ο

depending
The positively
Applied on thecharged
Chemistrystatefor
of matter),
metal ions
Engineersthe accumulate
result is standard
(24CHE12/22) on the
free
electrode surface,(∆G
energy change making
), it positively
charged. The positively
∆Gο=∆Hcharged
ο electrode
- T∆S ο surface attracts a layer of negatively charged ions at
When ∆G is zero,
the interface, againthe system hasan
establishing reached
electrical
an double layer.state, when ∆G is negative, the forward
equilibrium
MODULE 1
reaction is spontaneous,
Formation when
of an electrical ∆G islayer
double positive,
givesthe
risereverse
to a potential
reactiondifference across the layer. This
is spontaneous.
potential difference between Energy Conversion
the metal and solutionand Storage
at the interface is called single electrode
Change in Gibbs free energy (∆G),standard Gibbs free energy change (∆Gο) and equilibrium
potential. The potential difference between metal and metal ions in its solution at equilibrium is
constant (K) are related
Fundamentals by Van’t Hoff’s Gibb’s
of Electrochemistry: equation
free energy, Single electrode potential, Galvanic
called single electrode potential.
cell, EMF, Reference electrode, ο
derivation of Nernst equation and numerical, concentration cell
∆G= ∆G + RT lnK
It is represented as E Mn+/M. Single electrode potential is always termed as its reduction potential.
and numerical.
Single electrode(3potential:
Hrs.)
Figure: A Galvanic cell
Galvanic
Batteries:cell:
Whenever, Introduction,
a metal is inclassification,
contact with characteristics.
its own ions, itConstruction,
has a natural working
tendency andtoapplications of
lose or gain
The electrons
Zn- air and released
Li are at
-iondevices
battery the
(2 zinc
Hrs) half-cell build up an electrical potential difference between
electrons.
Galvanic Because
cells of thiswhichtendency the electrode
converts gains ainto
chemical energy potential, which
electrical is known as single
energy.
the electrodes. This is indicated by the voltmeter.
FuelDaniel
cell:potential.
electrode
The Definition
cell is an and classification.
example Construction,
of a galvanic working
cell. At the anodeandsideapplications of solid
zinc rod dipped in aoxide
1M
Electromotive
fuel cellof(SOFC) force of the Cell (or) Cell potential:
(1 Hr) This forms one half-cell. At the cathode side copper rod dipped in a 1M
solution zinc sulphate.
The potential difference which causes a current to flow from an electrode at higher potential to
Photo Voltaic
solution of copper Cells:
sulphateIntroduction, construction
solution, constitutes theand
otherworking
halfcell.ofThe
silicon
Daniel solar
cell cell and dye-
is represented
that at lower2+ potential2+is called the electromotive force (emf).The emf is represented as Ecell.
sensitized
by Zn(s)/Znsolar cell, advantages
(aq)//Cu (aq)/Cu(s)and disadvantages of PV cells (2 Hrs)
It is expressed in volts.
Supercapacitors: Introduction and classification. Construction, working and applications of
The two electrodes are connected internally by a salt bridge. A salt bridge consists of a jelly
electro
The chemical
measured EMF double layeris capacitors.
of a cell (1 -Hr)
Ecell = Ecathode Eanode
containing KCl or a solution of KCl placed in a U-tube fitted with porous plugs at either end. The
Where Ecathode
salt bridge allowsandtheEflow
anode are the but
of ions reduction
preventselectrode
the mixingpotentials of the cathode
of the solutions that would and anode
allow direct
Principles
reaction of theofcell
respectively. Electrochemistry
reactants.
Gibbs
The twofree
Standard energy:
electrodes
emf of aare
cellconnected
isFigure:
definedexternally
as the emfby aofwire through cell
a galvanic a voltmeter.
when theOxidation
reactantsofand
Zn to
Formation of Helmholtz double layer
2+
Zn
Gibbsand
products reduction
freeof the cell
energy Cu2+ to are
isofa reaction Cu occur
thermodynamic unitat concentration
at functionthethat
zinc and
was copperin electrodes
or unit
defined activity,
1876 are 298K
at
by Josiah represented1 by
at Gibbs
Willard
equations
atmospheric
toWhen
predict1&2
pressure
whether and is given by thespontaneously
following equation:
a metal is ina process
contact will
withoccur
a solution of its ownations,
constant
two temperature and pressure.
types of reactions are possible i. e.
●
ο Gibbs
oxidation ο free →οZnis2+the
andenergy
reduction. 2e- -------------------
energy that is available(1)to do useful work in a system.
