UNIT-IV

MOTION ANALYSIS USING VIDEO:

Cinematography was the most popular measurement technique involved in the analysis of human
motion. Cine cameras have traditionally been considered superior to video cameras because of their much
greater picture resolution and higher frame rates.
Modern video cameras are now able to deliver excellent picture quality and can achieve frames
rates at least comparable to high-speed cine cameras. Unlike cine film, most video recording involves no
processing time and the recorded images are available for immediate playback and analysis.
Video tapes are very inexpensive when compared to the high cost of purchasing and processing
of cine film. The significant improvements made in video camera technology, coupled with a substantial
fall in price of the hardware over the past decade, has led to cine cameras becoming virtually redundant in
sport and exercise biomechanics.
Video recordings of sport and exercise activities are usually made by biomechanist in order to
undertake a detailed analysis of an individual‟s movement patterns.
A number of practical advantages over on-line motion analysis including:
 Low cost – video analysis systems are generally considerably cheaper than on-line systems.
 Minimal interference to the performer – video analysis can be conducted without the need for any
disturbance to the performer, e.g. attachment of reflective markers.
 Flexibility – video analysis can be used in environments where some on-line systems would be
unable to operate effectively, e.g. outdoors, underwater, in competition.
 Allows visual feedback to the performer – video cameras provide a permanent record of the
movement that can be viewed immediately. On-line systems do not generally record the image of
the performer.
Video analysis of a person‟s technique may be qualitative or quantitative in nature.
Qualitative analysis involves a detailed, systematic and structured observation of the performer‟s
movement pattern. The video image is displayed on a TV monitor or computer screen and observed in
real-time, slow motion and frame-by-frame.
Quantitative analysis involves taking detailed measurements from the video recording to enable key
performance parameters to be quantified. This approach requires more sophisticated hardware and
software than for a qualitative analysis and it is vital to follow the correct data capture and data processing
procedures. Quantitative analysis is time-consuming and it is manually digitising a number of body
landmarks (typically eighteen or more points for a full body model) over a large number of video images.
Typical landmarks selected for digitisation are those assumed to represent joint centres of rotation (e.g.
knee joint centre), segmental endpoints (e.g. end of foot), or external objects (e.g. a sports implement).
Two-dimensional coordinates resulting from the digitising process are then scaled and smoothed before
being used to calculate linear and angular displacement-time histories.
Equipment Considerations
Selection of the appropriate equipment is important when undertaking a motion analysis study
using video. The key components of a video motion analysis system are:
 Video camera – to capture images of the movement;
 Recording and storage device – to record and store the images from the camera. This may be a
integral part of the video camera itself (camcorder) or an external unit, e.g. hard-disc;
 Playback system – to allow the video images to be viewed for qualitative or quantitative
analysis;
 Co-ordinate digitiser – to allow measurements to be taken from the video images;
 Processing and analysis software – to enable the user to quantify selected parameters of the
movement.
(a) Video Cameras
When selecting a video camera with the intention of undertaking a biomechanical analysis of a sport
or exercise activity, the important features to consider are:
 Picture Quality
 Frame Rate (Sampling Frequency)
 Manual High-Speed Shutter
 Manual Aperture Adjustment
 Light Sensitivity
 Gen-Lock Capability
 Recording Medium (E.G. Tape, Hard Drive).
Picture Quality:
Video image is made up of a two dimensional array of dots called pixels. A full video image or
frame consists of two halves or fields. One field is made up of the odd-numbered horizontal lines of
pixels, the other is made up of the even-numbered lines. Video cameras capture an image using one of
two methods: interlaced scan or progressive scan. Cameras that use the interlace technique record one
field first, followed by the second, and so on. Some cameras have the facility to capture images in either
format. The number and size of pixels making up a video image determine the resolution of the picture
and this, to a large extent, determines the picture quality.
The domestic market and is likely to supercede existing standards. The HDV format allows high
definition (HD) video images to be recorded and played back on DV tape. HDV video cameras are now
commercially available at very affordable prices and the images produced by these cameras have a
vertical resolution of either 720 or 1080 lines. When purchasing an HDV camera, it is important to check
what mode(s) it can record and playback in (interlaced: 720i/1080i or progressive: 720p/1080p) to ensure
that it is compatible with, for example, the display device.
The resolution of the camera is largely influenced by the quality of its image sensor – the
component that converts the light from the object into an electrical signal. The most common type of
image sensor is the Charge-Coupled Device (CCD). Most domestic video cameras have a single CCD
chip, but some higher quality models have three CCDs (one for each of the primary colours), which result
in an improved picture quality. An alternative to the CCD is the Complimentary Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor. This sensor requires far less power than a CCD and is now used
in some standard and high-speed video cameras. The specification of the camera lens is an important
factor in determining picture quality. Digital video cameras will have both an optical zoom range, e.g.
20× and a digital zoom range, e.g. 400×. It is important to note that once a camera is zoomed in beyond
the range of its optical system, the picture quality will drastically reduce and will be unsuitable for
quantitative analysis.
Frame rate (sampling frequency)
In video capture, the term „frame‟ refers to a complete image captured at an instant in time. Thus
the frame rate of a video camera refers to the number of full images it captures per second (this is often
referred to as the sampling frequency of the camera).
If the camera captures using the interlaced scan method, each video frame will be comprised of
two video fields (an A and B field). For a video image with a vertical resolution of 480 lines, each field
would consist of 240 lines, one field comprised of the odd lines, the other of the even lines. With the
appropriate hardware or software, it is possible to display the video fields separately and sequentially.
One of the major limitations of high-speed cameras that record to RAM is the limited recording
