1) Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Seminar Answer

Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use two

languages fluently, while multilingualism involves proficiency in
more than two languages. These concepts can be viewed from
both individual and societal perspectives.
Early bilingualism refers to the ability to use two languages
proficiently from an early age. It can be classified into different
categories based on when and how the two languages are
acquired.
Here are the main types:
1. Simultaneous Early Bilingualism
Definition: This occurs when a child is exposed to two languages
from birth or very early childhood, typically before the age of
three. Both languages are learned at the same time, often
within the same environment (e.g., both languages spoken at
home). Children typically achieve native-like fluency in both
languages. They may mix languages in early speech (code-
switching) as they develop.
2. Successive Early Bilingualism
Definition: This occurs when a child learns one language first
and then, usually after age three, acquires a second language.
The first language is typically well established before the
second language is introduced. Children may achieve varying
levels of proficiency in the second language depending on
exposure and practice. They might retain a strong influence
from their first language, especially in grammar and vocabulary.
3. Late Bilingualism
Definition: This occurs when an individual learns a second
language after the age of approximately six or seven, often
during adolescence or adulthood.
Individuals may achieve varying levels of proficiency, but they
might struggle with accent and fluency compared to native
speakers. Learning can occur in a formal educational context or
through immersion. Late bilinguals often have a strong
foundation in their first language, which can influence their
second language learning.
4. Additive /ˈæd.ɪ.tɪv/ Bilingualism
Definition: This refers to the process where the acquisition of a
second language enhances the individual’s overall linguistic
abilities, including their first language. The learning
environment supports both languages, allowing for the
development of literacy and academic skills in both languages.
Additive bilingualism promotes positive attitudes toward both
languages and cultures. A school program that offers instruction
in both the students' native language and a second language,
helping them excel in both.
5. Subtractive Bilingualism
Definition: This occurs when the acquisition of a second
language negatively affects the first language, often leading to
a decrease in proficiency in the first language. Typically occurs
in environments where the second language is dominant and
the first language is not supported. This can lead to language
shift, where speakers gradually abandon their first language in
favor of the second.
Example: A child who learns a second language in school but
does not receive support for their first language at home may
lose proficiency in that language.
6. Passive Bilingualism
Definition: This refers to individuals who can understand a
language but do not speak it fluently. They may have been
exposed to the language through listening or reading. Passive
bilinguals can often comprehend conversations and texts but
may struggle to produce spoken or written language.
This can happen in cases of early exposure where the individual
did not have sufficient opportunities to practice speaking.
Example: An individual who grew up in a bilingual household
where one language was primarily used but later became less
engaged with that language.
Some people learn two languages from birth, often because
their parents speak different languages. This is called
simultaneous bilingualism. Others learn a second language
later in life, which is known as sequential bilingualism, or
due to immersion in a multilingual community.
From a societal standpoint (позиція), bilingualism and
multilingualism can shape the cultural and political landscapes
of a country. Societies that embrace multiple languages often
benefit from cultural diversity and economic advantages.
However, managing multiple languages within one nation can
also present challenges. For example, balancing the demands of
multiple languages in schooling can be complex, and
educational systems must find ways to accommodate minority
languages while promoting national or international lingua
francas.
The acquisition of bilingualism or multilingualism can depend on
factors such as age, social environment, and personal
motivation. Research suggests that younger learners tend to
acquire languages more naturally due to neuroplasticity, while
older learners may need more effort but can still attain high
proficiency levels.
2) Societies become bilingual in several ways:
Historical Events: Colonization, conquest /ˈkɒŋ.kwest/, and
political unions often lead to bilingualism. For instance, when
European powers colonized many parts of the world, they
imposed their languages on local populations, resulting in
bilingual societies. In many African countries, people speak both
their indigenous languages and the colonizers' languages like
English or French.
Geographic Proximity: Countries that share borders with
others often develop bilingualism due to cultural and economic
exchanges. For example, in Belgium, both French and Dutch are
spoken due to historical and geographic influences, while
Switzerland has multiple official languages because of its
diverse regional populations.
Migration: Immigration is a significant driver of bilingualism.
When large groups of people move to a new country, they bring
their native languages with them. Over time, they often learn
the local language while maintaining their mother tongue,
leading to bilingual communities. This is common in countries
like the United States, where many immigrant communities
speak both English and their original languages.
Education and Government Policies: Bilingualism can be
promoted through education systems and government policies.
