See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/235303453

Gender Differences and Similarities in the Leadership Styles and Behavior of

U.K. Managers

Article in Women in Management Review · September 2003

DOI: 10.1108/09649420310491468

CITATIONS READS

86 11,522

2 authors, including:

Roger Gill
Durham University
36 PUBLICATIONS 1,469 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Roger Gill on 27 March 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Women in Management Review
Gender differences and similarities in the leadership styles and behaviour of UK managers
Titus Oshagbemi, Roger Gill,
Article information:
To cite this document:
Titus Oshagbemi, Roger Gill, (2003) "Gender differences and similarities in the leadership styles and behaviour of UK
managers", Women in Management Review, Vol. 18 Issue: 6, pp.288-298, https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420310491468
Permanent link to this document:
https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420310491468
Downloaded on: 27 March 2019, At: 04:37 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 43 other documents.
To copy this document: [email protected]
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 9404 times since 2006*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2003),"Gender and leadership? Leadership and gender? A journey through the landscape of theories", Leadership &
Organization Development Journal, Vol. 24 Iss 1 pp. 43-51 <a href="https://doi.org/10.1108/01437730310457320">https://
doi.org/10.1108/01437730310457320</a>
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

(2004),"Age influences on the leadership styles and behaviour of managers", Employee Relations, Vol. 26 Iss 1 pp. 14-29 <a
href="https://doi.org/10.1108/01425450410506878">https://doi.org/10.1108/01425450410506878</a>

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:407082 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

 There are several reasons given for and against
Gender differences and gender differences in the leadership style and
behaviour of managers. Some researchers
similarities in the contend that women have certain acquired
leadership styles and traits and behaviours that suit them for
relations-oriented leadership. Consequently, it
behaviour of UK is argued that women leaders frequently
managers exhibit a cooperative, empowering style that
includes nurturing team members. According
to this perspective, men are inclined toward a
Titus Oshagbemi and
command-and-control, militaristic leadership
Roger Gill style. It is suggested that women find
participative management more natural than
men because they feel more comfortable
The authors
interacting with people.
Titus Oshagbemi is a Lecturer at the School of Using data collected from the UK, the
Management and Economics, The Queen's University of present study attempts to contribute new
Belfast, Belfast, UK. insights to the debate on gender differences
Roger Gill is Director of the Research Centre for and similarities in the leadership styles and
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

Leadership Studies, The Leadership Trust Foundation, behaviour of managers. The study found
Ross-on-Wye, UK. that women managers delegate less than
their men counterparts but there were no
Keywords significant, statistical differences in the
overall leadership styles between men and
Gender, Leadership, Managers, United Kingdom
women managers. The study also found
inspirational motivation to be statistically
Abstract
different for men and women managers,
Do men and women have a different or a similar approach while the other aspects of leadership
to the leadership role? Various leadership styles and behaviour were reasonably similar in both
behaviour of managers have been researched in several groups. There are thus more similarities
countries to identify similarities and differences between than differences in the leadership styles and
men and women leaders. The present study examines the behaviour of UK managers. The
leadership style and behaviour of UK managers, using a implications of these findings are explored.
questionnaire method in gathering data. The study found
that women managers delegate less than their men
counterparts, but there are no statistical differences
Literature review
between their directive, consultative and participative
leadership styles. The study also found that, in leadership Several writers have contributed to the
behaviour, men and women leaders differ significantly literature on gender similarities and
only in inspirational motivation but not in the other six differences in leadership style and
aspects of leadership behaviour. The article explores the behaviour of managers. Rosener (1990)
implications of these results. found, based on self-reports, that men
tended toward an authoritative style, while
Electronic access women tended toward a transformational
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is style, relying heavily on interpersonal skills.
available at In a study of women leaders, she found that
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister socialisation and career paths explain why
women lead differently. The women
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is interviewed by Rosener said that their
available at leadership style came to them naturally. The
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0964-9425.htm author explains:
Until the 1960s, men and women received
different signals about what was expected of
Women in Management Review them . . . women [as] wives, mothers, volunteers,
Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . pp. 288-298
# MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0964-9425 Received: October 2002
DOI 10.1108/09649420310491468 Revised/Accepted: April 2003
288
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

teachers, nurses . . . In all these roles they are male managers in ten different nationality
supposed to be cooperative, supportive, banks in Luxembourg. The findings of their
understanding, gentle and to provide service to
study showed that female managers rated
others . . . . Men have had to appear to be
competitive, strong, tough, decisive and in
themselves higher on both instrumental and
control . . . . This may explain why women today expressive traits, compared with the male
are more likely than men to be interactive leaders managers and the authors suggest that the
(Rosener, 1990, p. 124). belief ``Think manager, think male'' is
Thus, Rosener's article, based on self-reports, changing. This is because the general image of
stimulated considerable debate, as she a manager is a male, while the results of their
concluded that men and women do tend study suggest that female managers feel that
they are just as competent. Govender and
toward opposite styles of leadership.
Bayat (1993), writing on gender issues in
Cooper (1992) carried out his own research
leadership styles, suggested that what is most
in the UK, where he suggested that men tend
important for organisations is to know what
to manage by punishment, while women
blocks managers from making the transition
manage by rewards. He thus emphasises the
from one style of leadership to another and
differences in approach to leadership between
what kinds of organisational and individual
the two groups. He explains that women are
interventions can be implemented to allow the
socialised to manage people and relationships
changes to take place. The authors contend
in the home and have extended their skills
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