EAt anode: Zn(s)
cell = E cathode – E Anode
(aq)+
Thegiven
It metalby shows2+ the- tendency to go into the solution as metal ion by losing electrons. The electrons
Atiscathode:
Standard CuG=H-TS
+2e →
Electrode Cu(s) -----------------------
potential (2)
or Standard reduction potential (SRP): The potential
accumulate on the electrode surface, making it negatively charged. The negatively charged
G-Gibbs free energy
difference
The net cellbetween
reactionaismetal andbymetal
obtained addingions in its 1solution
equations of unit
and 2Zn(s) 2+
(aq)) →Zn2+(aq)
+ Cuconcentration, at 298K
+ Cu(s)
electrode surface attracts a layer of positively charge ions at the interface, developing an electrical
H-Enthalpy (Enthalpy
temperature is the amount
and at equilibrium of energy
is called in a system
standard electrode capable of doing
potential or mechanical work)
standard reduction
double layer at the metal solution interface. The electrical double layer is called as HDL
potential.
S-Entropy It (Entropy
is represented
is the as Eo Mn+/M.
measure of Eg. Eo Zn2+/Znof= -a0.76V
the disorder
o 2+
, E Cu /Cu = + 0.34V
system)
(Helmholtz double layer).
(In a galvanic cell the electrode with lesser reduction potential acts as anode and electrode with
Reaction at anode (oxidation): M→ Mn++ ne- ---------(1)
T-Temperature
higher reduction potential acts as cathode.)
At the same
Change in Gibbstime, metal
free ions(∆G)
energy in the solution
during show the
a reaction at anytendency to get deposited
set of conditions as by,
is given metal atoms by
consuming electrons.
∆G=∆H-T∆S
Reaction at cathode (reduction): Mn++ne-→M ----------(2)
If the reaction occurs at standard state conditions (298K, 1 atm pressure or 1M concentration
4321
 The work performed
Reference electrode: by an electrochemical cell depends on the number coulombs ofelectricity
Construction:
that flow and the energy RT
οavailable per n+
coulomb.
Reference E
electrodes = E
are +
the
Two copper electrodes are dipped ln [M
electrodes ] with solutions
in CuSO referenceoftodifferent (9)concentrations.
those, electrode potential
TheofCuany
nF 4
Work
Where =ENumber
electrode can of coulombs Exο =Energy
be measured.
=which
electrode available/Coulomb
electrode is inpotential; standard
contact with dilute electrode
solution potential;
acts as Substituting
anode and that withthe values of R
concentrated
=
The Universal
Standard
number
solution acts Gas
hydrogen
of Constant
electrode
as coulombs
cathode, is[8.314J/K/mol];
and isthe
thetwo
primary
product Tnumber
solutions =
aretemperature
ofreference inIt(n)
electrode.
of moles
connected Kelvin
throughis of [298K];
represented
electrons
a salt F (Pt/H
= Faraday
asinvolved
bridge. +
2/Hin) the

Constant
Secondary
cell [96500C/mol];
reaction reference n=number
electrodes
and the faraday (F). of electrons involved.
The flow of electrons takes place from dilute solution to concentrated solution, such a cell is
They are commonly used to determine electrode potentials of other electrodes. Examples– Silver-
E = E o + 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟏 log [Mn+]
Number of coulombs
called concentration = nFwith transference.
cell
𝒏 electrode,
Silver chloride calomel electrode etc.
Energy available per coulomb is the cell potential E, since volt is equal to energy per coulomb.
At Anode:-
This is the Nernst Equation for the Single Electrode Potential.
The potential
Calomel is maximum when the work derived from the cell is maximum.
Electrode
Nernst Equation for Cell Potential
It is a→
+2 -
Cu(s) Cu (aq) [M
metal-metal 1] ion
salt +2eelectrode. The electrode is represented as-
Thus, 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟏 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬 𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐝𝐞
E = E o + log
At
Hg|Cathode:- -
Hg2Cl2𝐧(s)| Cl 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 W 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐬
= n x F 𝐚𝐭
x E𝐚𝐧𝐨𝐝𝐞 (2)
max
Cu (aq) [M2] + 2e →Cu(s)
2+ -
Nernst Equation for Daniel Cell: -∆G = nFE (3)
Net cellstandard
Under reaction:-
2+ conditions 2+
Zn (s) + Cu (aq) Zn (aq) + Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq)[M2 ]+ 2e-⇌ Cu(aq)2+[M1 ]+ ΔG 2eο-= -nFEο (4)
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗𝟏 [𝐂𝐮²⁺]
E = Eo + log
𝐧 [𝐙𝐧²⁺]
Where
ApplyingEο is a constant
Nernst called the standard electrode potential. For the reaction,
equation,
n+
Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode M +ne ⇌ M
Concentration
The equilibrium Cells
constant Kc is related to change in free energy by the
o 0.0591
EAnode = E + log [M1]
Van’t Hoff equation, n ∆G= ∆G0 + RT lnKc
Construction-
0.0591
1. The calomel
ECathode = Eo electrode
+ consists
log [M]1] of a solid Mercurous chloride in contact with mercury placed at
[M
n Kc =
the bottom of the long glass[Mn+]
tube.