Some countries, like Canada, have official policies supporting
bilingualism. In such cases, both official languages (English and
French) are taught in schools and used in government
institutions, encouraging bilingualism in society.
Economic Globalization: As the world becomes more
interconnected, many societies adopt additional languages to
engage in global trade and communication. English, for
example, is widely learned as a second language in many non-
English speaking countries because of its role in business and
international relations. This economic motivation encourages
bilingualism for better job prospects.
In summary, societies become bilingual through the influence
of history, geography, migration, policy decisions, and
economic factors that encourage the use of more than one
language.
3) Diglossia /ˌdaɪˈɡlɒs.i.ə/ refers to a situation where two
distinct varieties of the same language are used by a
community in different social contexts. These varieties are
typically categorized as "high" (H) and "low" (L) forms.
The high variety is the more formal or prestigious version of
the language. It is typically used in:
Formal settings: Government, literature, religious ceremonies,
and official documents.
Education: Schools and universities often use the H variety for
instruction.
Written language: The H form is usually the written standard
and follows strict grammatical rules. Examples include Classical
Arabic in Arabic-speaking countries or Standard German
(Hochdeutsch) in German-speaking regions.
Low (L) Variety:
The low variety is the informal, everyday language used in
casual conversations. It is typically:
Spoken: The L variety is used at home, with friends, and in
everyday informal situations.
Non-standard: It may have regional dialects, slang, and
relaxed grammar rules.
Also, the L form is often unwritten or used less formally in
writing.
The H and L varieties often exist side by side, and speakers
switch between them depending on the context. Importantly,
people may view the H variety as more "correct" or prestigious,
while the L variety is considered more practical for daily life.
However, they are not separate languages but rather two forms
of the same language used for different purposes.
Understanding diglossia helps explain how language can vary
within the same community based on social roles and settings.
4) In sociolinguistics, prestige /presˈtiːʒ/ refers to the social
value or status that is attached to certain language varieties or
ways of speaking. It influences how speakers view different
dialects or accents, and it can shape their language choices.
Prestige can be divided into two types: overt /əʊˈvɜːt/ prestige
and covert /ˈkəʊ.vɜːt/ prestige.
Overt prestige is associated with the standard or dominant
language variety that is recognized as prestigious by the larger
society. It is often linked to:
Formal and standard language: The variety used in
education, government, and media.
Social approval: People who use the standard language are
often seen as well-educated, professional, and part of the
higher social classes.
Aspiration: Speakers may adopt the standard variety to gain
social acceptance, advance their careers, or signal ˈsɪɡ.nəl
their alignment with social norms. For example, in the UK,
Received Pronunciation (RP) is often considered the "standard"
accent with overt prestige, and people may try to adopt it in
formal settings to sound more prestigious.
Covert prestige, on the other hand, is associated with non-
standard language varieties, which are often viewed as having
lower social status in formal contexts but hold value within
specific communities or groups.
It has some key characterics:
Speakers of non-standard varieties use them to express
identity, belonging, and solidarity with their local or social
group.
Sometimes, using non-standard forms is a way of resisting
mainstream norms or authority.
Although non-standard dialects may lack overt social status,
they can carry strong covert prestige within particular
subcultures. For example, in some working-class communities,
using a local dialect or accent (like Cockney in London or African
American Vernacular English in the U.S.) can signal authenticity
and solidarity with the group, giving it covert prestige.
To sum up, the concept of prestige in language explains why
people may switch between standard and non-standard
varieties depending on the situation. Overt prestige aligns with
social norms and status, while covert prestige reflects identity,
solidarity, and resistance to social pressure.
5) A linguistic minority refers to a group of people within a
larger society who speak a language that is different from the
majority language. These groups often face social, political, and
cultural challenges in maintaining and using their language in
daily life.
There are some characteristics of Linguistic Minorities:
Linguistic minorities make up a smaller portion of the
population compared to speakers of the dominant or official
language(s).
Language is often closely tied to the cultural identity of a
linguistic minority group, and preserving their language helps
maintain their unique traditions and heritage.
In many cases, the minority language is not officially recognized
or supported by the government in areas like education, media,
and public services. This can limit its use in formal settings.
Challenges Faced by Linguistic Minorities:
Without support, minority languages may decline over time,
especially if younger generations adopt the majority language
for economic or social reasons.
Speakers of minority languages may face discrimination or
exclusion if their language is not valued by the larger society.
In some countries, schools only teach in the majority language,
making it harder for linguistic minorities to learn and succeed in
the education system.