that gender will be a very minor consideration,

acquired from the home to the workplace.
as both men and women will be recognised for
Gardiner and Tiggermann (1999) researched
skills that will maximise organisational success.
whether working in an environment with
However, this may be a simplistic view of the
disproportionate gender ratios impacts
factors that impede women's development,
differentially on women compared with men.
considering the sources of bias in stages of the
In particular, their study aimed to tie together
selection process.
findings on leadership style and stress. Their
Bass (1990) and Bass and Stogdill (1990,
findings suggest that both gender and gender
1991) found specific gender differences in
ratio of the industry influence leadership style,
leadership style. According to the authors,
stress and mental health, and as such
women are less likely to practise
contribute to our understanding of the barriers
management-by-exception, intervening only
to women working in senior management roles
when something goes wrong. Women also
in male-dominated industries.
typically temper criticism with positive
Griggs (1989) in her Doctoral dissertation
feedback. They suggest that women are
of university women's centres and women's
slightly more likely to be described as
study programmes, gave a list of
charismatic, as women scored higher on
characteristics considered to be feminine that
transformation factor than men. Phillips
help to distinguish between male and female
(1995) suggests that another perspective on
ways of leading. According to the author, the
gender differences is that women business
female leadership characteristics are
leaders are more likely than their male
summarised as:
counterparts to describe their business as a
. uses consensus decision making;
family. As organisational leaders, women tend
. views power in relational terms as
to place greater emphasis on caring and
something to be shared;
nurturing relationships with employees. They
. encourages productive approaches to
are also more likely than men to praise group
conflict;
members. Phillips suggests that, when an
. builds supportive working environments;
employee falls short of expectations, women
and
are more likely than men to buffer criticism by
. promotes diversity in the workplace.
finding something praiseworthy.
According to the author, these characteristics It has frequently been claimed that men are
suggest that women are more comfortable in more directive and bureaucratic leaders and
work environments that are not ``boss- that women are more collaborative and
centred'' and therefore develop distinctly rational. Collard (2001) examined leadership
adaptive leadership styles. and gender in Australia, adopting a
Vinnicombe and Cames (1998) carried out a quantitative approach to supplement the
study of the leadership styles of 66 female and insights about gender differences generated
289
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

by tightly focused qualitative studies. While Gur, who found that women might be far
his findings confirm the importance of gender more sensitive to emotional cues and verbal
differences in the principalship, the study nuances than men. In such researches,
cautions against regarding them as solitary fundamental differences in the biological and
and unilateral influences. For example, psychological make-up of men and women
whether the respondents worked in a primary have been used as evidence that the two sexes
or secondary setting, or in a government, are likely to manifest differences in leadership
Catholic or independent school, frequently styles. However, direct correlation studies are
exerted a more powerful influence than their not available to document these suggestions.
gender. The study therefore supports more Gender differences in communication are also
moderate claims than those advanced by reflected in leadership style and behaviour. It
proponents of gender stereotypes. It is clear is suggested that women are more likely to use
that issues about the gender of leaders cannot spoken communication for relationship
be fully understood without reference to building and giving emotional support than
organisational culture. men. Women are also more likely to choose a
In a study conducted by Envick (1998), the relationship-oriented leadership style, while
differences in managerial behaviour between men focus more on disseminating information
men and women business leaders were and demonstrating competence.
uncovered. Her most surprising finding was The results of the study by Burke and
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

that controlling behaviour, previously Collins (2001) suggest that self-reported

considered a typical male trait, was actually leadership styles of female accountants differ
more prevalent among women business somewhat from the leadership styles reported
leaders. Envick believes that women by male accountants. Female accountants in
entrepreneurial managers are motivated by the the study are more likely than males to
desire to be in control, so it makes sense that indicate that they use transformational
control is exhibited at work. The investigation leadership. The findings also suggest that
also found that women business leaders are female accountants receive more
more likely than their male counterparts to developmental opportunities than their male
engage in internal communication and human colleagues. The latter finding is surprising in
resources management. the light of past research identifying barriers
van Engen et al. (2001) conducted a field to career progression for female managers.
study of gender, context and leadership styles The authors explain that male managers, who
in department stores in The Netherlands. often make decisions affecting the upward
They investigated whether the gender-typing mobility of women, have been found to
of the organisational context influences perceive the characteristics needed for
leadership behaviour of male and female managerial success as being associated with
managers. Shop assistants in masculine to those generally attributed to men.
feminine-typed departments described their It should be stated, however, that, while
manager in terms of task-oriented, people- there are arguments suggesting gender
oriented, and transformational leadership differences in leadership style, there are also
styles. The results show that no gender arguments that there are no gender
differences in leadership styles were found. differences in leadership style or behaviour.
Another contextual variable, the site of the Grant (1988) conducted a literature review
department store, unexpectedly influences from which she concluded that there are
leader behaviour. Jaggi's (1977) study apparently few, if any, personality or
examined attitude patterns of Indian behavioural differences between men and
managers in order to identify the relationship women managers. Grant suggested that, as
of job satisfaction to leadership style. The women move up the corporate ladder, their
results did not support the expectation of identification with the male model of
higher job satisfaction with closeness of managerial success becomes evident. In fact,
supervision. Instead, the findings indicated according to Grant, some of the women
that job satisfaction in Indian work managers consequently reject even the few
organisations is positively correlated with the managerial feminine traits they may have
level of consultation and participation. earlier endorsed.
Schrage (1999) reported work conducted An article by Oakley (2000) examines many
by brain researchers, Raquel Gur and Ruben explanations why women have not risen to the
290
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