0.0591 0.0591
ECell = Eo Cathode
2. Mercurous + [Hg2Cl
chloride log
2] [M – [Emercury
and2] the
o
Anode + paste islog [M1]over
placed ] mercury; the remaining part
n [M] n
ο
∆G=with
ofothe tube iso filled ∆G + RTsolution.
KCl ln (5)
[Mn+]
E Cathode = E Anode o n+
3. A platinum wire=∆G
∆G
0.0591
is[M₂]
dipped in mercury;
+ RT ln[M] – RT it lnis[M
used] for external electrical
(6) contact.
ECell = log
n [M₁]
4. The calomelfrom
Substituting electrode may3&4
equations act for
as anode
∆G andor∆G cathode
o depending on the nature of the other
A concentration
By cell is an electrochemical cell in which the electrode material and the solution in
the above equation
electrode.
o n+
both
If [Mthe
1] =half-cells
[M2] -,emf
nFE are composed
of= the
-nFE of the
cell+ isRTln[M]-
zero same
RTln
(Ecell substances
[M ]
= 0) but only
(7)the concentration of the two
Nernst Equation
solutions for single electrode potential
If [M2] > are[M1different.
], emf is positive
Dividing equation 7 by -nF,
[M2] n+
If
Single is large, Ecell is large
[M1] electrode potential (E), change in free energy (∆G) and the concentration M are
−nFE
Concentration −nFE⁰
cellequation. RT ln[M] RT ln[Mᶯ+]
related by Nernst = is represented
+ Accordingas-
–to thermodynamics, the decrease(8) in free energy (-∆G)
−nF2+ −nF2+ −nF −nF
Cu(s) | Cuthe[M
represents 1] || Cu amount
maximum [M2] | Cu(s)
of work that can be obtained from a chemical reaction.
-∆G =W -------------------- (1)
Under standardmax
conditions M=1.Hence the above equation becomes
8765
 be less to derive maximum voltage. Rcell is internal resistance of the cell. Internal resistance
Problems: BATTERY
should also 0.0591
be less to [M₂]
derive maximum voltage. 2+
1.(a) ECell = the standard
Calculate n
log
[M₁] electrode potential of Cu /Cu if its electrode
2.Capacity: It is the charge in Ampere-hours (Ah) that can be withdrawn from fully charged
A Battery
Given M 1=M is 2aο, device that consists 2+ of two or more galvanic cells connected in series or parallel
potential at25 C is 0.296V and [Cu ] is 0.015M.
cell or battery under specified conditions. It is determined by Faraday’s relation:
or both,
Hence cellwhich
potential=0converts chemical energy into electrical energy through redox reactions.
0.0591
0.296
C=
WnF = Eo +
(where, log [0.015] F=Faraday’s
Example:
M Lead- W=weight
acid2 battery,ofNickel-cadmium
active material;battery etc. constant; M=Molar mass of active
(b) oAssume M2=1M then M1=1/5M
E = 0.35n=number
material; V of electrons involved in cell reaction).
The basic electrochemical unit in a battery is the galvanic cell. The major components of a
3. Cycle 0.0591
life: The [M₂]
number of charge/discharge cycles that are possible before failure occurs in
E
2. A
Cell =galvanic
battery aren described logcell isbelow:
obtained by the combination of Fe rod immersed in ferrous sulphate
[M₁]
the case of secondary batteries is called as cycle life. The cycle life of a battery is affected by
1. solution
Anode0.0591 orofnegative
concentration
electrode 0.25M and Cuelectrons
: It releases rod immersed in copper
to the external sulphate
circuit solution of
by undergoing
[1]
corrosion
E Cell = in contacts
log and shedding of active materials from electrodes.
concentration
oxidation nduring0.45M.Give
electrochemical
[1/5] the cell representation, cell reactions and calculate EMF of cell at
reaction.
4.Shelf
ο life:
2. Cathode
30 C. Given or positive
that standardelectrode : It accepts
potentials of Cuelectrons
and Fe from the external
electrodes circuit
are 0.34 and reduction
and -0.41V of
respectively.
It is essential
0.0591 for most batteries to be stored, sometimes for many years, without self discharge
ECell
an active
= species
Representation
5cell is Fe/Fe2+//Cu2+/Cu
logoccurs.
or corrosion 2 of of electrodes. Shelf life is defined as duration of storage under specific conditions
3. Electrolyte : It is the active mass in the anode and cathode compartments. A solution of an
ECell
Cell =
without reactions:
0.02955
any lossxin0.699 = 0.0206 V
performance.
acid, alkali or salt having 2+
high ionic conductivity is commonly used as electrolyte.