time available. For example, a high-speed video camera with a storage capacity of 8 Gb, recording with a
resolution of 1024 × 1024 at 2000 Hz, provides a maximum recording duration of approximately three
seconds.
High speed shutter
For most biomechanical applications, a video camera equipped with a high speed shutter is
essential. The shutter is the component of a camera that controls the amount of time the camera‟s image
sensor (e.g. CCD, CMOS) is exposed to light. Modern video cameras use electronic shuttering, which
involves activating or deactivating the image sensor for a specified time period, as each video field is
sampled. When recording movement using a low shutter speed, the image sensor is exposed to the light
passing through the camera lens for a relatively long period of time; this can result in a blurred or streaked
image being recorded. The extent of the blurring would depend on the speed of the movement being
analysed.
It is important that a video camera has a manual shutter speed option. Typically, a video camera
will offer shutter speeds ranging from 1/60–1/4000 of a second. It should be noted that not all video
cameras offer a manual shutter function. Camera models that incorporate a Sports Mode function should
be avoided because the shutter speed associated with this is often inadequate for fast-moving activities.
Manual iris and low-light sensitivity
The iris is the element of the camera‟s lens system that controls the aperture (the adjustable gap in
the iris) in order to regulate the amount of light falling on the image sensor. If too much light is permitted
to pass through the lens (large aperture), for too long, the result will be an overexposed image. If too little
light passes through the lens (small aperture), the image will be underexposed. Video cameras generally
have automatic aperture control that continually adjusts to ensure the image is correctly exposed. Some
camera models have a manual override that allows the user to specify the aperture setting. This is
sometimes necessary when conducting biomechanical analyses.
For example, when a high shutter speed setting is needed in low light conditions, the iris aperture
would have to be opened wider than it would be in automatic mode. The drawback of doing this is the
increased noise level in the image, which results in a more „grainy‟ picture. Video cameras each have a
minimum light level that they require in order to produce an image. This level is expressed in lux. A
camera with a minimum illumination value of 1 lux will perform better in low light conditions than one
with a 3 lux rating.
Gen-lock capability
For three-dimensional video analysis, it is desirable for the activation of the shutters of the two
(or more) cameras to be perfectly synchronised, that is, for the cameras to be gen-locked. This involves
physically linking the cameras with a gen-lock cable. Unfortunately, most standard video camcorders do
not have the facility to be gen-locked, although some more expensive models do offer this feature (e.g.
Canon XL H1 HDV 1080i camera).
Recording medium
Images from video cameras have traditionally been recorded onto some form of tape, for
example, S-VHS and miniDV. In recent years a number of alternative recording formats have emerged.
Video cameras that record straight to a small DVD are more geared toward the home movie-maker, than
those wanting to undertake a quantitative analysis of movement. More viable alternatives to tape
recording cameras are those with built-in memory. This may be in the form of a hard disc drive (HDD),
internal memory (D-RAM) or Flash Memory.
(b) Recording and Storage Device
A video camera that records the images to tape provides the user with a number of options,
depending on what type of analysis they are performing. For a qualitative analysis, the recorded
movement can be viewed directly from the videotape in real-time, slow motion or as a still image, using
an appropriate video playback system, without the need for any computer hardware or software.
Alternatively, the user may choose to capture the video images from the tape to a computer hard drive,
where they are stored in the form of a video file (e.g. AVI, MPEG, etc.).
It also enables a quantitative analysis to be undertaken, if appropriate digitising, processing and
analysis software is installed. Video images that are recorded to a camera‟s hard disc drive (HDD), RAM
or Flash Memory are usually transferred subsequently to a computer hard drive, where they can be
displayed or processed for quantitative analysis. The process of capturing video images to a computer can
either be done in realtime or at some point following the filming session.
(c)Video playback system
A video playback system is required to display the video images for qualitative or quantitative
analysis. The system should be capable of displaying „flicker free‟ still images. It should also allow video
sequences to be played in slow motion and in real-time. For qualitative analysis, an analogue or digital
Video Player-Recorder (VCR) linked to a TV monitor is a viable option. This should be equipped with a
jog-shuttle dial to control pause and picture advance functions. The picture quality on a video monitor is
influenced by the quality of the source tape, the specification of video playback device, the type of video
cable used to link the playback device to the monitor (in ascending order of quality: composite, S-video,
Scart (RGB), component, DVI, HDMI), and the monitor itself. Traditional CRT monitors generally offer
excellent picture resolution but cannot directly display a digital source. LCD Monitors vary in their
resolution (e.g. VGA monitor: 640 × 480; XGA monitor: 1024 × 768; HD monitor: 1366×768). Some
models of LCD monitors can only display analogue sources, some only digital sources, and some can
display both.
For quantitative analysis, video playback will be via a laptop or desktop computer. Here, the
video data are processed through the computer‟s graphics card and displayed on the monitor. The quality
of the image will be influenced by the specification of the graphics card, the video playback codec,
compression settings, monitor resolution, and the digitising software.
(d) Co-ordinate digitizer
To undertake a detailed quantitative analysis, a co-ordinate digitiser is required. This device
enables two -dimensional (x, y) co-ordinates of specified points on the video image, for example,
anatomical landmarks, to be recorded. Video based co-ordinate digitisers are essentially used for software
applications that will display the still video image on a computer screen and overlay this with a cursor that
is manually controlled by the user. The most important consideration when selecting a video digitising
system is its resolution. This refers to the minimum separation between two points on the screen that the
system is able to detect. The digitiser resolution affects the level of precision to which the co-ordinates
can be measured. Current video-based digitizing systems offer considerably higher measurement
resolutions than were availablein early systems. This is achieved through a combination of zoom and a