top, including lack of line experience, have been associated with the female style of
inadequate career opportunities, gender management (Phillips, 1995, p. 112).
differences in linguistic styles and Kabacoff and Peters (1998) carried out one
socialisation, gender-based stereotypes, the of the largest controlled studies of gender
old boy network at the top, and tokenism. differences and leadership ever conducted.
Alternative explanations are also presented They suggest that the ways in which women
and analysed, such as differences between and men lead are different, but that they are
female leadership styles and the type of equally effective. Before their own studies, the
leadership style expected at the top of authors reviewed the limitations of most
organisations, explanations by women for the gender research to include:
under-representation of their sex in top . limited ability to generalise the findings
management positions, and the possibility due to small sample sizes;
that the most talented women in business . overly simplifying the subject-matter by
often avoid corporate life in favour of defining leadership too narrowly;
entrepreneurial careers. The article thus . reliance on self-reports, which are
presents a fairly balanced perspective on the different from more objective reports
issue of women and leadership. from others;
Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) . use of subjects, such as students, who are
have established that leadership style findings not in leadership roles; and
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

from experimental settings tend to be gender- . uncontrolled differences between groups,

stereotypical. They suggest that women's such as job function, position within the
more transformational style and greater use of organisation, job experience and the type
contingent reward as well as their lesser use of of organisation culture.
passive management-by-exception and
laissez-faire style should enhance Kabacoff (1998) investigated possible gender
organisational effectiveness. These findings differences in organisational leadership
thus resonate with the attention that behaviour in the USA using 17,491
journalists have given to the possibility that assessment questionnaires. Numerous gender
women are better managers than men. differences were described by both self and
However, such general findings and opinions observer groups. Women tended to score
as to whether either and which sex is a higher on leadership scales measuring
``better'' manager may not be very helpful. orientation towards production and the
Rather, the emphasis should be on identifying attainment of results. They also tended to be
the leadership roles and activities that one sex rated higher on people-oriented leadership
performs better, if at all. skills. In contrast men tended to score higher
Studies reviewed by Bass (1990), other than on scales assessing an orientation towards
his own research, indicate no consistent strategic planning and organisational vision.
pattern of gender differences in leadership Men also tended to be rated higher on
style and behaviour. Results of empirical business-oriented leadership skills. In terms of
studies, if consistent over time, will help to general leadership effectiveness, however,
swing opinion one way or the other regarding bosses saw men and women leaders as equally
gender differences or similarities in leadership effective ± while peers and direct reports rated
style and/or behaviour of managers. Even if women as slightly higher than men.
gender differences in leadership style do exist, Kabacoff (2000) compared a diverse
they must be placed in a proper perspective. sample of male and female chief executive
Both men and women differ among officers and senior vice presidents on 22
themselves in leadership style. Many male leadership behaviours and leadership
leaders are relations-oriented and several effectiveness, using a 360-degree strategy.
women leaders practise command and Gender differences in leadership behaviours
control. Many women believe that women were obtained from self, boss, peer and direct
managers can be more hostile and vindictive report rater groups. Correlations between
than men managers. Making decisions leadership behaviours and leadership
quickly, sense of humour and risk taking have effectiveness were found to vary according to
been associated with the male style of the gender of the executive being evaluated,
management, while the sense of nurturing when bosses provided ratings. However,
and sensitivity to individual and family needs differential correlations were not found for
291
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

ratings provided by direct reports. This may performing certain duties. Thus followers
suggest that the method adopted in collecting receive rewards for job performance, while
reports ± whether by self, boss or peer ± is leaders benefit from the completion of tasks.
critical in evaluating the results obtained. It is accepted that leadership is a series of
Pounder and Coleman (2002) reviewed economic and social transactions to achieve
some of the current thinking on women and specific goals (Northouse, 2001).
leadership, drawing on general and Transformational leadership, on the other
educational management literature. They hand, is based on the personal values, beliefs
found that, despite some evidence of a and qualities of the leader rather than on an
growing willingness of women to take up exchange process between leaders and
leadership positions in the field, educational followers. The term was first coined by
leadership is still a male preserve. Their article Downton (1973), although it did not become
concludes with a synopsis of some of the popular until the classical work by Burns
factors that may account for differences in (1978). It is characterised by the ability to
leadership style, such as national culture, bring about significant change, not only in the
socialisation, organisational demographics organisation's vision, strategy and culture but
and the nature of the organisation. also in its products and technologies.
Peters and Kabacoff (2002) took a new look Transformational leadership is concerned
at the ``glass ceiling'' and concluded that there with the performance of followers and also
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

are fewer differences between the leadership with developing followers to their fullest
behaviour of men and women in top positions potential (Bass and Avolio, 1990b). A model
than for individuals in lower management of transformational leadership as a single
levels. They suggest that there appear to be continuum from transformational to laissez-
two differences between the average female
faire leadership is presented below. It
manager and those women who have broken
incorporates seven different factors:
through the ``glass ceiling''. They suggest that
women in executive roles tend to be as Transformational leadership
oriented to strategic thinking and as willing to (1) Idealised influence or charisma.
take risks as men. They agreed that the (2) Inspirational motivation.
effectiveness of male and female executives (3) Intellectual stimulation.
might be measured using very different (4) Individualised consideration.
standards. While men are judged based on the Transactional leadership
value of assertiveness and action-orientation, (5) Contingent reward.
the women tend to be judged on their ability (6) Management-by-exception.
to create and maintain positive interpersonal
relationships. Non-management
It may be observed that most of the authors (7) Laissez-faire
that we have quoted come from the USA and
they write about situations in their own
country. The present study was undertaken, Research method
in part, to test the beliefs of UK managers on
whether or not there are differences in the To investigate gender differences and
leadership style and behaviour of their similarities in the leadership styles and
managers. behaviour of UK managers, the following
In concluding the literature review section research method was employed in the study.
of this article perhaps an explanation of the A questionnaire survey was conducted
terms transactional and transformational where the population for the study comprised
leadership should be made, as the model used leaders and managers working in the UK. A
in discussing the results of the study adopted total of 1,440 questionnaires were
these terms. Basically transactional leadership administered to potential respondents from
is an exchange process between leaders and various organisations and at different
followers (Bass, 1990; Bass and Avolio, organisational levels. The questionnaire
1994). The transactional leader recognises covered managers from all the regions of the
specific follower desires and provides goods country. A total of 405 completed and usable
that meet those desires in exchange for questionnaires were returned, giving a
followers meeting specified objectives or response rate of slightly over 28 percent. The
292
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