5. A Anode: Fe →cell
Atconcentration Fe is+2e -
constructed by dipping copper rods in 0.001M and 0.1M
4. Separator : It separates the anode and the cathode in a battery to prevent internal short-
CLASSIFICATION 2+ OF BATTERIES
CuSO 4 solutions. Calculate
At cathode: + 2e-→ Cuthe EMF of the cell at 298K.
circuiting. ItCuis permeable to the electrolyte and maintains the desired ionic conductivity. The
Batteries are classified into: 2+
main
Thefunction
Overall cell is of
reaction: the separator
represented as,isCu(s)/Cu
to transport ions from
(0.001M) the2+anode
// Cu compartment to the cathode
(0.1M)/Cu(s)
2+ 2+
compartment
1. Primary and →Fe
FeBatteries
+ Cu vice versa.
+ Cu Fibrous forms of regenerated cellulose, vinyl polymers and
2+
At the anode, Cu →and Cunafion M) + 2e
-
(0.001 membranes
polyolefins, cellophane are used asseparators.
2. Secondary Batteries 2+2.303 x 8.314 x 303 0.45
EAt= (0.34- (-0.41))Cu+ (0.1 M) + 2e → Cu log
the cathode, = 0.76 V
2 x 96500 0.25
3. Reserve Batteries
0.0591 [M₂]
3.EThe
Cell =concentration
log cell tin/tin ion (0.024M)//tin ion(0.064M)/tin develops a potential of
n [M₁]
1.0.0126V 25οC.Calculate the valency of tin.
atBatteries
Primary
0.0591 [0.1]
ECell 0.0591 [M₂]
AECell = = which
battery
log
2 logcannot
[0.001]
be recharged and discarded when the battery has delivered all its
n [M₁]
electrical energy is0.064
0.0591 called Primary Battery. They are non- rechargeable because the cell
n = = 0.0591 log log 100
0.0126
reactions 2 0.024 Example: Zn-MnO2 battery, Zn-carbon battery (Leclanche cell), Zn-
are irreversible.
n =1.998=2
air battery etc. x 2
= 0.02955
2.4.Secondary Batteries Figure: Construction of battery
Two
E copper
= 0.0591 rods
V placed in copper sulphate solutions of equal concentrations are
Battery Characteristics:
Cell
Aconnected
battery which after
to form discharging can
a concentration cellbe recharged again by passing the electric current
1. Voltage: Voltage (or Cell potential) is the electrical force that drives electric current
through it in the opposite direction to that of discharge is known as Secondary Battery. They are
between electrodes. Voltage of a cell is given by the equation;
(a) What
rechargeable is because
cell potential?
the cell reactions are reversible. The secondary battery is also called as
Ecell=(EC-EA)-ηA- ηC -iRcell
storage battery the
(b) Calculate as itcell
is potential
the storage device
if one forsolutions
of the is diluted to1/5thof its original
electrical energy.
Where, ηA and ηC are overpotential at anode and cathode respectively. Over potentials should
concentration
Example: Lead storage battery, Nickel Cadmium Battery, Li-ion battery etc.
10
11
12
9
 At anode: Battery (Primary battery)
Applications:
Zinc-Air
ItZinc-
findsair battery consists
Dischargingof a porous carbon plate as cathode. The cathode is activated for
3. Reserve Batteries
applications in hearing aids, electronic pager, rail road signaling, medical devices,
Li xC 6
better reduction of oxygen and xLi+ with
treated
-
+ xewater+ repellants.
6C The anode consists of rectangular
remote communications
One of the components and military radio receivers.
Chargingis stored separately and incorporated into the battery when
flat plates of zinc placed on either side of the cathode. The electrolyte is KOH. The outer
required. Usually,
Secondary the electrolyte is stored separately. Such batteries are called Reserve
Batteries
At cathode:
container is made of glass or ebonite.
Batteries. They are used to deliver high power for relatively short period of time in
Discharging
Construction:
Lithium Ion Battery
missiles, trajectory and
+ other- weapon systems.
Li1-xCoO2 + xLi + xe LiCoO2
Anode:
Example: Powdered Zinc
Lithium-ionMg-AgCl
battery isand Mg-CuCl batteries, both suited
are activated by adding
Charging
a rechargeable battery best to mobile deviceswater.
that require small
Cathode: Carbon
size, light weight and high performance. It has high energy and high voltage (3.6V).
Electrolyte: KOH (5M)
Overall reaction:Li/Li+, C/LiPF6/Li-CoO2
Representation:
Separator: Polyethylene Discharging
Components:
Li1-xCoO2 + LixC6 6C + LiCoO2
1. Anode: Lithium intercalated graphite or LixC6
Charging

2. Cathode: Partially Lithiated oxides of Ni, Co or Mn or LiyNiO2 / LiyCoO2

During discharge of battery, Li atoms present in graphite layer (one Li atom is present for every
y = 1-x; where x, y used in non-stoichiometric compounds
6C atoms) are oxidized, liberating electrons and lithium ions. Electrons flow through external
3. Cathode current collector: Al/ Cu foil
circuit to cathode and lithium ions flow through the organic electrolyte towards cathode. At
4. Anode current collector: Cu foil
cathode, lithium ions are reduced to lithium atoms and are inserted in to the layered structure of
5. Electrolyte: Li salt (LiPF6, LiBF4) in an organic solvent (i.e. ethylene carbonate).
metal oxide.