subpixel cursor. This resolution can be increased linearly using the software‟s zoom function (up to a
maximum of 10×).
Data Collection Procedures
When conducting a quantitative video analysis, certain procedures must be followed carefully, at
both the video recording and digitising stages, to minimise the systematic and random errors in the
digitised co-ordinates.
Quantitative video analysis may be two-dimensional or three-dimensional. The former approach
is much simpler, but it assumes that the movement being analysed is confined to a single, pre-defined
plane – the plane of motion. Any measurements taken of movements outside this plane will be subject to
perspective error, thus reducing their accuracy. Even activities that appear to be two-dimensional, such as
a walking gait, are likely to involve movements in more than one plane; a two-dimensional analysis
would not enable these to be quantified accurately. Three-dimensional analysis enables the true spatial
movements of the performer to be quantified. This approach eliminates perspective error, but the video
filming and analysis procedures are more complicated, and the equipment requirements are also greater.
Video digitising
The process of obtaining two-dimensional co-ordinates of specified landmarks on the performer,
from a video record, may be achieved automatically or manually. Most video motion analysis systems
(e.g. APAS, Qualisys, SIMI◦Motion) now include software that can automatically track passive markers
affixed to the performer. While this facility is clearly an attractive option for the user, it is not always
possible or practical to place markers on the performer, e.g. during a sports competition. Manual
digitising of a video record requires the biomechanist to visually identify and mark the anatomical sites of
interest, frame-by-frame. With attention to detail, these errors can be kept to an acceptable level.
(e) Processing, Analysing And Presenting Video-Derived Data
The video digitising process creates two-dimensional image co-ordinates with high frequency errors
(noise). Essentially, it requires
 Smooth and transform the co-ordinates, so that they are in a form suitable for computing
kinematic variables,
 Calculate and display the kinematic variables in a format that allows the user to extract the
information required to complete the analysis.
Smoothing and transforming co-ordinates:
There are various smoothing methods that can be used to remove the high frequency noise
introduced by the digitising process; these fall into three general categories: digital filters, spline fitting
and fourier series truncation. Failure to smooth co-ordinates sufficiently will lead to high levels of noise
in any derived kinematic variables, particularly acceleration. Oversmoothing of the co-ordinates will
result in some of the original signal being lost. Selecting the correct smoothing factor, for a given set of
co-ordinates, is therefore critically important.
Analysing and presenting video-derived data
In any biomechanical analysis, the selection of dependent variables will be determined by the aim
of the study. It is important that the biomechanical variables of interest are identified before undertaking
the data collection. When analysing a sport or exercise activity, the use of deterministic models can help
to identify the important movement parameters. There are a number of ways of presenting the kinematic
data from a video analysis. This will be dictated mainly by the intended destination of the information
(e.g. research journal, athlete feedback report). The most common methods of presenting kinematic data
are as discrete measures (e.g. peak joint angles) and as time series plots (e.g. hip velocity vs. time).
 UNIT – V
INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT ANLYSIS:
FEA is a complex mathematical simulation that models the stresses within a material. Finite element
analysis (FEA) is the use of calculations, models and simulations to predict and understand how an object
might behave under various physical conditions. Engineers use FEA to find vulnerabilities in their design
prototypes. The finite element method (FEM) is basically a numerical method of analyzing stresses and
deformations in the structures of any given geometry. The structure is discretized into the so called 'finite
elements' connected through nodes.
FEA uses the finite element method (FEM), a numerical technique that cuts the structure of an object into
several pieces, or elements, and then reconnects the elements at points called nodes. The FEM creates a
set of algebraic equations which engineers, developers and other designers can use to perform finite
element analysis.
Using finite element analysis can reduce the number of physical prototypes created and experiments
performed while also optimizing all components during the design phase.
Principles of FEA
Finite element analysis is based on principles that include boundary conditions, such as forces and
pressures, as well as three governing equations:
 Equilibrium equations, which find when the opposing forces or influences are balanced.
 Strain-displacement relations, which measure the deformation that the design experiences under
any given external impacts.
 Constitutive equations, which are relations between two physical quantities, specific to the given
metal or substance, which predict the material's response to external stimuli.
FEA Working Procedure:
For finite element analysis to perform its necessary simulations, a mesh -- containing millions of
small elements that together form the shape of a structure -- must be created. An element is the basic
building block of finite element analysis. There are several basic types of elements. Which type of
element for finite elements analysis that is used depends on the type of object that is to be modeled for
finite element analysis and the type of analysis that is going to be performed.
An element is a mathematical relation that defines how the degrees of freedom of a node relate to
the next. These elements can be lines (trusses or beams), areas (2-D or 3-D plates and membranes) or
solids (bricks or tetrahedrals). It also relates how the deflections create stresses. Calculations must be
performed on every single element; the combination of each of these individual answers provides the final
result for the full structure.
This process can be further broken into three steps: the preprocess, process and postprocess.
During the preprocess step, the user is asked to select the analysis type -- such as modal analysis
or structural static analysis -- as well as the element type. Next, the material properties must be defined
and nodes must be made. The elements are then built by assigning connectivity at the nodes. A node is a
coordinate location in space where the degrees of freedom (DOFs) are defined. The DOFs for this point
represent the possible movement of this point due to the loading of the structure. The DOFs also represent
which forces and moments are transferred from one element to the next. The results of a finite element
analysis, (deflections and stresses), are usually given at the nodes. Finally, boundary conditions and loads
are applied.

