CHAPTER SIX

APPLICATIONS OF
THERMODYNAMICS TO FLOW PROCESSES
Thermodynamic analysis of flow processes is most often applied to
processes involving gases or supercritical fluids. In these
compressible flow processes the fluid properties change as a result
of changes in pressure, and thermodynamic analysis provides
relationships between these changes

The main objects of this chapter are:

∙ Develop the thermodynamic equations applicable to one-
dimensional steady-state flow of compressible fluids in conduits.
∙ Apply these equations to flow (both subsonic and supersonic) in
pipes and nozzles
∙ Treat throttling processes, i.e., flow through restrictions
∙ Calculate the work produced by turbines and expanders

1
2
 1- DUCT FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS 3

• We consider here the adiabatic, steady-state, one-dimensional flow of a

compressible fluid in the absence of shaft work and of changes in potential
energy. The pertinent thermodynamic equations are first derived, and are
then applied to flow in pipes and nozzles.
• energy balance is Eq. (2.31).

• The continuity equation, Eq. (2.26),

• The fundamental property relation

 1-1 PIPE FLOW 4

• For the case of steady-state adiabatic flow of compressible fluids

in a horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area, dA/dx = 0,

• For subsonic flow, M2 < 1

• For subsonic flow, the maximum fluid velocity obtainable in a

pipe of constant cross section is the speed of sound, and this
value is reached at the exit of the pipe.
• At this point dS/dx reaches its limiting value of zero. Given a
discharge pressure low enough for the flow to become sonic,
lengthening the pipe does not alter this result
• when flow is supersonic the pressure increases and the velocity
decreases in the direction of flow. However, such a flow regime
is unstable, and when a supersonic stream enters a pipe of
constant cross section, a compression shock occurs,
• Example 7.1
For the steady-state, adiabatic, irreversible flow of an incompressible liquid in a 5
horizontal pipe of constant cross-sectional area, show that:
(a) The velocity is constant.
(b) The temperature increases in the direction of flow.
(c) The pressure decreases in the direction of flow.

Applications of
Thermodynamics to Flow Processes
Dr. Asawer
1-2 NOZZLE 6

• In a properly designed nozzle the area changes with

length in such a way as to make the flow nearly
frictionless. In the limit of reversible flow, the rate of
entropy increase approaches zero, and dS/dx = 0

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• The relation of velocity to pressure in an isentropic

nozzle can be expressed analytically for the ideal-gas
state and constant heat capacities

• Integration, with nozzle entrance and exit conditions

denoted by 1 and 2, yields:

• with u1 = 0, solution for the pressure ratio at the throat

gives:
 8

• Example 7.2
• A high-velocity nozzle is designed to operate with
steam at 700 kPa and 300°C. At the nozzle inlet the
velocity is 30 m⋅s−1. Calculate values of the ratio A/A1
(where A1 is the cross-sectional area of the nozzle inlet)
for the sections where the pressure is 600, 500, 400, 300,
and 200 kPa. Assume that the nozzle operates
isentropically.
 9

1-3 THROTTLING

• When a fluid flows through a restriction, such as an orifice, a

partly closed valve, or a porous plug, without any
appreciable change in kinetic or potential energy, the
primary result of the process is a pressure drop in the fluid.
Such a throttling process produces no shaft work, and in the
absence of heat transfer, Eq. (2.31) reduces to
• ΔH = 0 or H2 = H1
• For most real gases at moderate conditions of temperature
and pressure, a reduction in pressure at constant enthalpy
results in a decrease in temperature.
 10
steam at 1000 kPa and 300°C is throttled to 101.325 kPa (atmospheric
pressure),
H2 = H1 = 3052.1 kJ ⋅kg −1
Interpolation in the steam tables at this enthalpy and at a pressure of 101.325
kPa indicates a downstream temperature of 288.8°C. The temperature has
decreased, but the effect is small.

• Throttling of wet steam to sufficiently low pressure causes the liquid to

evaporate and the vapor to become superheated
• wet steam at 1000 kPa (t sat = 179.88°C) with a quality of 0.96 is throttled to
101.325 kPa,
H2 = H1 = (0.04)(762.6) + (0.96)(2776.2) = 2695.7 kJ⋅kg−1
At 101.325 kPa steam with this enthalpy has a temperature of 109.8°C; it is
therefore superheated (t sat = 100°C). The considerable temperature drop
here results from evaporation of liquid.
• If a saturated liquid is throttled to a lower pressure, some of the liquid
vaporizes or flashes, producing a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated
vapor at the lower pressure.
• saturated liquid water at 1000 kPa (t sat = 179.88°C) is flashed to 101.325
kPa (t sat = 100°C),
• H2 = H1 = 762.6 kJ⋅kg−1
• At 101.325 kPa the quality of the resulting steam is found from Eq. (6.96a)
with M = H:
• 762.6 = (1 − x)(419.1) + x(2676.0)
• = 419.1 + x(2676.0 − 419.1)
 2- TURBINE ( EXPANDER) 11

• The expansion is a process that converts internal energy into

kinetic energy, which in turn is converted into shaft work
when the stream impinges on blades attached to a rotating
shaft
• turbine (or expander) consists of alternate sets of nozzles and
rotating blades through which vapor or gas flows in a steady-
state expansion process.
• The overall result is the conversion of the internal energy of a
high-pressure stream into shaft work
• Applying energy balances across an expander.
• the potential-energy term can be neglected because there
is little change in elevation.
• heat transfer is negligible and the inlet and exit pipes are
sized to make fluid velocities roughly equal

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 12

• if the fluid in the turbine expands reversibly and

adiabatically, the process is isentropic, and S2 = S1. This
second equation fixes the final state of the fluid and
determines H2. For this special case, W s is given
• W s ( isentropic ) = ( ΔH )S
• The shaft work | W s | (isentropic) is the maximum that can
be obtained from an adiabatic turbine.
• Actual turbines produce less work, because the actual
expansion process is irreversible; we define a turbine
efficiency as:

• where W s is the actual shaft work.

 13

• Example 7.6
• A steam turbine with rated capacity of 56,400 kW
(56,400 kJ·s−1) operates with steam at inlet conditions
of 8600 kPa and 500°C, and discharges into a
condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Assuming a turbine
efficiency of 0.75, determine the state of the steam at
discharge and the mass rate of flow of the steam.
 3- COMPRESSION PROCESS
3-1 COMPRESSOR
14

• The compression of gases may be accomplished in equipment

with rotating blades (like a turbine operating in reverse) or in
cylinders with reciprocating pistons.
• The energy equations are independent of the type of equipment;
indeed, they are the same as for turbines or expanders because
here, too, potential and kinetic-energy changes are presumed
negligible

• the isentropic work, is the minimum shaft work required for

compression of a gas from a given initial state to a given
discharge pressure.

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• Example 7.8
Saturated-vapor steam at 100 kPa (t sat = 99.63°C) is compressed adiabatically to 300
kPa. If the compressor efficiency is 0.75, what is the work required and what are the
properties of the discharge stream?
 3-2 PUMP 16

• Liquids are usually moved by pumps, which are

generally rotating equipment.
• The fundamental property relation, Eq. (6.9), provides
an alternative.
• For an isentropic process,
• dH = V dP ( const S )
• Combining this with Eq.
• W s ( isentropic ) = ( ΔH ) S
• yields:
 17

• Example 7.10
Water at 45°C and 10 kPa enters an adiabatic pump and is
discharged at a pressure of 8600 kPa. Assume the pump
efficiency to be 0.75. Calculate the work of the pump, the
temperature change of the water, and the entropy change of
the water.