6. Separator: Microporous polyethylene or polypropylene soaked in electrolyte is used as
During charging of battery, lithium atoms present in layered structure of metal oxide are
Zinc-air
separator.battery is a primary battery. Its advantage is that air does not contribute to the mass of
oxidized, liberating electrons and lithium ions. Electrons flow through external circuit and
the battery,
In Li-ion hence the
battery, offers high energy
container is madedensity.
up of The battery
stainless is or
steel represented
aluminiumas,alloy. At anode, lithium
lithium ions flow through the organic electrolyte towards graphite carbon electrode. At
atoms
𝒁𝒏/ occupy
KOH the position
(5 𝑴)/A𝒊𝒓, 𝑪 between the graphite lattice layers. lithium ion move between the
graphite electrode, lithium ions are reduced to lithium atoms and are inserted in to the layered
electrodes,
When isusing
air of passedan through
intercalated electrode
the cell, zinc material.
is oxidizedMetal atomsthe
to ZnOat andanode,
ions can enterdischarge.
during layered solids
The
structure graphite.
reversibly.
oxygen of the air reacts with water at the cathode. The half-cell reactions are
Applications:

Anode
Used inreaction: + 𝟒𝑶𝑯−electronic
powering𝒁𝒏portable → 𝟐𝒁𝒏𝑶 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶+𝟒𝒆-
devices like cell phones, laptops, Cameras, Calculator,
Cathoderadio,
Portable reaction: 𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶 + and
O𝟐 + vehicles
electrical → 𝟒𝑶𝑯− applications.
𝟒e- aerospace
The overall reaction is 𝟐𝒁𝒏 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝟐𝒁𝒏𝑶
Fuel cells
Zn-air battery has an energy density of about 100 W h kg-1. This is three times that of the
Introduction The battery
classical lead acid principle
andoftwice
the fuel
thatcell was discovered
of Ni-Cd battery. in 1839 by Sir William Grove, who
has been acknowledged as the “Father of the Fuel Cell”.
Advantages:
A fuel cell
1. High is a galvanic
capacity cell3.inLong
2.Low cost which thelife
shelf chemical energy contained in a readily available
fuel oxidant system is converted directly into electrical energy by means of
Disadvantages:
1. Limited powerprocesses
electrochemical output 2. in
Short activated
which lifeisLi-ion
theFigure:
fuel oxidized at the anode.
battery

13
14
15
16
 ο
Like
temperature,
A any other
summary thus
of electrochemical
fiveoperating temperature
cell,
types of fuel theis fuel
cells for cell
given thishas
celltwo
below: is electrodes
around 100andC.Membrane
an electrolyte.
electrolyte
However,is
SOFC(Solid oxide fuel cell)
the fuelinand
active hydrated
thePEFC
oxidizing
form. Water
agentsformed
AFCare continuously
as reactionand byproduct
PAFC separately
is used
supplied
for hydration
MCFCto the twoofelectrodes
membrane.
SOFC of
the cell,
Most commonly
Electrolyteat whichused
theyfuels
Nafion undergo
in this
reactions.
cell are These
KOH(40%,85%) H2 gascells
and are
methanol.H
Liquid capable
H3PO4 2ofgas
supplying
must be current
Li/Na/K free ofYttria
CO
as long
which
as
they as
acts arecatalytic
suppliedpoison
with the
at low
reactants.
temperature. The catalyst used is platinum(Pt).
carbonate stabilized
A fuel
2. cell essentially
Alkaline Fuel Cell consists
(AFC): of the following arrangement: solution ZrO2
Concentrated KOH ο
retained in 90-120 ο
solid matrix ο ο ο ο fuel
Temperature 50-100 C C,250(usually
Fuel/electrode/electrolyte/electrode/oxidant C 220 asbestos)
C is used 600-700
as an electrolyte
C in this
1000 C
Charge H+ be operated at
cell. This cell can OHhigh
- H+250 οC with 85%KOH
temperature of O2-
CO32-,or at low temperature
At the anode, fuel under goes oxidation:
of 120οC with less concentrated 40% KOH.A wide range of electrocatalysts can be used
carrier
Fuel
Anode → Oxidation
(e.g.,Ni,Ag,Au and
Pt product+
or noble ne-Pt/Pd/Au/Ni
Pt/C metals).Air used as oxidant
Pt/C at cathode should
Ni be free of CONi2.Because
CO 2 readily reacts with the KOH to form K2CO3,thus altering the electrolyte. Most commonly
catalyst
At the cathode, the oxidant gets reduced:
used fuel in thisPure
Fuel cell is pure H2 Pure
gas. H2 Pure H2,Natural H2,Natural
Oxidant+ ne-→ Reduction products
3. Phosphoric H Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC):
2,Methanol H2the
,Methanol, Gas, gasified
The electrons liberated from the oxidation process at anode, can perform useful workgas,when they
Figure: Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
The concentrated(100%) phosphoric acid retained Reformed in solid silicon carbide
coalis used as an electrolyte
gasified
pass through the external circuit to the cathode.