The computer performs the second step, the process. During this step, the computer solves the
boundary value problem and then presents the results to the user.
During the postprocess step, the user reviews the generated results and notes factors such as:
 Displacement
 Temperature
 Time history
 Stress
 Strain
 Natural frequency
Designers using finite element analysis should be aware of inherent errors that can be found in
this process, such as the simplification of geometry in the finite element method and use of basic
integration techniques; errors in computing stemming from numerical difficulties or the limited number of
digits available in computers; and common user mistakes, such as selecting the wrong type of element or
providing inconsistent units of measurement.

FINITE ELEMENT ANAYSIS OF LUMBAR SPINE:

The important part of the body is spinal cord. Spinal cord gives shape to body and also helps in
motion. Spinal cord consists vertebra, disc, and ligaments works in combination to provide a motion
protection and body force distribution. When the person or human under goes injury the equilibrium of
vertebra, disc, and ligaments are distributed, and age the age factor also influence the efficiency of spinal
cord and result chronic pain. The study of mechanical view helps to know the particular part is influenced
by the gravitational overload of body and to prepare and design of suitable types of implants also
necessary and it is also helps know the resistance of spine by external loading is cause for lower back
pain. The experimental studies of motion mechanical behavior shows age factor morphology position and
degeneration degree.
The anatomy of spine is typical structure design to resist weight, and conjointly describe
physiological movement and intense concern for the spine twine. The spine consists of vertebras and also
the vertebra is combination of cortical bone and spongy trabecular bone. A complete of thirty three sorts
of vertebras therein, five vertebras are united sacral, twelve vertebras are thoracic, seven vertebras are
cervical, five vertebras are body part, three or four vertebras
bone.
Vertebrae:
Vertebrae are the thirty three individual bones that interlock
with one another to make the spinal column. The vertebrae are
numbered and divided into regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacrum, and coccyx. Solely the highest twenty four bones are
transferable; the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are fused.
The vertebrae in every region have distinctive options that
facilitate them perform their main functions. Parts of vertebras
is created from completely different parts reminiscent of,
Pedicles, Lamina, transverse and spinous method.