Examples of Linguistic Minorities:
The Basques in Spain: The Basque people speak Euskara, a
language that is unrelated to Spanish. Although Euskara eh-
OOS-kah-rah has some official recognition in the Basque
Country, it remains a minority language in Spain.
The Kurds: Spread across several countries in the Middle East,
the Kurdish language is often a minority language, and in some
areas, its use has been restricted or discouraged.
Indigenous Languages: Many indigenous groups around the
world, such as the Native American tribes in the U.S. or
Aboriginal Australians, speak languages that are considered
minority languages within their countries.
To protect linguistic minorities, various measures can be
implemented:
Bilingual Education: Schools can teach in both the minority
and majority languages to help preserve the minority language
while ensuring students gain fluency in the dominant language.
Official Recognition: Governments can provide legal
protections for minority languages, ensuring their use in public
services, media, and education.
Cultural Promotion: Supporting cultural events and media in
minority languages helps raise awareness and pride in linguistic
diversity.
All in all, linguistic minorities play a crucial role in enriching the
cultural and linguistic diversity of a society. However, without
sufficient support and recognition, their languages and cultures
are at risk of disappearing. Governments and communities must
work together to ensure that linguistic minorities can maintain
their languages while participating fully in society.
6) Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating
/ˈɒl.tə.neɪ.tɪŋ/ between two or more languages or language
varieties in a conversation, depending on the context, audience,
or topic. This phenomenon is common among bilingual and
multilingual speakers and can occur at various levels, including
between sentences (inter-sentential) or within sentences (intra-
sentential).
Reasons for Code-Switching:
Speakers may switch languages to fit the social context. For
example, they might use one language in formal settings (like
work) and another in casual conversations with friends or
family.
Code-switching can signal cultural or group identity. For
instance, using a heritage language among family or friends
may express solidarity and belonging to that community.
Sometimes speakers switch languages because they cannot
find the right word or phrase in one language. For example,
they might use a loanword from another language that conveys
their idea more effectively.
Certain languages may carry emotional weight or nuances that
a speaker feels more strongly in one language than another.
Code-switching allows for richer emotional expression.
Speakers may adjust their language to accommodate their
listeners. If one person in a group understands a particular
language better, a speaker may switch to that language to
ensure understanding.
Implications of Code-Switching:
Code-switching can affect social dynamics, reinforcing in-group
membership or creating barriers for those who do not
understand the languages being switched.
It can help preserve minority languages by keeping them in use
within communities that might otherwise shift entirely to a
dominant language.
Code-switching is an important topic in sociolinguistics,
providing insights into language attitudes, identity, and the
cognitive processes involved in multilingualism.
Code-switching is a natural and widespread phenomenon
among bilingual and multilingual speakers. It reflects the
complexities of language use in social contexts and serves
various communicative purposes, from expressing identity to
ensuring effective communication. Understanding code-
switching enriches our appreciation of linguistic diversity and
the dynamics of multilingual societies.
6) Language choice refers to the decision made by individuals
or groups regarding which language to use in a specific context
or situation. This choice can be influenced by various factors,
including social, cultural, psychological, and situational
considerations.
Factors Influencing Language Choice:
Context: The setting in which communication takes place plays
a significant role. Formal settings (e.g., workplaces, schools)
often require the use of a standard or official language, while
informal settings (e.g., home, among friends) may see the use
of local dialects or languages.
Audience: The language spoken by the listeners influences
language choice. A speaker might switch languages based on
the language proficiency of their audience. For example, a
bilingual speaker might choose a language that the audience is
more comfortable with to ensure effective communication.
Purpose: The communicative goal also affects language choice.
If the purpose is to convey technical information, a more formal
or standardized language may be used. Conversely, for
expressing emotions or cultural identity, a speaker might
choose a language that resonates more personally.
Social Identity: Individuals often choose a language that reflects
their cultural or social identity. For instance, someone might
prefer speaking their heritage language at home to reinforce
their cultural ties while using a dominant language in public or
professional settings.
Bilingualism and Multilingualism: In multilingual societies,
speakers often have the option to choose from multiple
languages. Their language choice may reflect personal
preference, cultural background, or social context.
Prestige and Power Dynamics: Languages associated with
higher social status may be chosen over those viewed as less
prestigious. For example, speakers may opt for English in many
parts of the world due to its global status, even if it is not their
native language.
Language choice is a complex and dynamic aspect of
communication that reflects social realities, individual
preferences, and cultural identities.