Chapter 6

INTRODUCTION
Prepared by: Er Nilesh Kumar Jha
6.1 Introduction to Steel Structures
6.2 Types and Properties of Steel
6.3 Allowable stresses in Structural Steel
6.4 Concept of Limit State Design in Steel Structure
6.5 Use of Steel as a Structural member in Construction CONTENTS
6.6 Codes of Practice for design of Steel Structures Credit Hours: 3
6.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel Structures
Total Marks: 1
 6.1 Introduction to Steel Structures:
➢ For transferring the loads to the ground, various materials like asbestos sheets, tiles, bricks,
cement concrete, reinforced concrete, steel, aluminum are used.
➢ However, main bodies of the present day structures consist of RCC or steel.
➢ Steel structures are metal structures which are made of structural steel.
➢ The structural steel is the steel used for the manufacture of rolled steel section.
➢ Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.
Types and Properties Of Steel:
The steel can be classified based upon:
1. Grade and 2. Chemical Properties

1. Based On Grade:
a) Mild Steel:
➢ Most common form of steel.
➢ Aka plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel.
➢ Contains carbon in the range of 0.05 to 0.30%.
➢ Designated as Fe 250.
➢ Cannot be used for manufacture of cutting tools, rather punching, drilling, welding, cutting
can be done on mild steel.

#Physical Properties of Mild Steel:

❖ High impact strength
❖ Good ductility and weldability
❖ A magnetic metal due to its ferric content.
❖ Good malleability
❖ Not suitable for heat treatment to improve properties.
❖ Relatively low tensile strength, but cheap and easy to form.
b) High Tensile Strength Steel:
➢ A type of alloy steel that provides better mechanical
properties or greater resistance to corrosion than
carbon steels.
➢ The term ‘Tensile’ is used to define a material’s stress
capacity.
➢ It is a preferred material in industries where hardness
and strength are key requirements.
➢ High tensile steels are part of a low-carbon group
which have additional alloying ingredients –
chromium, molybdenum, silicon, manganese, nickel
and vanadium – which are designed to increase not
just its durability, but its malleability and ductility too.
➢ Has high tensile strength due to higher carbon
content.
➢ Mainly used in reinforcements.
2. Based on Chemical Properties:
a) Carbon Steels
b) Alloy Steels
c) Stainless Steels
d) Tool Steels

a) Carbon Steels:
➢ Contain only 2% carbon or less by weight
➢ It accounts for about 90% of all steel production
➢ There are three categories of carbon steels.
❖ Low carbon Steels/Mild Steels: up to 0.3% carbon. Uses: in wires, bolts, pipes, etc.
❖ Medium carbon steels: 0.31 % to 0.6% carbon. Uses: in gears, railroad tracks, etc.
❖ High carbon steels: 0.61% to 2% carbon. Uses: to produce brick nails and sharp cutting
tools like trencher blades.
b) Alloy Steels:
➢ The type of carbon steel in which one or more elements other than carbon have intentionally
added, to produce a desired physical property or characteristic.
➢ Generally, molybdenum, manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium and vanadium are
added as external elements.
➢ There are two types of alloy steel:
i. Low Alloy Steel: Carbon content is generally kept 0.25% and often 0.15% for specially
welding application. Most popularly used to achieve better hardenability and is increased
corrosion resistance in certain environments.
ii. High Alloy Steel: Steel having all the elements more than 8% by weight of total other than
carbon and iron.

C) Stainless Steel:
➢ Stainless steel is a type of steel that comes with a minimum of 10% chromium content.
➢ This steel has more resistance to stains, corrosion and rust than ordinary steel. The 10%
minimum chromium content makes steel approximately 200 times more resistance to corrosion
than steels without chromium.
➢ This type of steel is mainly used in watch bands, watches, handgun models, pistols, storage
tanks, tankers, jewelry, food processing plant, etc.
d) Tools and die Steel:
➢ This is a very high carbon steel (either carbon or alloy) processing high hardness,
strength and wear resistance.
➢ These steels generally have a carbon content between 0.5% to 1.5%.
➢ These steels are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the
required quality of steel.
➢ The presence of carbides in the matrix plays the dominant role in the qualities of tool
steel.
➢ They are commonly used in forming and machining of metals.
 Properties Of Steel:

Is 800:2007
 6.3 Allowable Stresses in Structural Steel
➢ The allowable stress is the maximum stress (tensile, compressive or bending) that is allowed to be
applied on a structural material.
➢ The allowable stress in structural steel may be defined as the ratio of yield stress of steel to the factor
𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍
of safety. (Allowable stress = )
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚
➢ Measured in N/mm2
➢ It is safe stress which the steel structure can sustain under adverse loading conditions.
➢ If the structural member is subjected to direct axial tensile force, the stresses developed by the
members is tensile stress.
➢ If a member is subjected to direct compressive load, the opposing stress developed is called
compressive stress.
➢ If the load is exerted or transferred by the application of load through one surface to another in
contact, the stress developed is termed as bearing stress.
➢ The normal stress induced at a point in a body subjected to the loads that cause it to bend, the stress
is termed as Bending Stress.
➢ Shear stress is a result of load applied parallel to the area of member.
 6.4 Concept of Limit State Design in Steel Structure
➢ It is the comprehensive method which will take care of both strength and serviceability
requirements.
➢ IS 800:2007 suggests use of this method widely and restrict working stress method only wherever
LSM cannot be applied.
➢ Aim of design is to see that the structure built is safe and it serves the purpose for which it is built.
➢ A structure may become unsafe for use not only when it collapses but also when it violates the
serviceability requirements of deflections, vibrations, cracks due to fatigue, corrosion and fire.
➢ The design is based on probable load and probable strength of materials. These are to be selected
on probabilistic approach.
➢ The safety factor for each limiting condition may vary depending upon the risk involved. It is not
necessary to design every structure to withstand exceptional events like blast and earthquake.
➢ Thus the philosophy/objective of limit state design method is to see that the structure remains fit for
use throughout its designed life by remaining within the acceptable limit of safety and serviceability
requirements based on the risks involved.
➢ The reliability of design is ensured by satisfying the requirements: Design Action < Design Strength.
➢ The limit states are classified as:
a) Limit State of Strength and
b) Limit State of Serviceability
 6.5 Use of Steel as a structural member in Construction:
▪ Steel is a flexible metal and is unaffected to external forces such as wind and earthquakes. So in
the event of a storm or an earthquake, the steel component in the construction will not break but
bend.
▪ With the hardness of ready-made steel sections, structural frameworks can be raised in no time,
thus saving time and money.
▪ Steel can be recycled at the end of its lifespan.
▪ Steel is less expensive than other metal. It is economically viable comparatively.
▪ The construction project becomes faster due to ease in assembling property.
▪ Steel is a tensile metal which has a high strength to weight ratio. It is tough and can withstand the
weight of a fleet of cars and people. So steel can be used to construct larger bridges.
▪ Structural steels can be used to construct roof trusses and columns to cover platforms in railway
stations and bus stands.
▪ Structural steels can be used to construct water tanks, chimneys, transmission towers for electric
power, etc.
 6.6 Codes of practice for design of steel structures.
❖ General Construction in Steel – Code Of Practice IS 800:2007

❖ Dimensions For Hot Rolled Steel Beam, Column, Channel and Column Sections IS 808:1989
 6.7 Advantage and Disadvantage of Steel Structures:
ADVANTAGES:
1. It has high strength per unit mass. Hence even for large structures, the size of steel structural
element is small, saving space in construction and improving esthetic view.
2. It has assured quality and high durability.
3. Steel structures can be strengthened at any later time, if necessary.
4. Structural steel is very flexible. It can be molded into any shape without changing its
properties.
5. Structural steel is relatively cheap compared to other building materials.
6. It is very durable.
7. Steel can be easily fabricated and produced massively. This saves time and increases the
efficiency of the overall construction process.

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Steel is an alloy of iron. This makes it susceptible to corrosion.
2. Maintenance cost is high, since it needs painting to prevent corrosion.
3. As the length of the steel column increases, the chances of buckling also increases.
4. Steel has a high expansion rate with changing temperatures.
5. Steel members are costly.
 Chapter 7

