal, and interrogative. The pronouns are underlined in the
following sentences.

Moore’s drawing Reclining Nude is naturalistic; his sculpture Reclining Figure is abstract.
It shows us the human body in a new way. His war drawings are also famous; they
depict Londoners enduring the horrors of war in what Winston Churchill called their
“finest hour.”

Verb A verb is a word that expresses action or being. Verbs can be regular
or irregular; active or passive; imperative, subjunctive, or indicative; simple
or progressive; singular or plural; transitive or intransitive. One type of
intransitive verb is a linking verb—usually a form of the verb be. Verbs have
four principal parts: present, past, past participle, and present participle.
A verb in the English language will be in one of six tenses: present, past,
future, present perfect, past perfect, or future perfect. Some verbs are main
verbs; others are helping verbs. Helping verbs are forms of have, do, and be.
Modals are a subset of helping verbs: can, could, may, might, must, should, will,
and would. A verb consists of the main verb plus any helping verbs. The verbs
are underlined in the following sentences.
When he was composing his artist’s statement for an exhibition, Moore wrote, “The
human figure is what interests me most deeply, but I have found principles of form and
rhythm from the study of natural objects.”

Adjective An adjective describes, or modifies, a noun or pronoun.

Adjectives usually answer one of the following questions: Which one?
What kind? How many? The articles—a, an, the—are usually classified as
adjectives. Some verb forms, called participles, are used as adjectives, for
example, the words recurring and reclining in the following sentences. The
adjectives are underlined in the following sentences.
A recurring theme in Moore’s work is the reclining female. Like Brancusi, Moore strove
to capture not the outward form but the essence of natural figures and landscapes by
using abstract symbolism.

Adverb An adverb describes, or modifies, a verb, adjective, or adverb. The

adverbs are underlined in the following sentence.
We cannot fairly judge Henry Moore’s art unless we first try earnestly to understand
modern art.

Preposition A preposition is a word that indicates the relationship between

a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence. The prepositions are
underlined in the following sentence.
Henry Moore may have been drawn toward primitivism out of discontent with
civilization.

Conjunction A conjunction is a connector. There are three kinds of

conjunctions: coordinate, subordinate, and correlative.
• Coordinate conjunctions connect items of equal importance in
sentences. There are seven coordinate conjunctions: but, or, yet, for, and,
nor, and so. (Remember the acronym BOYFANS.)

• Subordinate conjunctions connect subordinate clauses to main

clauses. Some common subordinate conjunctions are if, when,
whenever, although, even though, unless, because, before, after, as, whereas,
wherever, and since.
• Correlative conjunctions occur in pairs: either/or, neither/nor, not
only/but also. The conjunctions are underlined in the following
sentences.
Either you like Henry Moore’s work or you don’t. Although his sculptures are
abstract, they carry tactile appeal because we want to touch them. Both Moore
and Brancusi simplified the shapes of their subjects, but neither suggested a simple
interpretation.

Interjection An interjection expresses surprise or emotion. Interjections

like wow and hooray are usually set off from sentences and followed by
exclamation marks. Mild interjections like oh and well are usually incorporated
into sentences and set off with commas. Interjections are rarely used in formal
writing.

Exercise H-1

1. Underline the nouns in the following sentence. Double

underline the pronoun.
Georgia O’Keeffe gave up painting for four years, saying
that the smell of turpentine made her sick.
2. Underline the verb in the following sentence.
O’Keeffe’s future husband, photographer Alfred Stieglitz,
exhibited her drawings without first notifying her of his
intentions.
3. Underline the adjectives in the following sentences. Double
underline the adverbs.
Throughout their romantic involvement, Stieglitz took
over 350 photographs of O’Keeffe, many of them in the
nude. Years later, O’Keeffe said, “I felt somehow that the
photographs had nothing to do with me personally.”
4. Underline the prepositions in the following sentences. Double
underline the conjunctions.
For twenty years, O’Keeffe lived and worked in New
Mexico, where, she wrote, the cliffs “are almost painted for
you—you think—until you try to paint them.”

Sentence Parts
Every word, phrase, or clause in a sentence has a function. Knowing the
function of a word or group of words helps us create grammatically correct
sentences.

Verb (or Predicate) Every sentence contains at least one verb, or

predicate, which expresses the action of the sentence. The verb in the
following sentence is underlined.
The City of Chicago unveiled its Picasso sculpture on August 15, 1967, in Civic
Center Plaza.

Subject Every sentence contains at least one subject—the person, place,

or thing responsible for the action. To find the subject of a sentence, find
the verb first. Then ask, “Who or what _____________?” (Fill in the blank
with the verb.) The answer to that question is the subject of the sentence.
The subject in the following sentence is underlined. It answers the question
“Who or what unveiled?”
The City of Chicago unveiled its Picasso sculpture on August 15, 1967, in Civic Center
Plaza.

Object An object is a noun or pronoun about which the action is performed.

There are three kinds of objects: direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of
prepositions.
• Direct Object Not every sentence needs a direct object, as in “Picasso
sculpted.” However, transitive verbs need direct objects. To find the
direct object of a sentence, first find the verb. Then ask “____________
what or whom?” (Fill in the blank with the verb.) The answer to that
question is the direct object. The direct object in the following sentence
is underlined. It answers the question “Unveiled what?”
The City of Chicago unveiled its Picasso sculpture on August 15, 1967, in Civic
Center Plaza.

• Indirect Object Not every sentence contains an indirect object.

However, when an object is transferred, the recipient of the object is
the indirect object. To find the indirect object of a sentence, first find
the verb. Then ask “_______________ to whom?” (Fill in the blank
with the verb.) The answer to that question is the indirect object. The
indirect object in the following sentence is underlined. It answers the
question “Gave to whom?”
Picasso gave the City of Chicago his sculpture.

• Object of a Preposition All prepositions take an object. To find

the object of a preposition, first find the preposition. Then ask,
“_____________ what or whom?” (Fill in the blank with the preposi-
tion.) The answer to the question is the object of the preposition. The

object of the preposition in the following sentence is underlined. It

answers the question “In what?”
The Picasso sculpture is located in Daley Plaza, formerly named Civic Center Plaza.

Complement Some sentences are not complete unless they contain a

complement—a noun or adjective that completes the meaning of a noun.
There are two kinds of complements: subject complements and object
complements.
• Subject Complement A subject complement either renames or
describes the subject of a sentence. Subject complements follow
linking verbs, which are some form of the verb be or some word that
approximates the meaning of be such as seem or appear. The subject
complements in the following sentences are underlined. The subject
complements in the first sentence are nouns that rename the subjects;
the subject complements in the second sentence are adjectives that
describe the subjects.
What the Picasso sculpture represents could be a sphinx, or it could be a woman.
The Chicago Picasso was initially controversial, but now it is beloved.

• Object Complement An object complement follows a direct object

and either renames or describes it. The object complements in the
following sentences are underlined. The first object complement is a
noun that renames the direct object; the second object complement is
an adjective that describes the direct object.
Chicagoans often call the sculpture “The Picasso.”
Some people hated the sculpture, calling it monstrous.

Modifier Many sentences contain more than the necessities. These

additional parts are modifiers, or describing words. The simplest modifiers
are one-word adjectives and adverbs. Many phrases and clauses function as
modifiers as well.

Connector Conjunctions function as connectors. They connect words,

phrases, and clauses.

Phrase A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a
verb. Some phrases function as essential parts of sentences—subjects, subject
complements, and objects. Others function as modifiers. The phrases in the
following sentences are underlined.
• Prepositional Phrase A prepositional phrase begins with a preposi-
tion and ends with the object of the preposition.
Brancusi’s Bird in Space began as a naturalistic image of a bird standing at rest.

• Appositive Phrase An appositive phrase is a noun or adjective

phrase that renames or describes a noun.
Brancusi, Rodin’s former assistant, tried to preserve the original character of the
stone in Rodin’s famous sculpture The Kiss.

• Infinitive Phrase An infinitive phrase usually begins with an infini-

tive—the word to plus the basic form of the verb. The phrase includes
all of the modifiers and objects that belong to the infinitive.
Two of Brancusi’s objectives in creating Torso may have been to simplify the human
body and to use light to reinforce the length and roundness of the shapes.

• Gerund Phrase A gerund is a verb form that ends with ing and is
used as a noun. A gerund phrase usually begins with a gerund and
includes all of its objects and modifiers.
Understanding Brancusi’s tendency toward minimalism is helpful in acquiring a taste
for contemporary minimalists like Scott Burton.

A gerund or gerund phrase functions in a sentence the same way a

noun functions—as subject, object, complement, or appositive.
• Participial Phrase A participle is a verb form that is being used as
an adjective. A participial phrase usually begins with a participle and
includes all of its objects and modifiers.
Blurring the boundaries between sculpture, furniture, and architecture, Brancusi
created Endless Column and Table of Silence, currently situated in a park at Tirgu-jiu.

Adjectives are not essential parts of sentences, and because partici-

ples and participial phrases function as adjectives, they are also nones-
sential. You should be able to cross out the participles and participial
phrases and still have a complete sentence.
• Absolute Phrase An absolute phrase would be a sentence in its own
right if some form of the verb be had not been omitted.
Brancusi’s Torso of a Girl, its simplicity reminiscent of the art of Cycladic civilization,
throws new light on ancient cultures and their art.

Clause A clause is a word group that contains both a subject and a verb.
There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent.
• Independent Clause An independent clause can stand alone as a
complete sentence. The independent clause in the following sentence
is underlined.
An influential work of twentieth-century conceptual art, Christo’s Surrounded Islands
expanded many people’s ideas about art.

• Dependent Clause A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb

but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. There are three kinds
of dependent clauses: adjective, adverb, and noun.
• Adjective clauses function as adjectives: they modify, or describe, nouns
and pronouns. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun, usually
who, whose, whom, which, or that.
The islands, which were surrounded by a pink gossamer fabric, actually
benefited from Christo’s project.
• Adverb clauses function as adverbs: they modify, or describe, verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs. Adverb clauses begin with subordinate
conjunctions.
After Christo’s workers dismantled the project, the islands experienced an
increase in the population of manatees.
• Noun clauses function as nouns: subjects, objects, complements, or apposi-
tives. Noun clauses begin with relative pronouns, usually who, which, that,
or what.
No one predicted that Christo’s Surrounded Islands in Biscayne Bay would be
so popular.

Exercise H-2

1. Underline the subjects in the following sentence. Double

underline the verbs. Circle the direct object. Draw a squiggly
line under the indirect object.
During the time van Gogh lived and painted in Arles, he
wrote his brother many letters.
2. Underline the subject complement in the following sentence.
Double underline the object complement.
Van Gogh was a Dutch Post-Impressionist who painted a picture
of a place where, he said, “one can ruin oneself, go mad, or com-
mit a crime”; he named the painting The Night Café [Figure H.1].
3. Underline the prepositional phrases in the following sentences.
Double underline the appositive phrase. Triple underline the
infinitive phrase. Hint: Sometimes one kind of phrase can
appear within another kind; for example, a prepositional phrase
may occur within an appositive phrase.
Paul Gaugin painted a portrait of Vincent van Gogh, Painter
of Sunflowers, while van Gogh painted Vase with Fifteen
Sunflowers, intended as part of his project to decorate the
yellow house where they lived.