SOFCs ο
in this are
fuelthe
cell,most
whichefficient fuelatcell
operates 150electricity generators currently
to 220 C.Electrocatalyst
Natural gas used being
in bothdeveloped
the coal world-
anode and
Advantages:
wide. SOFC
Applications
cathode is Pt.uses
Fuela solid
Back-up be Military,
shouldceramic CO,space
freeasofelectrolyte,
whichwhich operates
Distributed
is a severe at very
poison high
Large
for Pt temperature
electro Most–
(600
Large
catalyst.
1) Their
1000 o power efficiency is high.
C) used
commonly power,
fuels in this cell are H2 gas, reformed powernatural gas and electricity
methanol. electricity
Anode
2)
4. They material
are
Molten : Nickel
eco-friendly
portable
Carbonate doped
since
Fuel Zirconiaofcermet
the(MCFC)
Cell products (Ni -reactions
the overall ZrO2 ), It
generation areisnot
a mixture
toxic. of Nidistributed
distributed and yttria
stabilized
The
3) They canZirconia(YSZ)
electrolyte power,
in this
produce skeleton.
fuel
direct cell isHere
currents Ni acts
a combination
for long as aatof
periods catalyst
a alkaliand YSZ conducts
carbonates,
low cost. whichoxide
generation ions.
generation
is retained in a
Cathode matrix
material: Strontium doped ο
4)ceramic
transportatio
They are used as of auxiliary
LiAlO 2.The
power cellLathanum
fuelgenerators
operates manganite
at 600
in space
(LaSrMnO
to 700
vehicles. C where
Fuel 3) the
cells
(LSM) , carbonates
alkaliin
are used
it is good
car
material for oxygen
form a domestic n reduction,
highly conductive good
molten electronic conductivity and stable material.
salt, with carbonate ions providing ionic conduction. At the
engines, lighting and heating.
Electrolyte Material:
high operating NumberinofMCFCs
temperatures solid oxide electrolyte
,Ni(anode) and materials are used
nickel oxide in SOFC
(cathode) s. The most
are adequate to
Limitations
used electrolyte
promote reaction.is Noble
YSZ(Yttria-stabilized zirconia).
metals are not required. It iscommonly
Most good conductor for inoxygen
used fuels ions
this cell are and
H2
1. Cost of power is high as a result of the cost of the electrodes
insulator for gas
gas, natural electrons. It is impervious
and gasified coal. to liquid and pervious to gas.
2. 5.
Fuels
Workingin Oxide
Solid the
ofform
SOFC: of gases
Fuel and oxygen need to be stored in tanks under high pressure.
Cell(SOFC):
The syn gas (mixture
in thisof fuel
hydrogen
cell isgasa and carbon monoxide) dissociates into hydrogen and CO.
3. The
Powerelectrolyte
output is moderate solid, nonporous metal oxide, usually Y2O3 stabilized
Hydrogen
ZrO2.The gascell passes through
operates at 1000the
ο anode and gets oxidized by oxide ions.
C where ionic conduction by oxygen ions takes place. The anode
4. To
Fromhave an appreciable voltage, a battery of fuel cells must be available.
used is Ni-ZrO , and the cathode is through
cathode the
2
oxide ions diffuse Sr-dopedthe electrolyte
LaMnO 3 .Mosttowards fuel rich
commonly usedanode andthis
fuels in react
cellwith
are
hydrogen. The of
Classification
H2 gas, natural liberated
fueland
gas electrons
cells: pass through
gasified coal. the external circuit.
At low-temperature fuel cells (PEFC,AFC,PAFC),protons
(Syngas can beions
or hydroxyl produced
are thefrom many sources,
major including natural gas, coal, biomass, or virtually
Based on operating temperature and charge
nature ofcarriers in the
electrolyte, fuel electrolyte, whereas
cells are classified as: in the high-
any hydrocarbon
temperature fuel feedstock,
cells, MCFC by reaction with steam (steam
and SOFC,carbonate ions andreforming), carbon
oxygen ions aredioxide (dry
the charge
1. Polymeror
reforming) Electrolyte Fuel Cell
oxygen (partial (PEFC):
oxidation)
carriers, respectively. Maximum efficiencies of 60%, 45%,60%,and 70% have been estimated
In this cell, a solid ion exchange membrane(fluorinated sulfonic acid polymer, nafion)which is a
for industrial FC,PAFC,MCFC and SOFC, respectively.
good conductor for proton(H+) is used as an electrolyte. Polymer cannot withstand higher

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 Reactions:
large numbers of the dye molecules in a 3-D matrix.