Intervertebral Disc:
Each vertebra in spine is separated and cushioned by an intervertebral disk, that keeps the bones from
rubbing along and discs are designed sort of a radial tyre. The outer ring, known as the annulus, has
crisscrossing bands. These bands attach between the bodies of every bone. Within the disc may be a gel-
filled center known as the nucleus, very like a tire tube. Discs operate like helical springs. The
crisscrossing of the annulus pull the bones along against the elastic resistance of the gel-filled nucleus.
Injury and strain will cause discs to bulge or herniate, a condition during which the nucleus is pushed out
through the annulus to compress the nerve roots inflicting back pain.
The working of spinal unit is contain 2 vertebras disc, two aspects of joint, and structures unified between
vertebras. It‟s one the necessary operating unit of spinal cord. To review and perceive the result of
disease, degeneration inflammation and totally different spinal biomechanic. Disc provides six degree of
freedom an motion is restricted by fibers within the ligaments.
FEA of Lumbar Spine:
Various techniques are available to study the behavior of the spine in healthy, diseased and
damaged spine and to evaluate the treatment procedure. There is a need for a standardized technique to
validate, verify and test these designs. There are many pathological conditions associated with spine.
Osteoporosis is a condition characterized by a decrease in the density of bone, decreasing its strength and
resulting in fragile bones. It leads to abnormally porous state that is compressible, like a sponge. It
weakens the bone and results in frequent fractures (breaks) in the bones. The fracture at hip and spine are
associated with significant amount of mortality and morbidity. Unfortunately, by the time x-rays can
detect osteoporosis, at least 30% of the bone has already been lost. Dual-energy xray absorptiometry
(DXA) is one of the bone densitometry techniques. It is used to measure bone mineral density (BMD) of
the bone accurately and it is considered as the „gold‟ standard for BMD measurement. Finite element
analysis (FEA) is used to study the stress-strain behaviour of any solid material. It allows new design to
be thoroughly 'tested' before a prototype is even manufactured. It would provide a wealth of information
in biomedical applications, which reduces our dependence on animal and cadaveric experiments and is an
invaluable complement to clinical studies. The FEA of the bone under various loading conditions is
helpful in the evaluation of the disease as well as in predicting future risk of fracture. A model of the
spine can be used to investigate the risk of fracture in the vertebrae and the progression of degeneration in
the inter-vertebral discs.
The 3D FEA model is generated wit facilitate of computed tomography for the Lumbar1(L1)
to Lumbar2(L2) lumbar cluster is taken into account mechanical properties designed for five vertebrae,
the four interverteral discs, the ligaments articular and capsular components. The whole modeling
supported a FEM that explains the structure is in anatomical or not on basis of mechanical properties
during this technique specification of load and pressure applied to it structure geometry of technique form
and versatile properties applied of the part The geometry is another time divided into tiny components and
therefore the differential equations regulate the deformation of solid are numerically solved.
ERGONOMICS - MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS:
Musculoskeletal disorders of the low back and upper extremities are an important and costly
national health problem. nearly 1 million people took time away from work to treat and recover from
work-related musculoskeletal pain or impairment of function in the low back or upper extremities. The
ability to better characterize the magnitude of the problem and formulate targeted prevention strategies
rests on improved surveillance and more rigorous data collection. There are a number of factors to be
considered: (1) physical, organizational, and social aspects of work and the workplace, (2) physical and
social aspects of life outside the workplace, including physical activities (e.g., household work, sports,
exercise programs), economic incentives, and cultural values, and (3) the physical and psychological
characteristics of the individual. In addition, physical activities away from the workplace may also cause
musculoskeletal syndromes. The complexity of the problem is further increased because all of these
factors interact and vary over time and from one situation to another. The panel approached the complex
of factors bearing on the risk of musculoskeletal injury in the work setting from a whole-person
perspective, that is, from a point of view that does not isolate disorders of the low back and upper
extremities from physical and psychosocial factors in the workplace, from the context of the overall
texture of the worker‟s life, including social support systems and physical and psychosocial stresses
outside the workplace, or from personal responses to pain and individual coping mechanisms.
As a result, Congress requested a study by the National Research Council and the Institute of
Medicine covering the scientific literature on the causation and prevention of these disorders. The
congressional request was presented in the form of seven questions, which are addressed in Appendix A
of this report. The funding for the study was provided by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH) and by the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The charge to the panel from NIOSH
and NIH was to undertake a series of tasks that would lead to a detailed analysis of the complex set of
factors contributing to the occurrence in the workplace of musculoskeletal disorders of the low back and
upper extremities.