4. In the following sentences, underline the gerund phrase.

Double underline the participial phrase. Triple underline the
absolute phrase.
Quarreling often with Gaugin, van Gogh began to lose hope
for establishing a utopia for artists. His mental health in
decline, van Gogh cut off part of his left ear.
5. In the following sentences, underline the adjective clauses. Double
underline the adverb clause. Triple underline the noun clauses.
During his last days at Arles, several townspeople, who
called him fou roux (red-headed madman), demanded
that he be evicted from the yellow house. While van Gogh
convalesced in a hospital, his doctor reported that he was
suffering from the delusion that he was being poisoned.

Figure H.1. Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café, 1888. Oil on canvas,
28 ½ 3 36 ¼”. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Connecticut.

Senten c e Struc t u res

A sentence is a word group that contains at least one subject and verb.

Sentence Types
There are four sentence types in the English language. Using all four types
ensures variety in sentence length and structure.

1. A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. It may

contain more than one subject or verb, but it is not divisible into more
than one clause.
Mrs. N’s Palace is one of Louise Nevelson’s most famous works.

2. A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses.

Nevelson’s relief sculptures have four sides, but they are meant to be viewed from
the front only.

3. A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one

dependent clause.
Mrs. N’s Palace, which is made of odds and ends, is a world unto itself.

4. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent

clauses, making the sentence compound, and at least one dependent
clause, making the sentence complex.
The pieces that are assembled in Louise Nevelson’s sculptures create a sense of order
out of chaos, and the monochromatic color, which is usually black, further signifies unity.

Fragments
Sentence fragments are word groups that pose as complete sentences but are
incomplete. Although they are deliberately used at times for creative effect,
they are usually mistakes in essays and should be corrected.
Length is not the issue when it comes to fragments. A very short word group
may be a complete sentence, just as a very long word group may be a fragment.
Complete Sentence: Dale Chihuly works with glass.
Fragment: Dale Chihuly, whose expanding importance as an
artist results largely from his public installations.
A frequent cause of fragments is mistaking a dependent clause for an
independent one.
X Because Chihuly attributes his popularity to his medium—glass.

Another frequent cause of fragments is mistaking participles for verbs.

X Glass spilling onto the dirt floor of his workshop.

Fragments are often easy to identify in isolation. However, when they

are positioned inside a paragraph, they are harder to identify because the
paragraph sounds correct when it is read quickly.
X In an intentional “accident,” glass spilled across the dirt floor of Chihuly’s workshop.
Creating a flood of sizzling glass that the artist captured in photographs.

Following are two ways to repair a fragment:

• Attach it to a neighboring sentence.
• Give it its own subject and verb.

Run-ons
A run-on sentence consists of two or more independent clauses that have
been incorrectly joined. There are two types of run-on sentences.
• In a fused sentence, independent clauses are joined without any
punctuation.
X The left panel of Hieronymus Bosch’s Garden of Earthly Delights shows God,
Adam, and Eve relaxing the Garden of Eden is a peaceful place.

• In a comma splice, independent clauses are joined with a comma.

he left panel of Hieronymus Bosch’s Garden of Earthly Delights shows God,
X T
Adam, and Eve relaxing, the Garden of Eden is a peaceful place.

A frequent cause of run-on sentences is connecting independent clauses with

adverbs like however instead of coordinating conjunctions.
he left panel of Garden of Earthly Delights depicts a peaceful scene, however, the
X T
right panel depicts a nightmare.

Another frequent cause of run-on sentences is forcing a pronoun (usually this

or it) into the same sentence as the noun to which it refers.
he right panel depicts a nightmare, it contains surreal elements of violence like
X T
walking knives and musical instruments of torture.

Following are four ways to repair a run-on sentence:

• Separate the independent clauses with a period.
• Separate the independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating
conjunction (but, or, yet, for, and, nor, so).
• Separate the independent clauses with a semicolon.
• Convert one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause.

Syntax
Syntax is the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed
sentences. Following are explanations of some common syntactical mistakes.

Misplaced Modifier A misplaced modifier is a modifying word, phrase,

or clause that is in the wrong place in the sentence. In the following sentence,
“A surrealistic painting” is misplaced.
X A surrealistic painting, Frida Kahlo placed an image of herself in the center of The
Wounded Table, which exhibits her identification with Christ as a victim of betrayal.

Dangling Modifier A dangling modifier is a modifying word, phrase, or

clause for a word that is not in the sentence.
X Placing her image in the center of the table, it is apparent that The Wounded Table
expresses identification with Christ, a fellow victim of betrayal.

In the preceding sentence, “Placing her image in the center of the table”
should modify “Frida Kahlo”—the person who is doing the placing—but
“Frida Kahlo” (or simply “Kahlo”) is not in the sentence.

Faulty Predication Faulty predication is a term for a sentence that

claims that someone or something is being or doing something unlikely or
impossible.
n example of Kahlo’s sense of abandonment is the nurse who holds the infant
X A
Frida unaffectionately.

Faulty Comparison A faulty comparison makes an incomplete or

illogical comparison.
X Frida Kahlo’s work is more personal.

X In Still Life: Viva la Vida y el D. Juan Farill, political concerns exist but are less prevalent
than Diego Rivera’s work.

Note the difference between the words like and as. In comparisons, like is
usually a preposition; it is the first word of a prepositional phrase. As is
usually a subordinate conjunction; it is the first word of a clause. Following
is a sentence that misuses the word like.
ahlo often expresses her grief at Diego Rivera’s rejection of her, like she does in
X K
The Two Fridas.

Faulty Definition A faulty definition incorrectly defines a word. A

common faulty definition defines a noun as an adverb using where or when.
n example of surrealism in Frida Kahlo’s work is when she suspends images, such
X A
as body parts, in midair.

Another common faulty definition uses is because instead of is that.

X The reason Frida Kahlo includes a purple orchid in Henry Ford Hospital is because
Diego Rivera brought her one while she was in the hospital.

Unnecessary Shift An unnecessary shift in person, tense, voice, or

mood is regarded as a mistake.
A first-person pronoun indicates the person speaking; a second-person
pronoun indicates the person being spoken to; a third-person pronoun in-
dicates the person being spoken about. In the following sentences, there is a
shift from third to second person.
iewers of Kahlo’s self-portraits have noticed that the portraits are hard and unflat-
X V
tering, whereas Kahlo herself was exotically beautiful.You sense that she was paint-
ing herself as she felt, not as she looked.

The following sentence shifts from present tense to past tense.

ehuana clothing is the subject of several of Kahlo’s paintings. The Two Fridas
X T
contrasted modern and traditional dresses.
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
S e n t e nce St ruc t ures
171

The following sentence shifts from active to passive voice.

he Broken Column symbolizes Kahlo’s broken physical and emotional conditions; her
X T
spinal cord is represented as a cracked ionic column, and her emotional vulnerability
is heightened by her nudity.

The following sentence shifts from the imperative mood (a command) to the
indicative mood (an assertion).
X Read Kahlo’s biography, and then you should see her work.

Mixed Construction A mixed construction combines incompatible

sentence structures. The following sentence begins as a statement and ends
as a question.
X F rida Kahlo asks us to examine her personal tragedies and then ask what can we
learn from them.

The following mixed construction begins as a complex sentence (with the

subordinate conjunction although) and then switches to a compound sentence
(with the coordinate conjunction but).
lthough Frida Kahlo’s still lifes are richly colorful and textured, but they are also
X A
disturbing.

The following mixed construction features a prepositional phrase (beginning

with the preposition by) incorrectly serving as the subject of the verb reveals.
X By using flowers and fruit as metaphors for the female genitalia reveals Frida Kahlo’s
suggestion that the female body is both fragile and a thing to be consumed.

Parallelism Parallelism is the presentation of two or more items in like

grammatical form. Parallelism adds elegance and rhythm to sentences,
as seen in the following sentence. The items in like grammatical form are
adjectives modifying the noun artist.
Whether one defines Kahlo as primarily a surrealistic, Marxist-feminist, or Mexican
artist, her reputation continues to grow.

The following sentences could be improved by using parallelism.

X F rida Kahlo’s work arises from her sterility, ill health, Diego Rivera’s treatment of her,
and she was anxious since childhood because her mother neglected her.
X Kahlo’s still lifes combine images of mangled fruit and coconuts that cry.

Exercise H-3
Write corrected versions of the sentences that are preceded by an X in
the section titled “Sentence Structures.”

Ch oo sin g Words

One way to improve your writing is to choose words carefully. “The difference
between the right word and the almost right word,” Mark Twain said, “is the
difference between lightning and the lightning bug.”

Choosing Verbs
Choosing the right verb will anchor your sentence in clarity.

Active versus Passive Verbs Choose active instead of passive verbs

whenever possible without losing clarity of meaning. In an active construction,
the subject of the verb is doing the acting. In a passive construction, the
subject is passively being acted upon. To create a passive verb, use some
form of the verb be—am, is, are, was, were, been, being—with the past participle
of another verb.
Active Construction: Some African masks caricature human characteris-
tics such as bravery.
Passive Construction: Human characteristics such as bravery are
caricatured by some African masks.

Williams / Alamy.

Passive verbs are inadvisable because they create unnecessarily wordy

sentences. Passive constructions also lead to other mistakes in sentence
structure, such as dangling modifiers.

Strong versus Weak Verbs Strong verbs produce strong writing.

Whenever possible, choose simple, active verbs. To ensure that your verbs
are simple and active, find all of the forms of be, have, and do and replace
as many of them as possible with a simplified version of the same verb or
another verb altogether.
Weak Strong
is painting paints
has a likeness to resembles
does an imitation of imitates
is a symbol of symbolizes
is afraid of fears
is of the opinion that believes

Verb Tenses Stay in the present tense whenever you are describing a work
of art. Use the present tense as well when speaking of the artist’s act of
creation, even if the artist is dead. In the following example, the present tense
verb is underlined.
The sculptor of the married couple from Zaire creates a sense of harmony while
reflecting traditional gender roles.

Subject-Verb Agreement A verb agrees with its subject in number: If the

subject is singular, the verb is singular; if the subject is plural, the verb is
plural. In the following examples, subjects are underlined; verbs are double
underlined.
The Satimbe mask represents the woman wearing the mask.
Satimbe masks represent women.

Words placed between the subject and its verb can confuse the issue of
subject-verb agreement.
he Satimbe mask, as well as other celebratory and commemorative masks, help to
X T
dramatize creation stories.
The Satimbe mask, as well as other celebratory and commemorative masks, helps
to dramatize creation stories.

The subject of a verb is never inside a prepositional phrase. When examining

a sentence for subject-verb agreement, cross out prepositional phrases to
simplify the task.
The shrines to Mamy Wata blend beliefs about water spirits with modern ideas of
money and progress.

Subject-verb disagreements often occur when the subjects are singular

indefinite pronouns. The following indefinite pronouns are singular and
thus require a singular verb.
one nobody
no one each
anyone anybody
everyone everybody
everything anything
something nothing
someone somebody
either neither

X Not one of Europe’s or America’s textbooks on the African arts have captured the
complexity of the work.
Not one of Europe’s or America’s textbooks on the African arts has captured the
complexity of the work.