Anode:
SOLAR
2-
H2 + Oand
Construction
ENERGY →working
H2O + 2eof- PV cell
Cathode: ½ O2+2e- →O2-
Conversion of solar energy into electrical energy
Overall reaction:
 Consists ofHUltra O2 →
2 + ½thin H2O of n type(phosphorous doped) on to top of boron doped Si
wafers
Solar energy is clean and renewable source of energy and alternative to fossil fuels.
Advantages (Benefits)
(p-type)
Utilization of solar energy
High power density,
A metallic gridHigh cellone
forms operating temperature
of the electrical permits
contact internal
of the production
diode and of Hlight
allows the 2 and
to CO,
fall
1. Direct utility – when solar energy is directly converted to electric energy. Example:
Higher between
system efficiency,
grid lines constant power production, fuel choice.
PV cells
Application:
 An antireflective layer between grid lines increases the amount of transmitted light.
2. Indirect utility: Conversion of Solar energy to chemical energy, which later used as
SOFC  technology
The cells otherhaselectrical
been developed
(bottom)for a broad
contact spectrum
is formed of metal.
by Ag power generation applications
energy sources. Example: Photosynthesis.
like portable
When light electronic
radiationappliances, power tools,
falls on p-n junction diode, elaptops,
- cell are
- hole pairs phones, power
generated backups,
by absorption
Photovoltaic cell
transportation, power distribution.
of radiations.
They are referred to as semiconductor devices that convert sunlight (electromagnetic radiations)
 The electrons are drifted and collected to n-type. The holes are drifted and collected at p-
into direct current electricity. AsFigure:
long as
Dyelight is shining
sensitized on (DSSC)
solar cell the solar cell, it generates electrical
type end.
Schematic
power. Whenrepresentation
the light stops,ofelectricity
DSSC stops. Solar cells never need recharging like a battery.
 When these ends are electrically connected the current flows between the two ends
Principle:
Advantages
through external circuits.
 DSSCs
The energy associatedthe
are currently with photon
most (E) third-generation
efficient is given as- solar technology available.
Dye-sensitized solar cell
 E = hνis =hc/λ
DSSC a disruptive techn ology that can be used to produce electricity in a wide range of
DyeWhere
light h is planks
Sensitized
conditions, constant
solar indoors
cells (DSSC) are thirdenabling
and outdoors, generation
thephotovoltaic cellsboth
user to convert .They are low-cost
artificial solar
and natural
Cinto
cellslight is velocity
belonging to theof
energy light
togroup
powerofathin
b film
broad solarofcells.
range electronic devices.
λ is wavelength of light
Disadvantages
Principle and Working
 The use of the liquid electrolyte, which has temperature stability problems.
A modern DSSC is composed of a porous layer of titanium dioxide nanoparticles, covered with a
 Another disadvantage is that costly ruthenium (dye), platinum (catalyst) an d conducting glass
molecular dye that absorbs sunlight, like the chlorophyll in green leaves. Like in a conventional
or plastic (contact) are needed to produce a DSSC.
battery, an anode (the titanium dioxide) and a cathode (the platinum) are placed on either side of a
 A third major drawback is that the electrolyte solution contains volatile organic compounds
liquid conductor (the electrolyte).
(or VOC's), solvents which must be carefully sealed as they are hazardous to human health
Sunlight passes
and the through the transparent electrode into the dye layer where it can excite electrons
environment.
which flow into
Importance the titanium cells
of Photovoltaic dioxide. The electrons flow toward the transparent electrode where
they are collected
Photovoltaic for generate
cells can poweringelectricity
a load. After flowing
for a wide through
variety the external circuit, they are re-
of applications
introduced
1. Solarinto the cell
energy, on unlimited,
being a metal electrode on theand
in exhaustible back, flowingphoto
renewable into the electrolyte.
voltaic cells canThe
be
electrolyte then transports
considered the electrons
as continuous energyback to the dye molecules.
source.

The2.dyeElectricity
moleculescan
are be generated
quite in rural areas,
smallFigure:
(nanometer individual
sized),
Silicon based socell
solar
families
in order whichaare
to capture living far
reasonable away
amount
from electric
of the incoming lightgrid
the connections
layer of dye and in remote
molecules areas
needs to such as mountains.
be made fairly thick, much thicker than
the molecules themselves. To address this problem, a nanomaterial is used as a scaffold to hold
21
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 3. They can be used
Construction:
Hybrid capacitors: for domesticislighting,
The capacitance spinning of fans,
due to combination grindingofgrains,
of formation transistor
electrical doubleradios,
layer
as well small
Supercapacitor TV sets and
consists oftape
as oxidation-reduction recorders.
a porous electrode,
reactions electrolyte and a current collector (metal plates).
process
Diagram to show formation of double layer
4. isIna agricultural
There sectorsseparates,
membrane, which it is used for irrigation.
positive and negative plated is called separator.