sample comprised 242 male managers, been described as the most popular leadership
representing 59.8 percent, and 163 female instrument. According to Yukl (2002, p.
managers, representing 40.2 percent. The 255), field survey studies, which were utilised
names of the potential respondents were in this study, have been used more often than
randomly obtained from the key UK any other method for research on
enterprises. The percentage responses from transformational leadership. The
the various industries surveyed are: psychometric properties of the Multifactor
manufacturing (28), financial services (7), Leadership Questionnaire are provided in
utilities (2), IT/telecommunication (5), public Table I (Bass and Avolio, 1990a).
sector (24), others (34). After running a frequency distribution of
To gather data on gender differences and the data collected, simple bivariate statistics,
similarities in the self-perceptions of the including test of significant differences and
leadership styles and behaviour of UK Levene's test for equality of variances, were
managers, the questionnaire requested applied. Two Tables summarising the results
respondents to indicate their gender and how of the analyses are produced.
often they adopted each of the four leadership
styles ± directive, consultative, participative,
or delegative ± in their day-to-day activities. Results and discussion
The questionnaire also requested respondents
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

to indicate the extent to which they believe Table II summarises the results of the self-
they themselves use each of the following reports of the leadership styles of male and
leadership behaviours ± laissez-faire, female managers. The frequency distributions
management-by-exception, contingent (not presented) of the male and female
reward, individual consideration, intellectual managers and the associated statistics show,
stimulation, inspirational motivation or generally, that women managers described
idealised influence ± in their activities. The themselves in ways which suggest that they
interpretation of each of the leadership styles delegate less than their men counterparts.
and behaviours used was explained in the This impression is confirmed by a two-tailed
survey. An explanation of transactional and t-test, which is significant at the 98 percent
transformational leadership behaviour was confidence level. Levene's test of the equality
not given in the questionnaire itself. It is not of variances also shows a similar result, which
felt that this would have affected the results in is significant at the 96 percent level. As said
any way. It should be stated that some earlier, therefore, the message seems to be
authors, e.g. Hogan and Hogan (2001), are that women managers delegate less than their
critical of self-report data used in leadership men counterparts.
research, as they contend that leadership is a Our results are consistent with the findings
social influence process and thus should be of Envick (1998) that controlling behaviour
determined by the manager's staff/direct was more prevalent among women leaders
reports. who delegated less than their men
However, as indicated earlier, the meaning counterparts. An explanation for this finding
of the individual terms used, such as could be the level of management occupied by
inspirational motivation or idealised influence the leaders concerned. Grant (1988) found
was fully explained in the body of the that, at higher management levels, the styles
questionnaire. The questionnaire thus
incorporated a self-report version of a Table I Coefficient alphas for the MLQ (self-report
leadership styles questionnaire measuring the version)
four leadership styles derived from Profile, an Factor Alpha
organisational systems survey research Laissez-faire 0.60
programme (Bass, 1974; Bass et al., 1975), Management-by-exception 0.62
and Bass's Multifactor Leadership Contingent reward 0.82
Questionnaire (Form MLQ-5S Revised, Individualised consideration 0.71
1989), which measures laissez-faire, Intellectual stimulation 0.72
transactional and transformational leadership. Inspirational motivation 0.60
While some studies have challenged its Idealised influence 0.83
reliability and validity (e.g. Carless (1998)), it
Source: Bass and Avolio (1990)
is quite legitimate to use it and it has indeed
293
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

Table II The leadership styles of male and female managers

Leadership styles Male SD Female SD T-test F-test
Directive 2.40a 0.768 2.40 0.805 0.026 0.810
Consultative 3.33 0.794 3.28 0.803 0.725 0.066
Participative 3.15 0.813 3.06 0.851 1.090 0.023
Delegative 3.05 0.877 2.83 0.983 2.306* 4.498*
Overall leadership styleb 11.94 1.986 11.57 2.277 1.721 2.712
Leadership style of boss with which managers
are least satisfied (directive) 1.79 1.128 2.08 1.259 ±2.412* 7.332**
Notes: n = 405; Mean responses from the questionnaire, 1 = minimum (never), 5 = maximum (always); b The
a

overall leadership style is a summation of the directive, consultative, participative and delegative leadership styles;
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01

of male and female leaders tend to be similar, Bass (1990) and van Engen et al. (2001), we
suggesting that our results may pertain more note that they are inconsistent with several
to a comparison of the delegative behaviour of other findings in the literature. Several studies
men and women at the lower management have found significant gender differences in
levels. Perhaps the issue of organisational leadership style, as measured by the ratings
culture, as suggested by Collard (2001), provided by direct reports and other co-
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