Choosing Pronouns
Choosing the correct pronoun presents many grammatical challenges, as
noted in the following sections.

Avoiding “I” Although using the first-person pronouns I and me in formal

writing is not always wrong, it is a mistake to write more about yourself than
about the subject. The following example is focused more on the writer than
on the subject.
X When I was assigned the task of writing about Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper, I was
intimidated because I didn’t fully understand the painting. But now that I have read
some essays on the Last Supper, I realize that each group of three disciples conveys a
particular emotion.

Pronoun Case Pronouns have three cases: subjective (or nominative),

objective, and possessive. Choose a subjective pronoun when your verb
needs a subject or subject complement, an objective pronoun when your
verb or preposition needs an object, and a possessive pronoun to show
possession.
When a sentence contains a compound subject or object, the easiest way to
choose the correct pronoun is to strike through all of the words in the group
except the pronoun in question. Once you have chosen the correct pronoun,
put the stricken words back into the sentence. The correct pronouns in the
following examples are underlined.
Salvador Dali may not seem to have much in common with Leonardo da Vinci, but both
Leonardo and he painted Christ’s Last Supper.

To both Leonardo and him, the Last Supper represents betrayal.

Subject complements are in the subjective case.

Judas reveals, by holding a bag of money, that it is he who has betrayed Christ.

Choose who when the pronoun will serve as a subject or subject complement.
It is Judas who holds the bag of money in the Last Supper.

Choose whom if the pronoun will serve as an object of a verb or a preposition.

To whom does Christ refer when he says, “One of you will betray me”?

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement A pronoun usually refers to a

specific noun. That noun is the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns must agree
with their antecedents in three ways:
• number (singular or plural)
• gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter)
• person (first, second, or third).
The pronoun is underlined in the following examples; the antecedent is
double underlined.
X In the Last Supper, everyone expresses their surprise.
In the Last Supper, everyone expresses his surprise.

X E ach of the disciples reveals their own individual character.

Each of the disciples reveals his own individual character.

X E very artist wishes they could create a work of art as memorable as the Last
Supper.
Every artist wishes he or she could create a work of art as memorable as the Last
Supper.
All artists wish they could create a work of art as memorable as the Last Supper.

Unclear Pronoun Reference A pronoun usually refers to something

specific; otherwise, the pronoun’s reference may be unclear.
ost of the disciples hold their hands in an expression of surprise. This creates a
X M
rhythmical pattern.
Most of the disciples hold their hands in an expression of surprise. This placement
of the hands creates a rhythmical pattern.

Wordiness
Effective writing is usually free of unnecessary words. Wordiness is not
related to sentence length. Many long sentences are terse; many short
sentences are wordy. To proofread for wordiness, look for redundancies and
unnecessary prepositional phrases.

Wordy Better
red in color red
shaped like a rectangle rectangular
over-exaggerate exaggerate
basic fundamentals basics (or fundamentals)
form of media medium
come to the conclusion conclude
in the event that if
in the painting, it shows the painting shows
in the article, it says the article says
very large massive
very unique unique
very many times frequently

Repetitiousness is another cause of wordiness.

X Willem de Kooning paints large and massive women.

X Jackson Pollock’s works are nonrepresentational and unrealistic.

X The painting’s universality and appeal to viewers everywhere are its strengths.

Passive and weak verbs cause wordiness, as do “There is” and “There are”
constructions.
X Women are portrayed satirically as love goddesses by de Kooning.

X Paint is splattered and dripped by Jackson Pollock.

X Judas is holding a bag of money.

X There is a sensuous appeal to viewers everywhere in Dale Chihuly’s glass art.

Biased Language
Use words that do not imply bias, or prejudice. For example, use humanity,
humankind, or people instead of mankind. Refer to the hypothetical doctor,
nurse, or astronaut as he or she or she or he. Use pairs of nouns that express
equality, such as husband and wife instead of man and wife. Refer to specific peo-
ples specifically, as in Seminoles, rather than generally, as in Native Americans.

Style
Naturally, if you are writing or speaking informally, you may say anything
you want. If you are writing formally, however, there are correct and incor-
rect choices. For example, if whom is correct, use it, even if it sounds stilted.
Avoid clichés and overworked phrases such as all in all, to make a long story
short, and easier said than done.

Choose vivid, specific words. You may write, “In African art, some women
have fancy hairdos.” But a more vivid sentence would be “In the African
Benin sculptures, the Queen Mother wears a coiffure called the ‘chicken
beak.’” You could describe Mary Cassatt’s The Bath by writing, “The woman
bathes a child.” Or, if you wanted to give the reader a clearer sense of the
painting, you might write, “The mother holds the toddler gently on her lap,
dipping the child’s foot into the clear water of a bathing bowl.”
Avoid words or phrases that dictionaries label as informal, slang, colloqui-
al, archaic, illiterate, nonstandard, obsolete, or substandard. Think of your
audience as readers of newspapers such as The New York Times or journals
and magazines such as Art in America. Tasteful readers are not accustomed to
finding coarse or substandard language in their reading material.

Exercise H-4
Choose the correct (or preferable) word, phrase, or sentence.
1. a. In 1190, construction of the Louvre was ordered by Philippe
August.
b. In 1190, Philippe August ordered the construction of the
Louvre.
2. a. In the fourteenth century, Charles V did a transformation of
the Louvre to turn it into a residence for himself.
b. In the fourteenth century, Charles V transformed the Louvre
into a residence for himself.
3. With his glass pyramid, I. M. Pei (creates/created) a light, open
entrance into the Louvre.
4. Not everyone, including those who believe the entryway carries
the mark of Satan with 666 glass panes, (admire/admires) the
Louvre Pyramid.
5. Pei was not solely responsible for the design of the Louvre
Pyramid; then-president François Mitterrand and (he/him)
collaborated on the concept of blending classical and
ultra-modern architecture.
6. Between you and (I/me), the first floor is the place to begin an
exploration of the Louvre.
7. (Who/Whom) do you trust to guide you most efficiently
through the Louvre?

8. a. The ancient Statue of Victory is located in the Denon Wing of

the Louvre. It is extremely popular with visitors.
b. The ancient Statue of Victory, which is extremely popular
with visitors, is located in the Denon Wing of the Louvre.
9. a. Standing in the Marly Courtyard of the Louvre, I noticed a
very large number of statues of gods and goddesses from
Greek mythology adorning the place.
b. An abundance of statues of gods and goddesses from Greek
mythology adorn the Marly Courtyard of the Louvre.
10. a. Sailors are often drawn to Gericault’s The Raft of the Medusa,
which shows humankind’s struggle to survive.
b. Sailors and their wives are often drawn to Gericault’s The
Raft of the Medusa, which shows mankind’s struggle to
survive.
11. a. I hope and pray that the totally awesome Louvre will not
start charging an arm and a leg.
b. Visitors will be disappointed if the Louvre raises its
admission fees.

P unc tuation

Punctuation consists of marks such as periods, commas, and semicolons that

clarify a sentence’s meaning.

Comma
A comma signifies a pause. Following four basic rules will usually result in
correct comma usage.
• Use a comma after an introductory phrase or clause. An introductory
phrase is nonessential. If you omitted the introductory phrase or
clause, you would still have a complete sentence.
By using the science of perspective, Dürer increases the sense of reality of his
woodcuts.

X What Dürer creates in his self-portrait, is a masterpiece of narcissism.

• Use commas between words, phrases, and clauses that appear in a

series of three or more. Do use a comma before the word and that
introduces the final item in the series.

Dürer’s Life of the Virgin, St. Jerome, and The Four Horsemen represent his immersion
in the theological discourse of his time.

• Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction—but, or, yet, for, and,

nor, so—that links independent clauses.
Dürer was the first German artist to embody the principles of the Renaissance,
and he was also the first non-Italian artist to achieve celebrity.

• Set off nonessential words, phrases, and clauses with commas.

The Great Piece of Turf, like Leonardo’s Embryo in the Womb, conveys the
sixteenth-century idea that nature is a worthy subject for an artist.

Dürer’s Apocalypse, which synthesizes the literal and the sublime, draws from
classical iconography.

Adam, who has acquired knowledge, covers himself in the Bible as well as in
Dürer’s The Fall of Man.

Consider yes, no, mild interjections, terms of direct address, tacked-on

questions, and sharply contrasting elements as nonessential and therefore
requiring a comma.
Yes, Albrecht Dürer was fascinated with classical ideas.

No, Dürer was not an Italian.

Well, Dürer was a writer as well as an artist.

Fellow Germans, please learn about Albrecht Dürer.

Albrecht Dürer had many talents, didn’t he?

Dürer, not Grünewald, is considered the “Leonardo of the North.”

Clauses beginning with that are essential and are not set off with commas.
The style of Dürer’s Apocalypse implies that Dürer had synthesized the literal and the
sublime.

Semicolon
A semicolon separates independent clauses not joined by a coordinating
conjunction.
Albrecht Dürer’s portrait of his mother compels the viewer to reevaluate the
standards of beauty; though old and careworn, she is the subject of a beautiful
drawing.

Colon
A colon separates a summary or series from an independent clause. A colon
does not follow a fragment.
In Melancholia, the angel is surrounded by instruments of science: saw, plane, hammer,
nails, scales, melting pot, polyhedron, and sphere.

X In Melancholia, the instruments of science surrounding the angel are: saw, plane, ham-
mer, nails, scales, melting pot, polyhedron, and sphere.

Dash
A dash signifies a strong pause. A dash consists of two hyphens; most word
processing programs will automatically convert two hyphens to a dash.
• Set off a short summary after a complete main clause with a dash.
Albrecht Dürer may have possessed a wild imagination, but his ability to mirror
nature is particularly evident in a famous watercolor—Hare [Figure H-3].

• Set off an appositive phrase that contains commas with dashes.

The three figures of The Nativity—Mary, Joseph, and the Child—seem insignificant
compared to the ramshackle stable that shelters them.

Figure H.3. Albrecht Dürer, Hare, 1502. Watercolor on paper, 25.1 3 22.6 cm. Graphische
Sammlung Albertina, Vienna, Austria.

Apostrophe
Apostrophes have two uses. The first is to create a contraction, such as don’t, can’t,
or it’s. Avoid contractions in formal writing. The second use of the apostrophe is
to show possession.
• If the noun is singular, add ’s.
St. Michael thrusts his spear into the dragon’s throat.

Dürer’s engraving emphasizes Erasmus’s concentration on his writing.

• If the noun is plural and does not end in s, add ’s.

The four horsemen’s weapons are drawn for battle.

• If the noun is plural and ends in s, add an apostrophe.

The four apostles’ words are written on the frames of the panels.

The possessive pronouns hers, ours, theirs, yours, and its do not contain
apostrophes.

Quotation Marks
Quotation marks set off quotations and titles.
• Set quoted words in quotation marks.
“The works produced by Albrecht Dürer at the turn of the sixteenth century
mark the beginning of the Renaissance style in the North,” writes Erwin Panofsky
in Meaning in the Visual Arts.

• Set the titles of songs, short stories, essays, poems, and periodical
articles in quotation marks.
An article in Partisan Review titled “Contemporary Artists and Their Influences”
compares Susan Rothenberg’s woodcuts to those of Albrecht Dürer.