A conceptual model of the possible roles and influences that various factors may play in the
development of musculoskeletal disorders. The dotted box outline on the right indicates the possible
pathways and processes that could occur within the person, including the biomechanical load-tolerance
relationship and the factors that may mediate the load-tolerance relationship, such as individual factors
and adaptation. Outcomes may be a result of this relationship and may be influenced by individual
factors, such as conditioning or psychological state. The dotted box on the left indicates the possible
influences of the workplace on the sequence of events that can lead to musculoskeletal disorders in the
person. Arrows between “the workplace” factors and “the person” box indicate the various research
disciplines (epidemiology, biomechanics, physiology, etc.) that have attempted to explain the relationship.
For example, epidemiology typically searches for associations between external loading characteristics
and reported outcomes, whereas the relationship between external loads and biomechanical loading is
usually explored via biomechanical studies.
This framework is central to the panel‟s assessment, and it is used to orient and structure the
panel‟s report. The factors are organized into two broad categories: workplace factors and characteristics
of the person that may affect the development of musculoskeletal disorders.
Lower Back Disorders:
Low back disorder risk has been established through epidemiologic studies of work that involves
heavy lifting, frequent bending and twisting, and whole body vibration, as well as other risk factors. The
relative risks have been derived from a rigorous evaluation of the literature and have been found to be
strong and consistent. Strong points in this research include control for confounding, temporal
association, and characterization number of the studies are based on self-reports of injury.
Upper Extremity Disorders:
The pattern of evidence for upper extremity disorders, as for the low back, also supports an
important role for physical factors, particularly repetition, force, and vibration. The most dramatic
physical exposures occur in manufacturing, food processing, lumber, transportation, and other heavy
industries, and these industries have the highest rates of upper extremity disorders reported as work
related. Psychosocial factors were found to play a role in upper extremity disorders as well, particularly
high job stress and high job demands.
Based on a comprehensive review and analysis, Musculoskeletal disorders of the low back and
upper extremities are an important national health problem, resulting in approximately 1 million people
losing time from work each year. These disorders impose a substantial economic burden in compensation
costs, lost wages, and productivity. The identification of certain work-related risk factors for the
occurrence of musculoskeletal disorders of the low back and upper extremities.
The panel concludes that there is a clear relationship between back disorders and physical load;
that is, manual material handling, load moment, frequent bending and twisting, heavy physical work,
and whole-body vibration. For disorders of the upper extremities, repetition, force, and vibration are
particularly important work-related factors.
Work-related psychosocial factors recognized by the panel to be associated with low back
disorders include rapid work pace, monotonous work, low job satisfaction, low decision latitude, and
job stress. High job demands and high job stress are work-related psychosocial factors that are associated
with the occurrence of upper extremity disorders.

WHOLE BODY VIBRATIONS:

Whole-body vibration occurs when a human is supported by a surface that is shaking and the vibration
affects body parts remote from the site of exposure. It is common for people to experience whole-body
vibration on most days of their lives. An office worker may travel to work in a car, a bus, a train, or use a
bicycle or motorcycle. A factory worker may use industrial trucks; an agricultural worker may drive a
tractor; military personnel travel in many types of tracked and wheeled vehicles across rough terrain, or
may fly in aircraft or travel in ships and boats.
Whole Body Vibration Perception:
The body does not contain a single vibration-sensing organ but combines signals from the visual,
vestibular, somatic, and auditory systems. Each of these systems can sense vibration in more than one
way, and will be considered in turn. For high-displacement and therefore low-frequency oscillation, one
can clearly see movement by changes in the relative position of objects on the retina. The visual system
might also sense vibration by observing motion of other objects in the vibration environment. The
vestibular complex of the inner ear includes the semicircular canals and the vestibule, which are sensitive
to rotational and linear acceleration, respectively.

Figure: Anatomy of the vestibular complex, located in the inner ear.

The final sensory system for whole-body vibration is the auditory system. In most vehicles,
exposure to transients and shocks can be heard by radiation through the structure of the vehicle. At higher
frequencies (above 20 Hz), vibrating surfaces can also act as loudspeakers, directly driving the air, and
this can result in auditory perception. Stevens’ Law, which states that sensation magnitude increases
proportionally to the stimulus magnitude raised to some power:
S=cIm
where S is the sensation magnitude, c is a constant, I is the stimulus magnitude, and m is the value of the
exponent.
Perception in Seated Postures:
Most exposure to whole-body vibration occurs in seated postures while people are driving or are
passengers in transportation. Therefore, most research into the perception of whole-body vibration has
used subjects in seated postures. These studies can use two approaches: either to map the perception
threshold with frequency or to map equal intensity curves with frequency. Usually, studies have been
carried out in the laboratory using single-axis sinusoidal signals due to the methodological difficulties in
using complex multi axis stimuli.

Figure: probability for sinusoidal vertical whole-body vibration of seated subjects.