rather than gender, may explain delegative workers (Bass et al., 1996). A possible
practices in organisations. However, it may explanation for our results may be that our
not be true to suggest that people who say that survey covered several industries (see the
they delegate less are necessarily more section on methodology) in the UK and was
controlling. Some managers say that they do not limited to a particular industry where the
not delegate much, because they are gender ratio may be more easily determined.
concerned not to pass on more work to their Although there are no statistical differences
already over-worked staff. between men and women managers in how
It should be said that tests similar to those often they believe they adopt the directive
carried out for delegative leadership between leadership style in their day-to-day activities,
men and women managers, in respect of their Table II shows that their satisfaction with
leadership styles, did not prove statistically their boss's practice of the directive
significant with respect to directive, leadership style differs significantly. The men
consultative and participative leadership. This are less satisfied compared with the women,
means that the leadership styles of men and when their boss adopts a directive leadership
women in these aspects of their activities can style. Whereas about 51 percent of the
be presumed to be fairly similar, according to women are dissatisfied when their boss
these self-report findings (Refer to Table II practises directive leadership, about 62
for the details). percent of the men are dissatisfied with the
A two-tailed t-test was carried out for the style of management. These differences are
equality of means which show the analysis of statistically significant at the 98 percent
leadership styles as a single variable, but confidence level (t-test) and significant at the
including all the four aspects ± delegative, 99 percent confidence level (Levene's test for
directive, consultative, and participative equality of variances).
leadership. This test was not significant at a 95 One interesting question is why do men,
percent confidence level (t-test = 0.086; df = more than women, experience dissatisfaction
403). Levene's test of the equality of variances when their own boss practises directive
carried out for the leadership styles, as a single leadership? Could this mean that women,
variable, was also not statistically significant generally, tend to be subject to authority more
(Levene's test = 0.100; f statistics = 2.712). than men or it is because women tend to
The results lead one to suggest that, occupy lower ranks in most organisations?
notwithstanding significant differences Perhaps the answer may be the fact that in
between men's and women's delegative styles, organisations women top managers are fewer
there are insignificant differences in the overall in number, on average, than men. However,
leadership styles of male and female managers. men, more than women, may experience
While our results are consistent with those of dissatisfaction when their own boss practises
294
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

directive leadership as a result of a systematic higher organisational positions who are

discrimination against women over a long bound to affect their staff emotionally if their
period of time. Blau (1998) explains, for unit is to continue to be led well. Inspirational
example, that women spent four times as motivation is an aspect of transformational
much time on housework as men by the late leadership that is characterised by the ability
1970s. Women may, on the other hand, to bring about significant change. This is
expect and be perfectly happy with the done through articulating exciting
directive behaviour of their boss, as this action possibilities, which are communicated
would tend to place less demand on their own clearly. Inspirational leaders use appealing
leadership initiative, having not been in words to communicate a rational vision of the
leadership or management positions for as future and align individual and organisational
long as the men. goals so that individuals should strive to
There are seven aspects of leadership attain them because they are personally
behaviour: laissez-faire, management-by- interested.
exception, contingent reward, individual Both men and women managers do inspire
consideration, intellectual stimulation, their workers in various ways. The suggestion
inspirational motivation, and idealised is that inspirational leaders align individual
influence measured by the MLQ. We and organisational goals, thereby enhancing
conducted tests to find out whether there are the achievement of both. This is because
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

significant differences between men's and individuals would tend to work harder on
women's leadership behaviour on each organisational goals that will also benefit them
aspect. First, we tested for the equality of personally. Inspirational leaders, such as
means and variances for the overall leadership entrepreneurs, also treat problems as
behaviour as a single variable. A two-tailed opportunities for innovation and
t-test for the equality of means was not achievement.
significant even at the 90 percent confidence The responses to our study suggest that
level (t-test = 0.181; df = 383). Similarly, men managers say they use contingent reward
Levene's test for the equality of variances was significantly more than their female
not significant (F statistics = 1.709; counterparts. However, the test of differences
significant level = 0.192). In addition, tests was not significant at the 95 percent
were conducted for transactional and confidence level. Contingent reward, an
transformational leadership behaviour of the aspect of transactional leadership, involves an
men versus the women. None of the tests was exchange process between leaders and
statistically significant. This means that followers. Gill et al. (1998) suggest that this
generally there are no significant differences leadership behaviour does not empower
between the leadership behaviour of men and people or develop them to their fullest
women managers in the UK. There are no potential.
compelling reasons why there should be and Our finding suggests that women managers
our sample size was spread across various do consider cost and benefit issues associated
industries, enough to balance off with training, for example, at about the same
organisations that may tend to employ more level as the men, as a test of differences
of one sex than the other. between the sexes, on contingent reward, was
When we examined each aspect of the not statistically significant. This finding is
leadership behaviour separately, however, we surprising in view of the general altruistic care
found that one of the seven aspects showed which women practised with their children in
significant differences between male and the home in comparison with the men. It was
female managers. The aspect of the thought therefore that women would have
leadership behaviour concerned is shown greater contingent reward than the
inspirational motivation. Table III presents men, as found by Rosener (1990). In fact,
the results of the extent of leaders' use of Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt (2001)
inspirational motivation amongst other suggest that women use contingent reward
aspects of leadership behaviour. It reveals more than the men. Rosener (1990) and
that men use this aspect of leadership Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt (1991)
behaviour significantly more than women at explain that greater use of contingent reward
the 99 percent confidence level. This may be by women would, among other things,
due to the greater number of male leaders in enhance organisational effectiveness. But
295
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