• Use single quotation marks for quoted material inside of quoted

material.
Gardner’s Art through the Ages says, “Dürer circulated and sold prints in single
sheets, which people of ordinary means could buy and which made him a ‘people’s
artist.’ It also made him a rich man.”

Sometimes capitalization and punctuation in quotations require adjustment.

• Capitalize the first word of a complete quotation but not the first word
of a partial quotation, regardless of whether the word was capitalized
in the original passage.
Of his stay in northern Italy, Dürer wrote, “Here I am a lord, at home a parasite.”

Dürer wrote that in northern Italy he was a “lord” but in Germany a “parasite.”

• Commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation marks.
“And there was war in heaven,” according to Revelation 12:7, which St. Michael’s
Fight against the Dragon illustrates.

• Question marks and exclamation marks are placed inside the closing
marks only when they are part of the quoted material.
In his The Great Piece of Turf, Dürer seems to be asking, “Isn’t even the most
humble piece of ground a worthy subject for art?”

How does St. Michael’s Fight against the Dragon illustrate the biblical passage in
Revelation, “And there was war in heaven”?

• Colons, semicolons, and dashes are placed outside the closing

quotation marks.
The sign Adam holds says, “Albertus Durer Noricus Faciebat 1504”; the words are
Latin, meaning “Albrecht Dürer of Nuremberg made [this engraving] in 1504.”

• Quotations may be introduced with an acknowledgment phrase

followed by a comma. However, if the acknowledgment phrase is an
independent clause, it is followed by a colon.
Kenneth Clark describes Dürer’s inordinate vanity: “His self-portrait, now in
Madrid, with its ringlets of hair framing a face that insists on its sensibility, is a
masterpiece of self-love.”

Use ellipsis dots and brackets to alter quotations.

• Ellipsis dots indicate that words have been omitted from a quoted
passage. Use three ellipsis dots when words are missing in the middle
of a sentence, four dots (a period plus three dots) when words are
missing between sentences.
“In what honor and esteem this art was held by the Greeks and Romans is
sufficiently indicated in the ancient books,” writes Dürer. “Subsequently, though,
it was completely lost . . . and only within the past two hundred years has it been
brought to light again by the Italians.”

Of classical themes, Dürer writes, “In what honor and esteem this art was held
by the Greeks and Romans is sufficiently indicated by the ancient books. . . . [O]nly
within the past two hundred years has it been brought to light again. . . .”

• Brackets can be used to correct capitalization for the purpose of

maintaining grammatical and mechanical integrity, as in the preceding
example. Brackets also can be used to add clarifying words or substitute
clear words for unclear ones.
Dürer writes, “In what honor and esteem this [classical] art was held by the
Greeks and Romans is sufficiently indicated by the ancient books.”

M e cha nics

Mechanics are tools for clarifying meaning. Mechanics entail the use of
capitalization, numbers, italics, and hyphens.

Capitalization
When in doubt about whether to capitalize a word, consult a dictionary. If
the dictionary capitalizes the first letter of a word, it is always capitalized;

otherwise capitalize only in special circumstances. Use capital (or upper

case) letters in proper nouns and titles.
• Proper nouns: Capitalize nouns that name a specific person, place, or
thing:
Vincent van Gogh Arles, France Eiffel Tower

• Titles: Capitalize the first and last words of titles, as well as all words
that are not articles, conjunctions, or prepositions.
The Art of Writing about Art “Remembering Lucien Freud”

The Birth of Venus “Knavery, Trickery and Deceit”

Numbers

• Spell numbers and symbols that can be said in one or two words.
eight thirty-six two hundred seventy percent

• Use numerals for numbers that require more than two words
to say.
235 4,680 $72 98%

• Use combinations of numerals, words, and symbols for large numbers

and for measurements containing decimals.
$40 million 63.5 billion 2.2 tons

• Avoid shifting between spelled numerals and numerals. If numerals

are warranted in the passage, use numerals throughout.
• Avoid starting a sentence with a numeral or with a long spelled
number.
X 6,322 works of art were up for auction last month.

X S ix thousand three hundred twenty-two works of art were up for auction last
month.
Last month, 6,322 works of art were up for auction.

• Dates are expressed in both words and numerals.

X November 12th, 2001
November 12, 2001 or 12 November 2001
the 1980s or the eighties
the seventeenth century
in 1955

Italics
Italicize the titles of large or complete literary and art works, ships, court cases,
foreign words, and words discussed as words (as in the first example below).

Words discussed as words The word painting occurs fourteen times in this chapter.
Books Gardner’s Art through the Ages
Plays Pablo Picasso at the Lapin Agile
Films The Agony and the Ecstasy
Artworks The Starry Night
Magazines Art in America
Journals The Art Bulletin
Newspapers The New York Times
CDs Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks
Television programs The Joy of Painting
Ships H.M.S. Queen Mary
Court cases Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v.Wilson
Foreign phrases quid pro quo

Hyphens
A hyphen connects compound words. When in doubt as to whether two
words should be hyphenated, consult your dictionary. You will find that
some words, such as mother-in-law, are always hyphenated. If the phrase is
not listed, or is listed but not hyphenated, treat the phrase as consisting of
separate words.
• Hyphenate multiple-word adjectives that precede a noun but not that
follow the noun.
floor-to-ceiling construction small-scale sculpture
The construction was floor to ceiling.

• Hyphenate compound modifiers consisting of an adverb and an

adjective that precede a noun, but not those that occur after a noun.
Do not hyphenate modifiers consisting of an adverb ending in ly plus
an adjective.
well-designed building tightly woven fabric
building that was well designed

• Hyphenate compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and

fractions used as adjectives.
seventy-six one-third increase in productivity

• Hyphenate a prefix and a proper noun.

un-American post-Impressionist

Exercise H-5
Correct the errors in punctuation and mechanics in the following
sentences.
1. Pericles who was the leader of the athenians presided over the
construction of the acropolis.
2. The acropolis comprises 4 buildings, the Parthenon, the
Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike, all
of which remain standing today.
3. According to Plutarch’s biography of Pericles the Greek states
protested Athens’ use of war funds to “Gild and embellish
itself, like some pretentious woman bedecked with precious
stones”.
4. The Parthenons well spaced doric columns give the impression
of perfect symmetry, however, there are many irregularities in
the buildings design.
5. Lord Elgin the British ambassador to turkey dismantled and
sold to the British government many of the Acropolis sculptures
including: 15 of the 92 metope panels, and a caryatid from the
Erechtheion.
6. You can read about Lord Elgins escapades in a book by
Christopher Hitchens titled “Imperial Spoils: The Curious Case
Of The Elgin Marbles”.
7. 40% of British people polled say they think the Elgin Marbles
should be returned to Greece.

Clark, T. J. The Painting of Modern Life. Jones, Jonathan. “Worst Ideas of 2012—
New York: Knopf, 1985. Damien Hirst Attempting Still Lifes.”
Crompton, Sarah. “Manet Exhibition: Guardian, December 28, 2012.
Art Worth Queuing For.” Telegraph, Jones, Malcolm. “An American Eye.”
January 26, 2013. Newsweek, January 31, 2000, 62–63.
Cumming, Laura. “Bronze—Review.” Koch, Stephen. “Caravaggio and the
Observer, September 22, 2012. Unseen.” In Writers on Artists. Edited
Davenport, Guy. “Henri Rousseau.” by Daniel Halpern. 71–81. San
In Writers on Artists. Edited by Daniel Francisco: North Point Press, 1988.
Halpern. 147–61. San Francisco: Marez, Curtis. “Aliens and Indians:
North Point Press, 1988. Science Fiction, Prophetic
Dorment, Richard. “Ice Age Art, Photography and Near-Future
British Museum, Review.” Telegraph, Visions.” In Global Visual Cultures:
February 4, 2013. An Anthology. Edited by Zoya Kocur.
——. “Manet: Portraying Life, Royal 227–42. West Sussex, UK: Wiley &
Academy, Review.” Telegraph, Sons, 2011.
January 21, 2013. Matsui, Midori. “Yoko Ono.” Artforum,
Ellison, Ralph. “The Art of Romare December 2011, 274–75.
Bearden.” In Writers on Artists. Edited Merjian, Ara H. “The Vorticists:
by Daniel Halpern. 309–16. San Rebel Artists in London and New
Francisco: North Point Press, 1988. York, 1914–1918.” Artforum, May
Freud, Sigmund. Leonardo da Vinci and a 2011, 278.
Memory of His Childhood. New York: Moore, Charles. “Beauty That Defies
Norton, 1964. Modernity to Last Forever.” Telegraph,
Greenberg, Clement. “Master Léger.” January 28, 2013.
Partisan Review 21 (1954): 90–97. Mount, Harry. “Classical Training
Hall, Emily. “Gillian Wearing.” Artforum, That Made Roy Lichtenstein a Pop
September 2011, 346. Genius.” Telegraph, February 10, 2013.
Hill, Shannen. “Thirty Nine Minutes: Nochlin, Linda. “Women, Art, and
Installations by Nine Artists.” African Power.” In Women, Art, and
Arts (Summer 1999): 76–77. Power. 1–36. New York: Harper &
Holte, Micheal Ned. “Made in L.A. in Row, 1988.
2012.” Artforum, October 2012, 259. Perl, Jed. “The MOMA’s ‘Inventing
Honig, Elizabeth Alice. “Celebrating the Abstraction’ Is Exhilarating,
Golden Age.” Burlington Magazine, Challenging, and Completely Wrong.”
March 2012, 216–17. New Republic, January 19, 2013.
Huxley, Aldous. “Variations on El Pincus-Witten, Robert. “Jasper Johns.”
Greco.” In Writers on Artists. Edited Artforum, September 2011, 342–43.
by Daniel Halpern. 59–69. San ——. “Sol LeWitt: Word 3 Object.”
Francisco: North Point Press, 1988. In Postminimalism into Maximalism:
Janson, Horst. Sixteen Studies. New York: American Art, 1966–1986. 117–22. Ann
Abrams, 1973. Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1987.

186
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
B i bl i o g ra ph y
187

Robertson, Charles. “Leonardo da Solomon-Godeau, Abigail. Male Trouble:

Vinci.” Burlington Magazine, February A Crisis in Representation. London:
2012, 132–33. Thames and Hudson, 1997.
Safire, William, and Leonard Safir, eds. Sooke, Alastair. “Carl Andre: Mass &
Good Advice on Writing. New York: Matter, Turner Contemporary, Margate,
Simon, 1992. Review.” Telegraph, January 28,
Smart, Alastair. “Francis Bacon/Henry 2013.
Moore.” Telegraph, September 13, ——. “Man Ray Portraits, National
2013. Portrait Gallery, Review.” Telegraph,
——. “Vermeer’s Women at Fitzwilliam April 4, 2013.
Museum, Seven Magazine Review.” Seven Wilkin, Karen. “Delacroix at the Met.”
Magazine, November 24, 2011. New Criterion 9 (Spring 1991): 23–29.
——. “Why Leonardo Continues to ——. “El Anatsui at the Brooklyn
Captivate Us.” Telegraph, November 7, Museum.” Hudson Review 66, no. 1
2011. (2013): 209-12.
Solomon, Deborah. “The Resurrection
of Man Ray.” New Criterion 7 (March
1989): 22–28.