Perception In Nonseated Postures:
Despite most whole-body vibration exposures occurring for seated postures, there are many environments
where other postures are important. For example, rush-hour travel often involves standing in trains, trams,
or buses; travelers sleep in prone, supine, or semi supine postures on ships or aircraft; injured patients are
transported to and from hospital or are evacuated from military operations in supine postures; and many
sleeping areas are exposed to ground-borne vibration from passing heavy trucks or trains.

Figure: probability for sinusoidal horizontal whole-body vibration of seated subjects.

Biomechanical Responses to Whole-Body Vibration:
It is possible to investigate the response of humans in a dynamic environment by their mechanical
responses. The two principal approaches are to make assessments at the “driving point” (i.e., the site of
the human contact with the loading force) or remote from the driving point . At the driving point,
mechanical impedance methods use measures of force and acceleration (or velocity) to determine the
response of the body as a whole. Measurements of acceleration remote from the driving point are usually
used in combination with simultaneous measures at the driving point to calculate how vibration is
transmitted through the body (transmissibility). Occasionally, and especially in older literature, this
subject is referred to as “biodynamics.”

Figure: Illustration of conceptual differences between transmissibility and impedance for

biomechanical vibration research.
Transmission Of Vibration Through The Body:
Transmissibility is defined as the ratio of the vibration measured between two points
(usually the driving point and a remote location). For seats, transmissibility has previously been defined
as

If transmission of vibration from the seat surface to the spine is considered, then the equation changes to

where aseat(f) is the acceleration at the seat and aspine(f) is the acceleration at the spine at frequency f.
So, a transmissibility of 2 would mean that there was twice as much vibration at the spine than at the
driving point.
Biomechanical Models For Human Response To Whole-Body Vibration:
For whole-body vibration, the most common types of models are lumped parameter and physical models.
Lumped-Parameter Models:
For whole-body vibration, the most common form of mathematical model in the literature is the lumped-
parameter model. This type of model is built from masses, springs, and dampers. The values of the mass,
stiffness, and damping are selected such that the response of the lumped-parameter model represents the
response of the person. It is important to note that it is not possible to map values of stiffness or damping
provided in lumped-parameter models onto any specific biological tissue in the human. The simplest form
of lumped-parameter model is a single degree-of-freedom system that is made from a single moving mass
supported on a single spring and damper. A single degree-of freedom system has a single peak in the
response. If there is no damping, then the peak occurs at:

Figure: Simple lumped parameter models consisting of masses, springs, and dampers. A: single
degree-of-freedom system; B: two degree-of-freedom system.
where fn is the natural frequency, k is the spring stiffness, and m is the moving mass of the system. If
there is damping in the system, then the resonance frequency occurs at a slightly lower frequency related
to the viscous damping ratio, ζ:

where c is the damping constant of the damper. The damped natural frequency,fd, is:

Physical Models:
A second type of the biomechanical response model of the seated person is a physical model, sometimes
known as a seat-test dummy or anthropodynamic dummy. Such devices can be physical representations of
lumped parameter models. The main challenges with anthropodynamic dummies are in the engineering
and practicalities of the design. In a moving vehicle there is vibration in all axes simultaneously, and a
single-axis dummy will not move like a human occupant. A final challenge with anthropodynamic
dummies is that of the health and safety of the test team. For it to be representative, the dummy must have
a mass similar to that of a person.
Therefore, it poses a manual handling problem, especially when installing or removing the device from a
space-limited cabin such as that of a car. Also, the dummy must be safe in all driving situations, including
emergency procedures. If the vehicle must suddenly stop to avoid a collision, the dummy must remain
securely tethered to the seat. Work is underway through the International Organization for
Standardization to specify dummy performance for application to mobile machines. It is possible that
dummies that meet the specification might also be appropriate for use in other forms of transport, but one
should remain cautious in using a device in an environment for which it is not intended.
Health Effects Of Whole-Body Vibration:
The most commonly reported health effect of whole-body vibration is back pain. Indeed, back pain is the
focus for the rest of this section. Despite this, other types of health effects have been observed. These
include sciatica, digestive disorders, genitourinary problems, and hearing damage. Portuguese researchers
have reported links between low frequency noise and whole-body vibration with a variety of disorders,
collectively termed vibroacoustic disease. These include thickening of cardiac structures and neurological
and vascular disorders. Despite the name of the condition, the greatest contributor to risk is considered
to be large-pressure-amplitude (≥90 dB SPL), low-frequency (≤500 Hz) noise.
HAND TRANSMITTED VIBRATIONS:
Hand-transmitted or hand-arm vibration occurs whenever an individual holds a vibrating tool. This could
be a powered surgical instrument, floor polisher, demolition pick, pavement breaker, riveting gun,
motorcycle handlebars, hair clipper, or a wide variety of other types of tools in a broad cross section of
industries. Hand-transmitted vibration is an industrial phenomenon.
The two terms hand-arm vibration and hand-transmitted vibration are synonymous. Hand-
transmitted vibration is the term which clearly indicates the source of the vibration.
Hand-Transmitted Vibration Perception:
The sense of touch is perceived through a combination of many sensory pathways. Sensory signals
through our hands are interpreted as texture, shape, temperature, location, size, movement, and, in some
situations, pain. For tactile perception in glabrous skin (i.e., hairless skin such as the palms of the hands),
receptors are embedded within the skin and are referred to by receptor ending, speed of action, or
psychophysical channel. Type I receptors are found close to the skin surface and therefore are able to
sense location of sensation more precisely than Type II . Type II receptors are found deeper in the dermis,
and therefore sensation is more general in terms of receptive field size.
Health Effects Of Hand-Transmitted Vibration:
Most of the interest with hand-transmitted vibration is due to the disorders that are often observed in
populations who use vibrating tools. Disorders can be broadly divided into vascular and nonvascular
categories. Nonvascular disorders can be further subdivided into bone and joint, neurological, muscular,
and other disorders. Collectively, both types of symptoms are referred to as hand-arm vibration syndrome
or HAVS.
Vascular Aspects Of Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome:
The most well-known clinical disorder caused by vibration exposure is vibration induced white finger or
VWF. Sometimes, this is known as “dead man‟s hand” or Raynaud‟s disease of occupational origin.
Primary Raynaud’s disease:
The name Raynaud‟s disease was used to conveniently label a variety of conditions with
unknown origin in which intermittent pallor occurred in the nose, ears, hands, and feet. Primary
Raynaud‟s disease is characterized by intermittent bilateral blanching of the
fingers. During recovery, the fingers often turn red, and this can be the most painful
component of an attack. Most sufferers are only affected in the hands, although some
report blanching of the toes, nose, ears, or lips.
Secondary Raynaud’s Disease:
Secondary Raynaud‟s disease is, by definition, one in which the symptoms have a known cause. The most
common cause is vibration exposure, although there are a variety of other possibilities These can be
broadly categorized into trauma, intoxication, obstructive arterial diseases, connective tissue diseases, and
a hypersensitivity in response to cold.
 Figure: Cross Section Of The Skin Showing Tactile Receptors In The Dermis And Epidermis.

Vibration-lnduced White Finger (VWF):

Vibration-induced white finger is a form of secondary Raynaud‟s disease. The first clear vascular
symptom of VWF is usually an intermittent blanching of a fingertip, provoked by cold. With continued
exposure to vibration, the area affected by blanching increases, spreading to other fingers, affecting more
of each digit, and ultimately affecting all phalanges from fingertip to palm. It is important to note that the
damage is done by vibration, but the attacks are triggered by cold. Therefore, a sufferer might not see the
symptoms in a warm work environment and may be unable to exhibit blanching to a company health
professional or general practitioner during a consultation. It is a normal homeostatic response of the body
to induce peripheral vasoconstriction during exposure to cold so that core temperature can be maintained.
Nonvascular Disorders Of Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome:
In addition to VWF, a variety of other disorders are common elements of HAVS. Some of these are
directly related to vibration; others are observed among users of handheld tools that do not vibrate. The
disorders can be broadly grouped into neurological, bone and joint, muscular, and other disorders that are
remote from the hand and arm.
Neurological Disorders:
Those exposed to hand-transmitted vibration often report numbness and tingling. Frequently, these are the
first symptoms of HAVS and can be experienced before vascular disorders. Another type of neurological
disorder that is often observed with those who are exposed to vibration is carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS).
The carpal tunnel is formed between the bones of the wrist and the transverse carpal ligament through
which the flexor tendons and the median nerve pass. If the median nerve is injured, then numbness and
loss of feeling and grip can occur. CTS is also common among those who operate all types of tools, and
so it is possible that the condition is a hazard of the job in general, rather than a symptom due to vibration
itself. This is one example of why it is important to consider all ergonomic risk factors when evaluating a
task and not to concentrate on just one aspect of the total problem.
Bone and Joint Disorders:
One common disorder was damage to the lunate bone of the wrist. This condition is thought to be partly
caused by a reduced blood supply to the bone in addition to compression micro fractures. Other common
bone disorders include cysts, although these are common among users of non vibrating tools.
Muscular Disorders:
Loss of grip strength is a very common impairment in those exposed to vibration. Loss of strength can
initially occur immediately after exposure to vibration but can become more persistent with continued
exposure. It is suggested that the cause of the reduced grip force is due to the incomplete contraction of
muscle.