Table III The leadership behaviour of male and female managers

Leadership behaviour dimension Male SD Female SD T-test F-test
Laissez-faire 1.62 0.641 1.60 0.572 0.347 0.374
Management-by-exception 2.76 0.924 2.70 0.930 0.683 0.101
Contingent reward 2.94 0.926 2.79 1.012 1.525 3.735
Individualised consideration 3.33 0.913 3.30 0.957 0.351 0.016
Intellectual stimulation 3.25 1.013 3.11 0.998 1.453 0.916
Inspirational motivation 3.00 0.949 2.88 1.059 1.227 8.516**
Idealised influence 2.94 1.027 2.78 0.988 1.554 0.134
Overall leadership behavioura 19.82 3.690 19.28 4.000 1.339 1.709
Notes: n = 405; a The overall leadership behaviour is a summation of the seven aspects of the leadership
behaviour, from laissez-faire to idealised influence; ** p < 0.01

some writers (e.g. Bass (1990)) have stated inspirational motivation proved statistically
that the use of contingent reward creates significant. Statistical tests show that laissez-
unhealthy dependence on the boss and allows faire, management-by-exception, individual
managers to be more controlling. consideration, contingent reward,
intellectual stimulation and idealised
influence are not significantly different at the
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

Summary and conclusions 95 percent confidence level, for men and

women.
This study has examined gender differences In conclusion, our results appear to be
and similarities in the leadership styles and inconsistent with the findings in the literature
behaviour of UK managers. Based on self- suggesting that there are significant
report data measured by the MLQ, the study differences between males and females in the
found that women managers delegate less leadership styles and behaviour of their
than their men counterparts but their managers. Indeed, there are more similarities
directive, consultative and participative than differences found in our study in the
leadership styles were similar. It should be leadership styles and behaviour of managers,
noted that on overall leadership style, unlike the findings in other research studies
incorporating the results of the directive, (Rosener, 1990; Cooper, 1992; Vinnicombe
consultative, participative and delegative and Cames, 1998). As measured by the
dimensions, it did not reach significance at ratings provided by direct reports and other
the 95 percent confidence level. This means co-workers, the study by Bass et al. (1996)
that the leadership styles of men and women, also found significant gender differences.
as found in this study, are about the same. Further studies are expected to throw light on
By showing an aspect of the leadership the gender similarities in the leadership style
style as significant between the genders, our and behaviour generally found in the present
results are similar to other self-descriptions study.
of leadership styles in the literature (e.g. Indeed, Northouse (2001, p. 221) suggests
Atwater and Yammarino, 1992; Wohlers and that meta-analyses and literature reviews
London, 1989; Church, 1997; Fletcher and performed over the past 15 years indicate that
Baldry, 1999), where it is suspected that assuming differences in behaviour between
leaders ``inflate'' self-ratings. However, as the male and female leaders would lead to
test of the overall leadership style was not erroneous conclusions. Over 160 studies of
significant at the 95 percent confidence level, sex-related differences in leadership style were
and as the individual test of the directive, investigated in a meta-analysis that found
consultative and participative leadership only one difference in the studies conducted
styles proved insignificant, our results are in organisations (Eagly and Johnson, 1990). A
different from most of the findings in this summary of the authors' meta-analyses and
area. This would be an area for future individual studies suggests that, although
research to attempt to identify the industries women are relatively similar to men in
where gender differences in the leadership behaviour and effectiveness, women leaders
style of leaders exist and where they do not. tend to be more participative and less
On leadership behaviour, it found that autocratic.
296
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

References Downton, J.V. (1973), Rebel Leadership: Commitment and

Charisma in a Revolutionary Process, Free Press,
Atwater, L.E. and Yammarino, F.J. (1992), ``Does self-other New York, NY.
agreement on leadership perceptions moderate the Eagly, A.H. and Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C. (2001), ``The
validity of leadership and performance leadership styles of women and men'', Journal of
predictions?'', Personnel Psychology, Vol. 45 No. 1, Social Issues, Vol. 57 No. 4, pp. 781-97.
pp. 141-64. Eagly, A.H. and Johnson, B. (1990), ``Gender and the
Bass, B.M. (1974), The Bass-Valenzi Management Styles emergence of leaders: a meta-analysis'',
Profile: A Computerised Systems Survey Feedback Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 108, pp. 233-56.
Procedure, IRGOMTR Report 74-12, University of Envick, B.R. (1998), ``Behaviours of entrepreneurs: a
Rochester, Rochester, New York, NY. gender comparison'', Journal of Business and
Bass, B.M. (1990), ``From transactional to entrepreneurship, March, pp. 106-15.
transformational leadership: learning to share the Fletcher, C. and Baldry, C. (1999), ``Multi-source
vision'', Organisational Dynamics, Vol. 18, feedback systems: a research perspective'', in
pp. 19-31. Cooper, C.L. and Roberston, I. (Eds), International
Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1990a), Transformational Review of Industrial and Organisational
Leadership Development: Manual for the Multi- Psychology, Vol. 14.
factor Leadership Questionnaire, Consulting Gardiner, M. and Tiggermann, M. (1999), ``Gender
Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA. differences in leadership style, job stress and mental
Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1990b), ``The implications of health in male- and female-dominated industries'',
transactional and transformational leadership for Journal of Occupational and Organisational
individual, team and organisational development'', Psychology, Vol. 72 No. 3, pp. 301-15.
Research in Organisational Change and
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