Limited Figure 2-4 nagelestock.com / Alamy
Figure 1-2 © Fine Art Images /AGE Figure 2-5 © Peter Horree / Alamy
Fotostock Limited
Figure 1-3 Giraudon / The Bridgeman Figure 3-2 credit line in caption per
Art Library license: © Shadi Ghadirian. Photo
Figure 1-4 Russia, The Philosopher / courtesy of the artist.
Hermitage, St. Petersburg, Russia / Figure 3-3 © Image Asset Management
De Agostini Picture Library / Ltd. / Alamy Limited
E. Lessing / The Bridgeman Art Library Figure 3-4 Digital Image © 2013
Figure 1-5 Malevich, Kazimir Museum Associates / LACMA.
Severinovich (1878–1935) / The Art Licensed by Art Resource, NY
Gallery Collection / Alamy Figure 4-1 Library of Congress
Figure 1-6 © Dennis Hallinan / Alamy Prints and Photographs Division
Limited Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
Figure 1-7 The Charge of the Lancers, Figure 4-2 © CTK / Alamy Limited
1915 (collage), Boccioni, Umberto Figure 4-3 © The Bridgeman Art Library
(1882–1916) / Collection of Riccardo Ltd. / Alamy Limited
and Magda Jucker, Milan, Italy / The Figure 5-1 © Dread Scott. Courtesy of
Bridgeman Art Library the artist.
Figure 1-8 © John Elk III / Alamy Figure 6-1 © Patti McConville / Alamy
Limited Limited
Figure 1-9 © Prisma Bildagentur AG / Figure 7-1 Cengage Learning
Alamy Limited UNF 7-1 © PAINTING / Alamy
Figure 1-10 © Peter Horree / Alamy Figure 7-2 © SuperStock / Alamy
Figure 1-11 The Young Ghillie, 1871 Limited
(w/c on paper), Hardy, James Jnr Figure 7-3 © PAINTING / Alamy
(1832–89) / Private Collection / Figure H-1 © PAINTING / Alamy
© Walker Galleries, Harrogate, North Limited
Yorkshire, UK / The Bridgeman Art Figure H-2 © funkyfood London - Paul
Library Williams / Alamy Limited
Figure 2-1 Cengage Learning Figure H-3 © The Bridgeman Art
Figure 2-2 © The Artchives / Alamy Library Ltd. / Alamy Limited
Limited

188
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Index

A Balance, 13, 15, 45, 85

Abstract art, 6, 7, 15 Baroque, 53
Abstract Expressionism, 14 Bearden, Romare, 41
Abstract(s), 114, 115 Biased language, 159, 176
Academic Search Premier, 115 Bibliography, 42, 115, 116, 127-33, 134, 148
Acknowledged quotation, 120 Bibliography of the History of Art, 115
Acknowledgment phrase, 119, 120 Bilateral symmetrical balance, 13, 15
Actual shape(s), 11, 15 Block comparison paragraph
Actual texture, 10, 11, 15 organization, 39, 40
Adjective clause, 166, 167 Block comparison essay organization,
Adjective(s), 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 171, 184 65-66, 73
Adverb clause, 166, 167 Boccioni, Umberto, 12
Adverb(s), 161, 162, 164, 169, 170, 184 Charge of the Lancers, The, 12
Ahu Akivi, 13 Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, 12
Aeneid, 28 Body (of an essay), 36, 38-41, 46-47, 56, 57, 65,
Aerial perspective, 11, 15 66, 67, 75, 80, 83-87, 98, 103, 104-06, 107,
African Arts, 85 110, 111, 149
African art, 52, 172-74 Body Worlds exhibition, 100
Analogy, 47 Bosch, Hieronymus, 6, 7, 169
Analysis, 27, 28-30, 31, 98 Garden of Earthly Delights, The, 6, 7, 169
Analytical comparison, 44, 62-74 Bourgeois, Louise, 52
Analytical essay, 33, 34, 35, 37, 44, 51-62 Brackets, 182
Analytical thesis, 35, 113 Brainstorming, 32
Andre, Carl, 91 Braque, Georges, 11
Antecedent, 175 Brancusi, Constantin, 85, 161, 162, 164-65
Apostrophe(s), 159, 160, 180-81 Bird in Space, 164
Argument, 27, 30-31, 33, 34, 35, 98-111, 149 Endless Column, 165
Argument essay, 35, 98-111 Table of Silence, 165
Argumentative thesis, 35, 102, 113 Torso, 165
Art Bulletin, The, 112, 120 Torso of a Girl, 165
Art critic, 75-76, 79, 82, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 Brochure, 77
Art criticism, 1, 16-22 Burton, Scott, 165
Art deco, 134-37
Art Full Text, 115 C
Art in America, 177 Call number, 114
Article, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 121, 134, 135, Canaday, John, 91
136, 161, 181, 183 Canova, Antonio, 63
Artist’s statement, 77 Pauline Borghese as Venus, 63
Ascending paragraph organization, 39 Three Graces, The, 99
Ashcan School, 54 Capitalization, 159, 181, 182-83
Assyrian sculpture, 53 Caravaggio, 3, 4-5, 28, 40, 54
Asymmetrical balance, 13, 15 Cardsharps, The, 3, 4-5
Atmospheric perspective, 11, 15 Magdalene Repentant, 40
Audience, 27, 29, 101 Repose on the Flight into Egypt, 40
Axial line, 13 Carriera, Rosalba, 54
Cassatt, Mary, 52, 177
B Bath, The, 177
Bacon, Francis, 86-87 Çatal Hüyük, 54
Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 87 Catalogue(s), 78

189
Copyright 2014 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights,
some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially
affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Index
190

Catalogue entry, 1, 22-25 Contrapposto, 32

Causes and effects, 29, 34, 51, 52, 53-54, 62 Controlling idea, 80-81, 87, 95, 96
Cézanne, Paul, 53, 84 Coolness, 9
Chiaroscuro, 10 Counterargument(s), 35, 98, 100-101,
Chicago Manual of Style, 127 102, 104, 107
Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), 41-42, Counterpoint(s), 35, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,
113, , 105, 120, 127-33, 134 106, 107, 110, 149
Chihuly, Dale, 168, 176 Counterthesis, 35, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
Christian churches, 63 110, 149
Christo, 165-66 Courbet, Gustave, 54
Surrounded Islands, 165-66 Stone Breakers, The, 54
Chronological paragraph organization, 39 Criteria for evaluation, 78, 80, 92, 95, 96
Chrysler Building, 136, 137 Critical race theory, 20
Cimabue, Giovanni, 63 Criticism, 16-22
Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Crystal Bridges Museum, 100
Prophets, 63 Cubist, 53
Cite source(s) 41-42, 47, 57, 62, 74, Cumming, Laura, 79
105, 111, 112, 120-37
Clark, Kenneth, 182 D
Clark, T. J., 18-19 Dadaism, 14
Classical, 32 Dali, Salvador, 22, 174
Clause, 162, 163, 164, 165-66, 167, 168, 169, Last Supper, 174
170, 178, 179, 180, 182 Persistence of Memory, The, 22
Dependent, 166, 168, 169 Dangling modifier(s), 160, 169-70, 173
Adverb, 166, 167 Dark, 10
Adjective, 166, 167 Dash(es), 159, 180, 182
Noun, 166, 167 Date(s), 183
Independent, 165, 167, 168, 169, Davenport, Guy, 38, 39
179, 182 David, Jacques-Louis, 19-20, 63
Cliché(s), 176 Madame Récamier, 63
Colon(s), 159, 179-80, 182 Oath of the Horatii, 19-20
Color(s), 9, 15, 44, 45, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 63, Davis, Lionel, 85
67, 84, 86 De Kooning, Willem, 99, 176
Column of Trajan, 63 Delacroix, Eugène, 91
Comma(s), 159, 169, 178-79, 180, 181, 182 Descending paragraph organization, 39
Comma splice, 169 Description, 27, 28, 31
Compare, 3, 44, 51, 62, 63, 64, Descriptive essay, 28, 33, 34
Comparing, 1, 3, 47 Descriptive thesis, 35, 113
Comparison essay, 44, 62-74 Design, 12
Comparison paragraph, 39-40, 81 Detail, 10
Complement(s), 164, 165, 166, 174, 175 Diaristic criticism, 1, 16, 22
Subject, 164, 175 Dissertation, 112
Object, 164 Donatello, 22
Complementary colors, 9 David, 22
Composition, 11, 12, 23, 51 Douglas, Caroline, 92-95
Concluding sentence, 38 Fish out of Water, 94
Conclusion, 36, 41, 46, 47, 51, 56, 57, 62, Draft, 31
65, 66, 67, 73, 75, 80, 87-91, 92, 95, 96, Drafting, 27, 36-42, 44, 46-47, 56-57, 98,
98, 103, 106, 107, 111, 149 103-06, 117-135
Concrete imagery, 57, 61, 73, 87 Duchamp, Marcel, 31, 84, 99
Conjunction(s), 161-62, 164, 166, 169, 170, Fountain, 99
171, 179, 183 Nude Descending a Staircase, 31, 84
Coordinate, 161, 169, 171, 179, Dürer, Albrecht, 178-82
Correlative, 162 Apocalypse, 179
Subordinate, 162, 166, 170, 171 Fall of Man, The, 179
Connector, 161, 164 Four Horsemen, The, 179
Constructive argument(s), 101, 102, 105 Great Piece of Turf, A, 179
Contour lines, 9 Hare, 180