Supercapacitors
Electrolyte
5. In production activities such as milling, sawing and sewing.
Working:
There
6. are two carbon
During the operation -
sheet separated
of solar by
cells, +
separator.
there isThe
nogeometrical size of carbon
harmful emission sheet is taken
or transformation of
▬
- + +
Electrical Double Layer Capacitors Pseudocapacitors
in Charge
such matter
a storage:
way (generation
that they haveof pollutants)
a very high
+ norsurface
anyCharge
production
area. Theofhighly
 storage: noise porous
or othercarbon
by-products.
can store more
Electrostatically (Helmholtz Layer) Electrochemically (Faradiaic charge transfer)
energy
7. Photo
than anyVoltaic
othercells
electrolytic
provide power
capacitor.
for space
Whencraft
the andSeparator
voltage
satellites,
is applied
an extra-terrestrial
to positive plate, it
- +and+when the voltage
 +
Activated Carbons Carbon Aerogels
attracts dimension
negative ions
of photovoltaic.
from electrolyte is applied to negative plate; it attracts
Conducting Polymers Metal Oxides

positive ionsNanotube
Advantages
Carbon from electrolyte. Therefore, there is a formation of a layer of ions on the both side
(CNT), Graphene,
Carbid Derived Carbon (CDC)

of plate.
1. LowThisoperating
is calledcost
‘Double layer’Hybrid
(no fuel) formation. For this reason, the supercapacitor can also be
Capacitors
2. No moving parts and no wear and tear Electric
Charge storage:
called Double layer capacitor.Electrostatically
The ions are then
double stored near the surface of carbon and the distance
& Electrochemically
layer
3. Ambient temperature operation
4. High
between publicis
the plates acceptance
in the orderand
of excellent
angstroms. safetyComposites
record
Asymmetric
Disadvantage
Limitations Pseudo/EDLC
According to the formula for the capacitance,
• 1. have
They Energy
Lowcan be produced
energy density only during day time
2. High installation costs
• Individual
3. Poor
Electrical cell Dielectric
shows
reliability
double layerlow constant
voltage
ofsuper
auxiliary of medium
elements
capacitors x area of storage
including
(EDLS); the plate
Capacitance =
•• Not4.allLack of widespread commercially available system integration andor
installation
Electrical Distance between the plates
thedouble
energy layer
can super capacitors
be utilized duringare also known
discharge as ultra capacitors supercapacitors.
• Unlike batteries
They have high no chemical reaction
self-discharge takes place
as compared when
to battery. energy is being stored or discharged
Super capacitors
•andSupercapacitor
so ultra balancing
Voltage capacitors
storesiscan go through
required
energy when
via hundreds
more thanorcharges
electrostatic thousands
three of charging
capacitors cyclesofwith
are connected
on opposite surfaces inthe no degradation.
series.
electric double
Owing to their superior performance of high power density, short charging time, long cycle life,
layer. They utilize the high surface area of carbon as the energy storage medium, resulting in
good temperature characteristicsand better operation safety, supercapacitors are becoming a
Applications:
Principle:
an energy density much higher than conventional capacitors.
criticalare
• They device
usedforin energy storage
electronic that can replace
applications some
suchthe of thetraditional
as electrolytic
cellular chemical
electronics, powerbatteries.
conditioning,
Energy is stored in supercapacitor by polarizing solution. The charges are
Supercapacitor
• The purpose can be defined as a energy storage device that stores energy electrostatically
viaof
uninterruptible having supplies
power separator is tointerface.
(UPS) prevent the charges moving across the electrodes.
separated electrode –electrolyte
by polarising
• They an electrolytic
used in industrial solution.
lasers, medical A supercapacitor is a type of capacitor that can store a
equipment.
• The amount of energy stored is very large as compared to a typical capacitor because of the
• large
Theyamount
are usedofinenergy,
electrictypically 10 to
vehicle and for100 times
load moretoenergy
leveling extendpertheunit
life mass or volume compared
of batteries.
enormous surface area created by the porous electrodes and the small charge separation (10
• to electrolytic
They are usedcapacitors.
in wireless communication system for uninterrupted service.
angstroms) created by the dielectric separator.
• Classification
There are usedof in supercapacitors:
VCRs, CD players, electronic toys, security systems, computers, scanners,
On the detectors
smoke basis of and
mechanism of energy storage, supercapacitors can be divided into threegeneral
coffee makers.
Advantage:
classes:
• Long life: It works for large number of*****************
cycle without wear and aging.
 Electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLC): The capacitance is rendered by the
• Rapid charging: it takes a second to charge completely
adsorption/desorption of charges at the junction of electrode-electrolyte.
• Low cost: it is less expensive as compared to electrochemical battery.
 Pseudocapacitors: The capacitance is due to Faradaic processes, such as oxidation-reduction
• High power storage: It stores huge amount of energy in a small volume.
reactions which involve the transfer of charge between electrode and electrolyte.
• Faster release: Release the energy much faster than battery.
Figure: Schematic representation of EDLC

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