Gill, R., Levine, N. and Pitt, D.C. (1998), ``Leadership and

Development, Vol. 4, pp. 231-72. organisations for the new millennium'', The Journal
Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1994), Improving of Leadership Studies, Vol. 5 No. 4, pp. 46-59.
Organisational Effectiveness through Govender, D. and Bayat, S. (1993), ``Leadership styles: the
Transformational Leadership, Sage Publishers, gender issues'', Industrial and Social Relations,
Thousand Oaks, CA. Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 139-44.
Bass, B.M. and Stogdill, R.M. (1990), Handbook of Grant, J. (1988), ``Women as managers: what they can
Leadership: Theory, Research and Managerial offer to organisations'', Organisational Dynamics,
Applications, The Free Press, New York, NY, Vol. 16 No. 3, pp. 56-63.
pp. 11-18. Griggs, C.S. (1989), ``Exploration of a feminist leadership
Bass, B.M. and Stogdill, R.M. (1991), ``Cited in debate: model at university women's centres and in women
ways men and women lead'', Harvard Business studies programmes: a descriptive study'',
Review, January-February, p. 151.
unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Bass, B.M., Avolio, B.J. and Atwater, L.E. (1996), ``The
Iowa, Iowa City, IA.
transformational and transactional leadership of
Hogan, R. and Hogan, J. (2001), ``Assessing leadership: a
men and women'', Applied Psychology: An
view from the dark side'', International Journal of
International Review, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 5-34.
Selection and Assessment, Vol. 9 Nos 1/2,
Bass, B.M., Farrow, D.L., Valenzi, E.R. and Solomon, R.J.
pp. 40-51.
(1975), ``Management styles associated with
Jaggi, B. (1977), ``Job satisfaction and leadership styles in
organisational, task, personal and interpersonal
developing countries: the case of India'',
contingencies'', Journal of Applied Psychology,
International Journal of Contemporary Sociology,
Vol. 60 No. 6, pp. 720-9.
Blau, F. (1998), ``The wellbeing of American women: Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 230-6.
1970-1995'', Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 36 Kabacoff, R.I. (1998), ``Gender differences in
No. 1, pp. 112-65. organisational leadership: a large sample study'',
Burke, S. and Collins, K.M. (2001), ``Gender differences in Management Research Group, Portland, ME.
leadership styles and management skills'', Women Kabacoff, R.I. (2000), ``Gender and leadership in the
in Management Review, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 244-57. corporate boardroom'', paper presented at the
Burns, J.M. (1978), Leadership, Harper & Row, New York, 108th Annual Convention of the American
NY. Psychological Association, Washington DC.
Carless, S.A. (1998), ``Assessing the discriminant validity Kabacoff, R. and Peters, H. (1998), ``The way women and
of transformational leader behaviour as measured men lead ± different, but equally effective'',
by the MLQ'', Journal of Occupational and Management Research Group, Portland, ME.
Organisational Psychology, Vol. 71, pp. 353-8. Northouse, P.G. (2001), Leadership: Theory and Practice,
Church, A.H. (1997), ``Managerial self-awareness in high- 2nd ed., Sage Publications, London, pp. 131-60.
performing individuals in organisations'', Journal of Oakley, J.G. (2000), ``Gender-based barriers to
Applied Psychology, Vol. 82 No. 2, pp. 281-92. senior management positions: understanding
Collard, J.L. (2001), ``Leadership and gender: an Australian the scarcity of female chief executive officers'',
perspective'', Educational Management and Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 27 No. 4,
Administration, Vol. 29 No. 3, pp. 343-55. pp. 321-34.
Cooper, C .(1992), quoted in Morris, R., Management: Peters, H. and Kabacoff, R. (2002), ``Leadership and
why women are leading the way'', in Syrett, M. and gender: a new look at the glass ceiling'', MRG
Hogg, C. (Eds), Frontiers of Leadership, Blackwell, Research Report, Management Research Group,
Oxford, p. 271. Portland, ME.
297
 Gender differences and similarities of UK managers Women in Management Review
Titus Oshagbemi and Roger Gill Volume 18 . Number 6 . 2003 . 288-298

Phillips, D. (1995), ``The gender gap'', Entrepreneur, May, field study'', Journal of Occupational and
pp. 110-12. Organisational Psychology, Vol. 74, pp. 581-98.
Pounder, J.S. and Coleman, M. (2002), ``Women ± better Vinnicombe, S. and Cames, I. (1998), ``A study of the
leaders than men? In general and educational leadership styles of female and male managers in
management it still `all depends''', The Leadership & ten different nationality banks, using the personal
Organization Development Journal, Vol. 23 No. 3,
attributes questionnaire'', International Review of
pp. 122-33.
Women in Leadership, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 24-33.
Rosener, J. (1990), ``Ways women lead'', Harvard Business
Wohlers, A.J. and London, M. (1989), ``Ratings of
Review, November-December, Vol. 68 No. 6,
pp. 119-25. managerial characteristics: evaluation difficulty,
Schrage, M. (1999), ``Why can't a woman be more like a co-worker agreement, and self-awareness'',
man?'', Fortune, 16 August, p. 184. Personnel Psychology, Vol. 42, pp. 235-61.
van Engen, M.L., van der Leeden, R. and Willemsen, T.M. Yukl, G. (2002), Leadership in Organisations, 5th ed.,
(2001), ``Gender, context and leadership styles: a Prentice-Hall International, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