Life of the Virgin, 179 Formal analysis, 44, 45-51

Melancholia, 179-80 Formal description, 45
St. Jerome, 179 Formal element(s), 1, 8-12, 45, 46, 51,
St. Michael’s Fight against the Dragon, 181 78, 85
Formalistic criticism, 1, 16-17, 22
E Fragonard, Jean-Honoré, 53
Easter Island, 13 Swing, The, 53
Ebert, Roger, 106 Fragment(s), 159, 168, 179
Edit, 31, 103 Frankenthaler, Helen, 63
Editing, 27, 42-43, 44, 50-51, 61-62, 72-74, Bayside, 63
95-96, 98, 110-11, 148-49 Freewrite, 32, 46
Egyptian(s), 53 Freud, Sigmund, 17-18, 30
El Anatsui, 84 Fused sentence, 169
Electronic databases, 114, 115, 116, 135, Fuseli, Henry, 44, 67
136, 137 Nightmare, The, 44, 67-72, 67
Elgin marbles, 185
El Greco, 29, 30 G
Baptism of Christ, The, 29, 30 Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 181, 184
Burial of Count Orgaz, The, 29 Gast, John, 22
Dream of Phillip II, The, 29 American Progress, 22
Elements of style, 23 Gaugin, Paul, 166, 167
Elements of Style, The, 42 Painter of Sunflowers, 166
Ellipsis dots, 182 Gay studies, 20
Ellison, Ralph, 41 Genre, 7
Endnote(s), 42, 119, 127, 128-33, 134, 148 Gentileschi, Artemesia, 54
Energy-in-reserve, 32 Géricault, Théodore, 178
Essay(s), 27, 28, 44-47, 50, 51-74, 81, 83, 91, Ghadirian, Shadi, 44, 57-60
95, 99-107, 110, 111, 149 Be Colorful, 59
Essay examination, 150-58 Like Every Day #16, 58-59, 60
Evaluation, 29, 34, 51, 62, 75, 78, 79, 92, 96 Qajar, 59
Evans, Walker, 76, 77 Generating ideas, 32
Allie Mae Burroughs, Alabama Tenant Farmer Getty Archive, 115
Wife, 76, 77 Giotto, 14, 63
Evidence, 38-39, 60, 61, 73, 76, 96, 101, 104, Madonna Enthroned, 63
105, 106, 111, 149 Girodet, Anne-Louis, 20, 21
Accurate, 38, 61, 73, 96, 104, 111, 149 Sleep of Endymion, The 20, 21
Specific, 38, 61, 73, 96, 104, 111, 149 Gogh, Vincent van, 11, 53, 63, 84, 166-67
Relevant, 38, 61, 73, 96, 104, 111, 149 Night Café, The, 63, 166, 167
Sufficient, 38-39, 61, 73, 96, 104, 111, 149 Potato Eaters, The, 63
Exhibition, 51, 75 Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers, 166
Exhibition review, 51, 75-96 Gothberg, Rachel, 44, 67-72
Exposition, 28 Gothic, 63
Eyck, Jan van, 6, 7, 10 Goya, Francisco José de, 44, 67
Arnolfini Wedding, The, 6, 7, 10, 11 El sueño de la razón produce
monstrous, 67-72, 68
F Los Caprichos, 68, 70, 71
Farewell to Arms, A, 42 Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters,
Faulkner, William, 1 The, 44, 67-72, 68
Faulty comparison, 170 Greek pottery, 54
Faulty definition, 170 Greek sculpture, 53
Faulty predication, 170 Greenberg, Clement, 17
Feminist criticism, 1, 19-20, 22 Grünewald, Matthias, 63, 179
Ferrer, Louisa, 42, 121, 137-42 Crucifixion panel, 63
Flashcard(s), 150, 152 Resurrection panel, 63
Focus question(s), 34, 52-54, 55, 62-63, 64, 65 Grove Dictionary of Art, 115
Footnote(s), 42, 119, 127, 128-33 Guerilla Girls, 100
Foreign phrase, 184 Do Women Have to Be Naked to Get
Foreshortening, 11, 15 into the Met. Museum? 100

H Journal of Aesthetic Education, 118

Hanging indent, 121, 127 Journal(s), 112, 114, 115, 119, 121, 135,
Hanson, Duane, 63 Jstor, 115
Hardy, James, Jr., 23-24
Young Ghillie, 1871, The, 23, 23-24 K
Helping verb(s), 161 Kahlo, Frida, 22, 169-71
Hemingway, Ernest, 42 Broken Column, The, 171
Hidden symbolism, 6 Henry Ford Hospital, 170
Hirst, Damien, 42, 92, 99 Roots, 22
Physical Impossibility of Death in Still Life: Viva la Vida y el D. Juan Farill, 170
the Mind of Someone Living, The, 99 Two Fridas, The, 170
Hitchens, Christopher, 185 Wounded Table, The, 171
Holzmann, Karin, 92-95 Kandinsky, Wassily, 53
Homer, Winslow, 37 Kelly, Ellsworth, 63
After the Hunt, 37 Red Blue Green, 63
Hopper, Edward, 88 Keyword, 114
Horror vacui, 53 King, Stephanie, 23, 24-25
Hue(s), 9, 15 Klee, Paul, 53
Huxley, Aldous, 29 Twittering Machine, 53
Hyphen(s), 159, 180, 182, 184 Koch, Stephen, 40

I L
Ice age art, 82, 85 Lamassu figures, 53
Iconography, 6, 45 Lange, Dorothea, 52
Impasto, 10-11 Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 52
Implied shape(s), 11, 15 Language of art, 1, 5-15
Implied texture, 10, 11, 15 Laocoön Group, The, 28, 53
Impressionism, 14, 52, 151 Lascaux, 33
Impressionist, 54 Lead-in, 37, 46, 50, 56, 57, 61, 66, 72, 73, 80
Index cards, 34, 56, 78, 116 Léger, Fernand, 17
Indian sculpture, 53 Le grand dejeuner, 17
Inductive leap, 29 Three Women, 17
Inductive reasoning, 29 Leonardo da Vinci, 11, 17, 18, 53, 81, 90,
Infer, 4, 28 92, 99, 174
Inference, 4, 28, 29, 51, 57 Embryo in the Womb, 179
Inferring, 1, 4 Last Supper, 174-75
Influences, 23, 78, 84, 91 Madonna and Child with Saint
Intensity, 9 Anne, 11, 17, 18
Interjection(s), 162, 179 Mona Lisa, 53
International Bibliography of Art, 115 Lewis, Robert J., 106
Internet, 34, 114-15, 120 LeWitt, Sol, 16
Interpret, 4, 57, 62 Modular Series, 16
Interpreting, 1, 4 LGBT, 20
Interpretation(s), 29, 30, 34, 51, 98 Library research, 34, 114-15
Introduction, 36-37, 46, 50, 56, 57, 65, 66, Lichtenstein, Roy, 82
75, 79, 80-82, 83, 87, 91, 92, 95, 98, 102, Light, 10, 15, 33, 52
103-104, 107, 110, 148, 149 Lin, Maya Ying, 63
Introductory clause, 178 Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 63
Islamic mosques, 63 Line(s), 8-9, 15, 45, 47
“Ism,” 1, 14, 45, 78, 83 Linear perspective, 11, 15
Italics, 159, 182, 183-84 Linking verb(s), 161, 164
Italo-Byzantine, 14, 54 List of works cited, 121

J M
Japanese compositions, 52 Magazine(s), 114, 115, 121, 134,
Johns, Jasper, 81 Malamud, Bernard, 32
Jones, Jonathan, 42, 79, 92, 106 Malevich, Kazimir Severinovich, 8, 9, 11, 53
Jones, Malcolm, 76 Suprematist Composition, 8, 9, 11

Manet, Édouard, 18-19, 53, 64, 82, 88-89, Notes, 34, 45, 56, 112, 116-17, 121, 125, 127,
152, 155, 156-58 128-33, 134, 142, ,
Execution of Maximilian, The 82 Noun clause, 166, 167
Le déjeuner sur l’herbe, 53 Noun(s), 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165,
Olympia, 18-19, 64, 152, 154, 155, 156-58 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 175, 176, 180,
Mannerists, 53 181, 183, 184
Mapplethorpe, Robert, 31, 106 Proper, 160, 183
Marez, Curtis, 21-22 Number(s), 159, 173, 175, 182, 183,
Marx, Karl, 18
Marxist criticism, 1, 18-19, 22 O
Masaccio, 31 Object(s), 163, 164, 165, 166, 174, 175
Mask(s), 172-74, 172 Direct, 163, 166
Material(s), 14, 15 Indirect, 163, 166
Matisse, Henri, 14, 38, 44, 47-50 Of a preposition, 163-64
La Japonaise: Woman beside Object complement, 164, 166
the Water, 44, 47-50, 48 Objective response(s), 2
Mechanics, 159, 160, 182-185 Ofili, Chris, 113, 143-48
Medium(s), 1, 14, 15, 45, 78, 80, 84, 86 Holy Virgin Mary, The, 113, 143-48
Men in Black, 21-22 O’Keeffe, Georgia, 28, 53, 162
Message, 78, 85, 89 Oldenburg, Claes, 52
Michelangelo, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 99 Clothespin, 52
David, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36 Ono, Yoko, 85
Moses, 30 Oppenheim, Meret, 53
Mind map(s), 32, 150, 151 Object, 53
Minoan architecture, 63 Organization, 12
Misplaced modifier, 169 Outline, 36, 46, 55-56, 65-67, 79, 102, 103, 153-54
Mixed construction, 171 Outlining, 36, 55, 65-66, 79, 98, 102-03,
MLA Handbook for Writers of Research 112, 117
Papers, 121 Overlapping, 11, 15
Modal(s), 161 Overt symbolism, 6
Modern Language Association (MLA), OWL at Purdue, 120
41, 105, 113, 120-26 Oxford Art Online, 115
Mode(s) of discourse, 27-31, 33, 34, 113, 148
Modifier, 160, 164, 165, 169, 173, 184 P
Monet, Claude, 33 Painterly method, 11
Moore, Henry, 86-87, 160-62 Palette of King Narmer, 53
King and Queen, 87 Pamphlet, 77
Reclining Figure, 161 Panofsky, Erwin, 181
Reclining Nude, 161 Pantheon, 63
Motion, 12, 15, 45 Paragraph(s), 4, 16, 22, 29, 37, 38-41, 42, 45,
Movement(s), 14, 98 46, 47, 51, 57, 61, 73, 76, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87,
Multiculturalism, 20 96, 104, 105, 106, 107, 110, 149
Munch, Edvard, 53, 54, 55, 92 Unity, 38, 46, 47, 51, 57, 61, 62, 73, 83, 96,
Scream, The, 53, 54, 55 104, 110, 149
Museum label, 78 Development, 38-39, 46, 47, 51, 57, 61, 62,
Mycenaean architecture, 63 73, 83, 96, 104, 110, 149
Organization, 38, 39-40, 46, 47, 51, 57, 61,
N 62, 73, 83, 96, 104, 110, 149
Narration, 27, 28 Coherence, 38, 40-41, 46, 47, 51, 57, 61, 62,
Nevelson, Louise, 22, 167-68 73, 83, 96, 104, 110, 149
Mrs. N’s Palace, 167, 168 Parallelism, 171
Sky Cathedral, 22 Paraphrase(s), 42, 47, 57, 112, 116, 118-19, 120
Neoclassical, 19, 63 Parenthetical notes, 41, 121, 124-26
Newspapers, 114, 115, 121 Parthenon, 14, 52, 63
New York Times, The, 177 Parts of speech, 159, 160-62
Nochlin, Linda, 19-20 Pei, I. M., 99, 177
Nonobjective art, 6, 7-8 Periodical(s), 114, 115, 116, 121
Nonrepresentational art, 6, 7-8, 15 Period style, 14, 15, 83, 84

Perl, Jed, 79, 92 Relative, 166

Personal style, 14, 15, 78, 84 Second-person, 170
Perspective, 11, 15, 45, 47, 49 Third-person, 170
Phrase(s), 163, 164-65, 166-67, 169, 170, 171, Proof question(s), 35, 54, 55, 61, 64, 65,
173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 184 73, 98, 101, 102
Absolute, 165, 167 Proportion, 13, 15, 45
Appositive, 165, 166, 180 Proposition(s), 99-100, 101
Gerund, 165, 167 Proto-Renaissance, 14
Infinitive, 165, 166 Psychoanalytic criticism, 1, 17-18, 22
Introductory phrase, 178 Punctuating quotations, 127
Participial, 165, 167 Punctuation, 159, 160, 169, 178-82, 185
Prepositional, 164, 166, 170, 171, 173, 175 Purpose, 27
Picasso, Pablo, 11, 28, 53, 84, 163-64
Chicago Picasso, 163-64 Q
Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 53 Question-Answer paragraph
Pincus-Witten, Robert, 16 organization, 39
Pisano, Nicola and Giovanni, 54 Quoting, 112, 119-20
Plagiarism, 113, 117, 118 Quotation marks, 118, 119, 121, 127, 159,
Plagiarize, 118 181-82
Plan, 31 Quotation(s), 42, 47, 57, 91, 116, 120, 126,
Planning, 27, 32-36, 44, 45-46, 52-56, 62-67, 134, 135, 136, 137
98-103
Point-by-point comparison paragraph R
organization, 39, 40 Radial balance, 13, 15
Point-by-point comparison essay Rauschenberg, Robert, 52
organization, 65-67, 73 Ray, Man, 84, 88
Point(s) of proof, 35, 36, 37, 38, 55, 56, 57, 60, Refutation(s), 98, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106
61, 64, 65, 66-67, 72, 73, 98, 101, 102, 103, Refute, 34, 98, 99, 100, 101, 107, 110
104, 106, 107, 110, 111, 148 Rembrandt, 10, 63
Pollock, Jackson, 28, 176 Night Watch, The, 10
Popova, Lyubov, 7, 8 Renaissance, 11, 14, 32
Philosopher, The, 7, 8 Repetition, 40
Postcolonial criticism, 1, 21-22 Representational art, 6, 15
Post-Impressionism, 14 Research(ing), 34, 99, 105, 112, 114-116
Post-Impressionist(s), 54 Research paper(s), 27, 34, 47, 57, 112-49
Potasnik, Harrison, 23, 24 Responding objectively, 1, 2
Poussin, Nicholas, 63 Responding subjectively, 1, 2
Predicate(s), 163 Revise, 31, 42, 103
Preposition(s), 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 170, Revising, 27, 42
171, 173, 174, 175, 183, Revision, 36, 42-43, 44, 50-51, 56, 61-62,
Primary hue(s), 9, 15 72-74, 75, 80, 95-96, 98, 110-11, 148-49
Principle(s) of design, 1, 12-14, 23, 45, 78, 85 Rhythm, 14, 15, 45, 85
Process, 27, 31-43, 54, 55, 56, 64 Ribera, José, 53
Pronoun(s), 159, 160-61, 162, 163, 166, 169, Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew, The, 53
170, 173-75, 181 Rivera, Diego, 22, 170, 171
Agreement with antecedent, 175 Zapotec and Mixtec Civilization, The, 22
Avoiding I, 173-74 Rococo, 53
Case, 174-75 Rodin, Auguste, 11, 165
Nominative, 174 Kiss, The, 11, 165
Objective, 174 Monument to Balzac, 11
Possessive, 174, 181 Romanesque, 63
Subjective, 174, 175 Romantic, 67, 68-72
First-person, 170, 174 Rothenberg, Susan, 181
Gender, 175 Rousseau, Henri, 38, 39
Indefinite, 174 La bohémienne endormie, 38, 39
Number, 175 Sleeping Gypsy, The, 38, 39
Person, 175 Rubens, Peter Paul, 53
Reference, 175 Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus, The, 53

Run-on(s), 159, 169 Style (art), 1, 14, 45, 77, 78, 83, 84
Fused sentence, 169 Style (writing), 27, 76, 92, 95, 159, 176-77
Comma splice, 169 Subject matter, 1, 5-6, 15, 23, 33, 45, 47, 50, 51,
52, 61, 72, 78, 148
S Subjective response, 3
Sampson, Frank, 92-93 Subtext, 4
Saturation, 9, 15 Summarize(d), 42, 113, 117, 119
Scale, 13, 15, 45 Summary, 47, 57, 116, 119, 120
Schjeldahl, Peter, 92 Superscripted numbers, 42, 119, 127, 129, 134
Scott, Dread, 99, 107-109 Surrealism, 14
Blue Wall of Violence, 107-109, 109 Symbolic, 15
What Is the Proper Way to Display a U.S. Symbolism, 6
Flag? 99 Hidden, 6
Searle, Adrian, 92 Overt, 6
Secondary hue(s), 9, 15 Syntax, 159, 169-71
Segal, George, 63
Semicolon(s), 159, 169, 178, 179, 182 T
Senger, Joel, 42, 127, 135, 141-48 Tattoo(s), 99
Sentence(s), 159, 163-71 Technique(s), 14, 23
Complex, 168 Term paper, 112
Compound, 168 Textural variation, 11
Compound-complex, 168 Texture, 10, 45
Fragment(s), 168 Theme(s), 78, 83, 85, 86, 89-90
Run-on(s), 169 Thesis, 27, 34-35, 36, 37, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 54,
Simple, 167 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 72, 73,
Sentence parts, 159, 163-67 75, 79, 80, 92, 95, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103,
Sentence structures, 159, 167-71 104, 106, 107, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, 138,
Sentence types, 159, 167-68 142, 148, 149
Serdab, 53 Thompson, Charles, 44, 47-50
Serra, Richard, 91, 99 Three-dimensional, 11, 15
Tilted Arc, 99 Three Goddesses, 14, 52
Seurat, Georges, 31 Time, 12, 15, 45
A Sunday Afternoon on the Island Titian, 64, 152, 155, 156-58
of La Grand Jatte, 31 Venus of Urbino, 64, 155, 156-58
Sexual diversity studies, 1, 20, 22 Title(s), 42, 45, 47, 51, 57, 62, 74, 91-92, 96, 98,
Sfumato, 53 106, 111, 149, 183
Shape(s), 11, 15 45, 85 Tone, 27
Shatovskaya, Olga, 44, 57-60 Topic, 31, 33-34, 36, 50, 52, 54, 55, 61, 63, 64,
Sherman, Cindy, 22 65, 73, 98-100, 101, 102, 110, 112, 113
Untitled Film Still #6, 22 Topic sentence, 38, 104
Single quotation marks, 181 Transitional expression(s), 37, 40, 104
Sound, 12, 15, 45 Transition(s), 67, 73, 104, 106
Smart, Alastair, 92 Turner, Joseph M. W., 5-6, 52
Smell, 12, 15, 45 The Slave Ship, 5, 6
Smithson, Robert, 52 Turner Prize, 99
Spiral Jetty, 52 Twain, Mark, 172
Solomon-Godeau, Abigail, 20 Two-dimensional, 11, 15
Source(s), 34, 41-42, 47, 51, 57, 62, 74, 99, 105,
111, 112, 117-35, 149 U
Space, 11, 15 Unacknowledged quotation, 120
Spatial paragraph organization, 39 Unity (art), 13, 15, 45
Speculation about causes and effects, 29, 34, Unnecessary shift, 170-71
51, 52, 53-54, 62 Upper case letters, 183
Statistics, 42
Statues on Ahu Akivi, Easter Island, 13 V
Stevens, Maryanne, 89 Value, 10, 15, 45
Study checklists, 150-51 Van Camp, Julie, 118-120
Strunk, William, 42 Van de Water, Liana, 103, 106, 107-109

Variety, 13, 15, 45 Warmth, 9

Verb(s), 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, Wearing, Gillian, 84
167, 172-73 Dancing in Peckham, 84
Active, 172-73 10-16, 84
Agreement with subject, 173-74 Wesselmann, Tom, 23, 24-25
Helping, 161 Bedroom Painting No. 7, 23, 24-25, 25
Linking, 161, 164 Wikipedia, 116
Modal(s), 161 Wood, Grant, 35
Passive, 172-73 American Gothic, 35
Strong, 173 Wordiness, 159, 175-76
Tense, 173 Working thesis, 79
Weak, 173 Works-cited list, 41, 121-124
Vermeer, Johannes, 89, 90 Worthington, Steve, 106
Lacemaker, The, 89, 90 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 53
Vestonice Venus, 85, 86 Fallingwater, 53
Video games, 99, 106
Virgil, 28 Y
Vorticism, 83 Yixin, Lei, 100
Martin Luther King, Jr. National
W Memorial, 100
Walton, Alice, 100
Warhol, Andy, 13, 52, 99
200 Campbell’s Soup Cans, 13