298
 This article has been cited by:

1. KairysMoira Rose, Moira Rose Kairys. 2018. The influence of gender on leadership in education management. International
Journal of Educational Management 32:5, 931-941. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
2. EsserAnke, Anke Esser, KahrensMarion, Marion Kahrens, MouzughiYusra, Yusra Mouzughi, EomoisEster, Ester Eomois.
2018. A female leadership competency framework from the perspective of male leaders. Gender in Management: An
International Journal 33:2, 138-166. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
3. Anna A Amirkhanyan, Kenneth J Meier, Laurence J O’Toole, Mueen A Dakhwe, Shawn Janzen. 2018. Management and
Performance in US Nursing Homes. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 28:1, 33-49. [Crossref]
4. Elisabet Siahaan. 2017. Antecedents of employee performance and the influence on employee job satisfaction in banking
service sector in Indonesia. Banks and Bank Systems 12:4, 75-89. [Crossref]
5. Anna A. Amirkhanyan, Kenneth J. Meier, Laurence J. O'Toole. 2017. Managing in the Regulatory Thicket: Regulation
Legitimacy and Expertise. Public Administration Review 77:3, 381-394. [Crossref]
6. ŞahinFaruk, Faruk Şahin, GürbüzSait, Sait Gürbüz, ŞeşenHarun, Harun Şeşen. 2017. Leaders’ managerial assumptions and
transformational leadership: the moderating role of gender. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 38:1, 105-125.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
7. Gaeun Seo, Wenhao Huang, Seung-Hyun Caleb Han. 2017. Conceptual Review of Underrepresentation of Women in Senior
Leadership Positions From a Perspective of Gendered Social Status in the Workplace. Human Resource Development Review
16:1, 35-59. [Crossref]
8. Geir Overskeid. 2016. Power and Autistic Traits. Frontiers in Psychology 7. . [Crossref]
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

9. Kenneth S. Rhee, Tracey H. Sigler. 2015. Untangling the relationship between gender and leadership. Gender in Management:
An International Journal 30:2, 109-134. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
10. Pat O’Connor, Anita Goransson. 2015. Constructing or rejecting the notion of the other in university management.
Educational Management Administration & Leadership 43:2, 323-340. [Crossref]
11. Eric Buschlen, Matthew Johnson. 2014. The Effects of and Introductory Leadership Course on Socially Responsible
Leadership, Examined by Age and Gender. Journal of Leadership Education 13:1, 31-45. [Crossref]
12. Vasiliki Brinia. 2012. Men vs women; educational leadership in primary schools in Greece: an empirical study. International
Journal of Educational Management 26:2, 175-191. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
13. Anne Stevens. Comparing and Assessing Gender Effects in Political Leadership 207-226. [Crossref]
14. Jon Aarum Andersen, Per H. Hansson. 2011. At the end of the road? On differences between women and men in leadership
behaviour. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 32:5, 428-441. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
15. Clement K. Agezo, Warren C. Hope. 2011. Gender leadership in Cape Coast Municipality primary schools. International
Journal of Leadership in Education 14:2, 181-201. [Crossref]
16. Salome Ireri, Kieran Walshe, Lawrence Benson, Mutuku A. Mwanthi. 2011. A qualitative and quantitative study of medical
leadership and management: experiences, competencies, and development needs of doctor managers in the United Kingdom.
Journal of Management & Marketing in Healthcare 4:1, 16-29. [Crossref]
17. William A. Gentry, Lize Booysen, Kelly M. Hannum, Todd J. Weber. 2010. Leadership responses to a conflict of gender-
based tension: A comparison of responses between men and women in the US and South Africa. International Journal of
Cross Cultural Management 10:3, 285-301. [Crossref]
18. Hanan M. Taleb. 2010. Gender and leadership styles in single‐sex academic institutions. International Journal of Educational
Management 24:4, 287-302. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
19. 김김김, Gary N. McLean, Sung Jung Park. 2009. A Review of Company-Sponsored Training Programs for Women Employees.
The Korean Journal of Human Resource Development Quarterly 11:3, 213-231. [Crossref]
20. Anne Stevens. 2009. Representative Bureaucracy — What, Why and How?. Public Policy and Administration 24:2, 119-139.
[Crossref]
21. Wing-Wah Law. Culture and school leadership in China: Exploring school leaders' views of relationship- and rule-based
governance 303-341. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] [PDF]
22. Pilar de Luis‐Carnicer, Ángel Martínez‐Sánchez, Manuela Pérez‐Pérez, María José Vela‐Jiménez. 2008. Gender diversity in
management: curvilinear relationships to reconcile findings. Gender in Management: An International Journal 23:8, 583-597.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
23. Brigitte Biehl. 2008. The performance of women and men in organisations: a theatre studies approach. Gender in Management:
An International Journal 23:7, 522-527. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
24. Monique Lortie-Lussier, Natalie Rinfret. 2005. Determinants of objective and subjective success of men and women.
International Review of Administrative Sciences 71:4, 607-624. [Crossref]
 25. Cristina Trinidad, Anthony H. Normore. 2005. Leadership and gender: a dangerous liaison?. Leadership & Organization
Development Journal 26:7, 574-590. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
26. Alison Wyse, Tricia Vilkinas. 2004. Executive leadership roles in the Australian Public Service. Women in Management Review
19:4, 205-211. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
27. Kijpokin Kasemsap. Developing a Unified Framework and a Causal Model of Transformational Leadership, Empowerment,
Innovation Support, and Organizational Innovation 280-303. [Crossref]
28. Kijpokin Kasemsap. Developing a Unified Framework and a Causal Model of Transformational Leadership, Empowerment,
Innovation Support, and Organizational Innovation 381-406. [Crossref]
29. . Leadership 1-32. [Crossref]
Downloaded by Durham University At 04:37 27 March 2019 (PT)

View publication stats