Criticizing Art
100% (4)
Criticizing Art
234 pages
Kodak Paint Catalogue-Mail
No ratings yet
Kodak Paint Catalogue-Mail
12 pages
Cindy Sherman Essay Thesis
100% (1)
Cindy Sherman Essay Thesis
4 pages
Novitz, David - The Boundaries of Art
100% (3)
Novitz, David - The Boundaries of Art
319 pages
Mechanical Scope of Work
80% (5)
Mechanical Scope of Work
3 pages
Analysing Unseen Prose
No ratings yet
Analysing Unseen Prose
2 pages
Anglo Files, The - Unknown PDF
No ratings yet
Anglo Files, The - Unknown PDF
287 pages
Nicole Bigar PDF
No ratings yet
Nicole Bigar PDF
8 pages
Porfolio Final Reflection
No ratings yet
Porfolio Final Reflection
5 pages
CTF Art Lesson Sequence Draft
No ratings yet
CTF Art Lesson Sequence Draft
11 pages
132 Rite of Spring
No ratings yet
132 Rite of Spring
3 pages
TAMKO Heritage-Brochure PDF
No ratings yet
TAMKO Heritage-Brochure PDF
8 pages
Ebook PDF Exploring Art A Global Thematic Approach Revised 5th Edition All Chapter Instant Download
No ratings yet
Ebook PDF Exploring Art A Global Thematic Approach Revised 5th Edition All Chapter Instant Download
41 pages
Essay Writing Guide: School of Culture and Communication
No ratings yet
Essay Writing Guide: School of Culture and Communication
24 pages
(Ebook PDF) The Power of Art, Revised 3Rd Edition
No ratings yet
(Ebook PDF) The Power of Art, Revised 3Rd Edition
43 pages
Complete Bundle Art of Seeing 8th Edition Zelanski
0% (1)
Complete Bundle Art of Seeing 8th Edition Zelanski
403 pages
(Ebook PDF) Exploring Art: A Global, Thematic Approach 5th Instant Download
100% (7)
(Ebook PDF) Exploring Art: A Global, Thematic Approach 5th Instant Download
54 pages
Matisse Notes of A Painter
No ratings yet
Matisse Notes of A Painter
7 pages
1301 Final Portfolio Essay
No ratings yet
1301 Final Portfolio Essay
7 pages
Instant Download (Ebook PDF) The Power of Art, Revised 3rd Edition PDF All Chapter
100% (1)
Instant Download (Ebook PDF) The Power of Art, Revised 3rd Edition PDF All Chapter
55 pages
Art Book Merged
No ratings yet
Art Book Merged
182 pages
Ashley M. Beardsley: Education
No ratings yet
Ashley M. Beardsley: Education
8 pages
Group 7 Discussion: Summary of "The Origins of Painting and Its Representational Value" What Is Realism?
No ratings yet
Group 7 Discussion: Summary of "The Origins of Painting and Its Representational Value" What Is Realism?
3 pages
CRW11 - 12 Q1 0101M - SG - Imaginative Writing and Other Forms of Writing
No ratings yet
CRW11 - 12 Q1 0101M - SG - Imaginative Writing and Other Forms of Writing
33 pages
Exploring Art A Global, Thematic Approach 4th Edition PDF
No ratings yet
Exploring Art A Global, Thematic Approach 4th Edition PDF
16 pages
04.04 Ciao Italia
No ratings yet
04.04 Ciao Italia
3 pages
Anthropology Writing Guide - Harvard
No ratings yet
Anthropology Writing Guide - Harvard
52 pages
Lesson 1 - Art Concepts
No ratings yet
Lesson 1 - Art Concepts
17 pages
Perrine's Literature: Structure, Sound, and Sense 13th Edition Greg Johnson - Ebook PDF Instant Download
100% (1)
Perrine's Literature: Structure, Sound, and Sense 13th Edition Greg Johnson - Ebook PDF Instant Download
62 pages
Rituals
No ratings yet
Rituals
1 page
An Artist Statement-1
No ratings yet
An Artist Statement-1
6 pages
AMST1550: Methods in Public Humanities Syllabus, Brown University, 2013
No ratings yet
AMST1550: Methods in Public Humanities Syllabus, Brown University, 2013
10 pages
Creative Writing Hand Out
No ratings yet
Creative Writing Hand Out
12 pages
Final Portfolio Essay
No ratings yet
Final Portfolio Essay
7 pages
Women Rights Essay
No ratings yet
Women Rights Essay
2 pages
Gardner's Art Through The Ages: A Concise Western History 4th Edition PDF Download
No ratings yet
Gardner's Art Through The Ages: A Concise Western History 4th Edition PDF Download
50 pages
The Art of Fiction #28 (Henry Miller)
100% (1)
The Art of Fiction #28 (Henry Miller)
33 pages
Writing About Art
100% (1)
Writing About Art
8 pages
Writingaboutart-Or
No ratings yet
Writingaboutart-Or
1 page
Writing About Art
No ratings yet
Writing About Art
4 pages
ART111: Research, Critical Thinking and Writing Tips: I. Basic Writing Skills
No ratings yet
ART111: Research, Critical Thinking and Writing Tips: I. Basic Writing Skills
6 pages
GEC 4 Lesson 3 - Humanities & Art
No ratings yet
GEC 4 Lesson 3 - Humanities & Art
28 pages
English For Academic and Professional Purposes
No ratings yet
English For Academic and Professional Purposes
37 pages
Tips! The Art of Writing About Art: View Topic Instructions
No ratings yet
Tips! The Art of Writing About Art: View Topic Instructions
5 pages
Humanities and Art First Session
No ratings yet
Humanities and Art First Session
31 pages
FPF Art 10 Text
No ratings yet
FPF Art 10 Text
62 pages
Module 1 Ge 006 1 24
No ratings yet
Module 1 Ge 006 1 24
113 pages
Art and Art History: An Overview
No ratings yet
Art and Art History: An Overview
5 pages
SylvanBarnet FormalAnalysis
No ratings yet
SylvanBarnet FormalAnalysis
9 pages
Art App Module 1 Humanities and Art (S)
No ratings yet
Art App Module 1 Humanities and Art (S)
50 pages
HUM Reviewer
No ratings yet
HUM Reviewer
47 pages
Reading For Visual Arts PDF Free
No ratings yet
Reading For Visual Arts PDF Free
8 pages
Ilovepdf Merged
No ratings yet
Ilovepdf Merged
118 pages
Andrei Pop (2008) A Guide To Writing in Art History
No ratings yet
Andrei Pop (2008) A Guide To Writing in Art History
42 pages
Answers For Week 4 HW
No ratings yet
Answers For Week 4 HW
7 pages
Lesson 1
No ratings yet
Lesson 1
5 pages
Art Appreciation: Ghilsh Apas
No ratings yet
Art Appreciation: Ghilsh Apas
34 pages
Art Appreciation - Lesson 2
No ratings yet
Art Appreciation - Lesson 2
5 pages
Eapp Week 6
No ratings yet
Eapp Week 6
49 pages
Unit 1: Lesson I - Humanities and Art Appreciation
No ratings yet
Unit 1: Lesson I - Humanities and Art Appreciation
11 pages
Aesthetics
No ratings yet
Aesthetics
71 pages
Andrei Pop - How To Do Things With Pictures
No ratings yet
Andrei Pop - How To Do Things With Pictures
45 pages
Ge 6 Art Appreciationmodule 1
No ratings yet
Ge 6 Art Appreciationmodule 1
9 pages
Art Crtic Theory
No ratings yet
Art Crtic Theory
30 pages
Arts and Creativity Literacy
No ratings yet
Arts and Creativity Literacy
24 pages
Summery Test in Capr
No ratings yet
Summery Test in Capr
2 pages
ART 130 Painting 1 Gaucin Spring 25 Haskell
No ratings yet
ART 130 Painting 1 Gaucin Spring 25 Haskell
8 pages
CAE Reading
No ratings yet
CAE Reading
6 pages
QDE Midterms2.0
No ratings yet
QDE Midterms2.0
3 pages
Interview Related
No ratings yet
Interview Related
91 pages
Analogy Bible
No ratings yet
Analogy Bible
28 pages
Moma Catalogue Drawing Now
No ratings yet
Moma Catalogue Drawing Now
101 pages
10-1. Max Loehr Bronze Styles Anyang
No ratings yet
10-1. Max Loehr Bronze Styles Anyang
24 pages
Excavation Site - Dholavira - Archaeological Survey of India
No ratings yet
Excavation Site - Dholavira - Archaeological Survey of India
11 pages
Catalogo E Link 0010ENG Rev09 PDF
No ratings yet
Catalogo E Link 0010ENG Rev09 PDF
33 pages
Visual Synecdoche - A Typology and Visual Analysis of Pattern Book
No ratings yet
Visual Synecdoche - A Typology and Visual Analysis of Pattern Book
141 pages
Installation Instructions: Ceramica
No ratings yet
Installation Instructions: Ceramica
1 page
Finishing Materials PDF
No ratings yet
Finishing Materials PDF
40 pages
Edtpa Long Form Lesson Plan - Joel Dodson 3
No ratings yet
Edtpa Long Form Lesson Plan - Joel Dodson 3
59 pages
The Artistic Anatomy of The Horse
No ratings yet
The Artistic Anatomy of The Horse
133 pages
Belge (2) (Introduction)
No ratings yet
Belge (2) (Introduction)
1 page
Harper Foto Elicitation
No ratings yet
Harper Foto Elicitation
14 pages
Iconography of Amoghapaslokesvara
100% (1)
Iconography of Amoghapaslokesvara
27 pages
Badarpur - Hauz Khas Final
No ratings yet
Badarpur - Hauz Khas Final
35 pages
Contemporary Arts in Various Context
No ratings yet
Contemporary Arts in Various Context
13 pages
Modern Theater
No ratings yet
Modern Theater
3 pages
EAPP 2nd Long Test Reviewer
No ratings yet
EAPP 2nd Long Test Reviewer
12 pages
Djoko Soekiman Kebudayaan Indis Dari Zaman Kompeni PDF
No ratings yet
Djoko Soekiman Kebudayaan Indis Dari Zaman Kompeni PDF
4 pages
Drawing Lettering Catalog
No ratings yet
Drawing Lettering Catalog
8 pages
My Name Is Gabriela-Nonfiction Form
No ratings yet
My Name Is Gabriela-Nonfiction Form
2 pages

Suzanne Hudson, Nancy Noonan-Morrisey - The Art of Writing About Art-Cengage Learning (2014) - 1

Uploaded by

Suzanne Hudson, Nancy Noonan-Morrisey - The Art of Writing About Art-Cengage Learning (2014) - 1

Uploaded by

The Art of Writing

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Manufacturing Planner: ISBN-13: 978-1-285-44258-7

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by

To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit

Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our

Printed in the United States of America

Writing Assignment: Catalogue Entry 22

The Analytical Essay 51

Template for Outlining Your Argument Essay 102

Taking the Examination 153

Choosing Pronouns 174

We originally came to this project from the shared experience of teaching at

their ­assignments for submission. The textbook contains a handbook of

Why Write about Art?

How Will This Book Help?

This chapter intends to provide you with opportunities to blend your

R e sp onding O bject ive ly

When we look at a work of art, we respond both intellectually and

Questions To Guide Your Objective Responses To Art

1. Who created the artwork?

Figure 1.1. Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, The Cardsharps, c. 1594. Oil on

R e sponding S ubj ectiv ely

A subjective response is an opinionated one. Of course, anyone can have

painting—to make sense of its message. Support your interpretation

Art is a type of symbolic expression. The artist, in creating that expression,

Line Technically, a line is a mark made by a moving point. Lines can

Figure 1.5. Kazimir Severinovich Malevich, Suprematist Composition, 1915. Oil on

dominant or subordinate. Lines can go in the same direction or in various

Space Space is concerned with either a two-dimensional or three-

Time and Motion As our modern world is increasingly preoccupied

Balance Balance has to do with the distribution of masses in the work of

Unity and Variety Unity is a sense of oneness of different elements and

Figure 1.8. Monolithic statues on Ahu Akivi, c. 1000-1600. Photograph. Easter

Rhythm Rhythm results from the recurrence or repetition of identical

Criticism, the term applied to expository and argumentative writing about

Notice that although Pincus-Witten uses first-person pronouns, the para-

Clearly, according to Freud, the painting has psychological implications

exposed to his psychoanalytical theory here, it is nearly impossible to view

Sexual Diversity Studies

Wri t ing Assignm en t: C atalogu e Entry

James Hardy, Jr.’s The Young Ghillie, 1871

Destined to paint, this Bristol native from southwestern

Tom Wesselmann’s Bedroom Painting No. 7

Tom Wesselmann, cartoonist turned contemporary painter,

Fund, 1972 / The Bridgeman Art Library / Art ©

noteworthy phase of Wesselmann’s evolution was his series of

P rinciples of E ffective W riting

Modes of Discourse Narration

museum that afternoon. Your inference, however, given the circumstances, is

Huxley’s reader may not interpret El Greco’s The Baptism of Christ

Set of Facts ...Inductive Leap ...Inference

Figure 2.1. Drawing inferences through inductive reasoning.

One complication in understanding modes of discourse is that the differ-

A Process for Wri ting abou t Art

Writers often feel overwhelmed at the beginning of a writing project. Where

Planning Your Essay

Figure 2.3. Generating ideas with a mind map.

Figure 2.4. Michelangelo, David, 1501-1504. Marble sculpture, height 14’3”

• If the essay will be analytical, will you be evaluating, interpreting,

Finding a Thesis Your thesis is the answer to your focus question.

thesis will lead to an analytical essay; an argumentative thesis will lead to an

Identifying the Counterargument If your paper is argumentative,

Outline for an Essay

Drafting Your Essay

Drafting the Introduction Begin by identifying the subject and the

Drafting the Body The body of an essay usually is organized according to

Paragraph Development Development is achieved by providing plenty of

paragraph is sufficiently developed, examine Guy Davenport’s paragraph on

Paragraph Organization Paragraph organization is achieved by presen­ting the

paragraph may be organized in either the block or the point-by-point pat-

Paragraph Coherence Coherence in paragraphs is the smooth progres­sion

same woman as model.” Other repeated phrases in the paragraph include

Drafting the Conclusion The conclusion is a very important part

of Style (CMS) system, your citations will consist of superscripted numbers

Revising and Editing Your Essay

their assignments for submission. The textbook contains a handbook of

Paragraph Organization Paragraph organization is achieved by presenting the

Paragraph Coherence Coherence in paragraphs is the smooth progression

5. u The thesis is a statement about how the formal elements work

openly critiques the irrelevance of social life. Yet she refuses to

i nforms the viewer that the scene is of a nightmare and that