DESIGN OF TENSION AND

COMPRESSION MEMBER
Prepared by: Er Nilesh Kumar jha
7.1 Types of Tension Members
7.2 Net Sectional Area
7.3 Design of Members subjected to axial load
7.4
7.5
End condition and Effective Length
Radius of Gyration and slenderness ratio
CONTENTS
Credit hours: 10
7.6 Strength of Compression Members
7.7 Design of Compressive Members Total marks: 10
7.1 Types Of Tension Members:
➢ The structural members that are subjected to tensile force in a direction parallel to the
longitudinal axis.
➢ Tension members are also known as tie members.
➢ The tension members made of structural steel can be broadly grouped into four
categories:
1. Wires and cables
2. Rods and bars
3. Single structural shapes and plates
4. Built up members
1. Wires and Cables:
▪ A cable is defined as a flexible tension member comprising
of one or more groups of wires, strands or ropes.
▪ Wire cables have been extensively used as primary and
secondary supporting members. For example: hoists,
hangers for suspension bridges, guy wires, etc.
2. Rods and Bars:
▪ The simplest tension members frequently used are round and
square rod.
▪ Rounds bars having threaded ends are used along with pin
connections at the ends, in place of threads.
▪ Rectangular plates or bars are enlarged by forging and are
bored to form eye bars.
▪ Eye bars too are used along with pin connections.
3. Single Structural Plates and Shapes: (angle sections
and TEE sections)
▪ The angle sections are more rigid than wires, cables, bars
and rods.
▪ If the length of tension member is too long, the single angle
sections also become flexible.
4. Built up Sections:
▪ When single angle structural steel sections cannot furnish the
required area, built-up sections are used.
▪ Double angle sections having unequal legs are used as tension
members in the roof trusses.
▪ The angle sections can be placed on the same side or opposite
sides of gusset plate
 Bolted Connection:
#1 Types of Bolts:

a) Black Bolts: Unfinished or Ordinary bolts

➢ Made from low or medium carbon steels.
➢ Are produced in sizes of 5 mm to 36 mm diameter and lengths 3 to 10
times diameter. (denoted by M5 to M36)
➢ Used for light structures subjected to static loading.
➢ Not recommended for the connection subjected to impact and
vibration.

b) High Strength Friction grip bolts (HSFG) or Slip Resistant Connection:

➢ Have high yield strength tightened by torque wrenches.
➢ Since, there is no slip in the joint, HSFG bolts are called friction type or
non slip type joints.
➢ The cost of materials may be 50% more than unfinished bolt.
➢ Used to where there is dynamic or reversal load.
 Types Of Bolted Connections:
a) Lap Joints:
➢ A lap joint or overlap joint is the one in which the two members are overlapped and
connected together. The bolts are placed in overlap zone.
➢ May be single bolted lap joint or double bolted lap joint.
b) Butt joint:
➢ A butt joint is a technique in which two members are connected end-to-end with
additional plate/plates provided on one or both sides.
➢ May be single cover butt joint or double cover butt joint.
 Types Of Failure Of Bolted Joints:

1. Shear Failure:
a) Shear Failure of Bolts
b) Shear Failure of Plates

2. Bearing Failure:
a) Bearing Failure of Bolts
b) Bearing Failure of Plates

3. Tensile Failure:
a) Tension Failure of Bolts
b) Tension or Tearing Failure of Plates
 Shear Failure Of Bolts:
➢ The plates which are connected by bolts exert tensile stress on the bolts and if the bolts are
unable to resist the stress they are sheared of.
➢ Shear stresses in bolts occur when the plates slip due to applied forces.
 Shear Failure of Plates

➢ The plates may fail when the tensile stress exceeds on the plate.
➢ When the strength of the plate is less than the shearing strength of bolt, the plates may
shear off.
➢ Shear failure may occur when bolts are placed at a lesser edge distance than required.
➢ In this type of failure, the block of the material within the bolted area breaks away from
the remaining area.
 Bearing Failure of Bolts
➢ When the plate is strong and bolt is weak, the bolt may crush around the half circumference which
is known as bearing failure of Bolt.
➢ This type of failure occurs when the plate is strong in bearing which may press the bolt.
➢ Bolts are crushed if compressive stress exceeds their bearing strength.
 Bearing Failure of Plates:

➢ This type of failure occurs when Bolt is strong and the plate is weak in bearing.
➢ The weaker plate material may get crushed when the bearing stress in the plate exceeds its bearing
strength.
➢ Due to this, the bolt hole becomes of an oval ship and hence the joint becomes loose.
 Tension Failure of Bolts
➢ The Bolt subjected to tensile force fails if applied factored tensile force is greater than the tensile
strength of the bolt.
➢ The tensile capacity depends upon tensile strength of the bolt and minimum cross sectional area of
the threaded length of the bolt.
 Tension Failure of Plates:

➢ Tension or tearing failure of plate occurs when bolts are stronger than plate.
➢ When the number of bolts increases, the net cross sectional area of plate decreases, as a result the
strength of plate decreases.
➢ The main plate or cover plates may tear off across a row of bolts.
 Terms used in Bolted Connection:
1. Nominal Diameter: Nominal diameter of a bolt is the diameter of the unthreaded portion of the
shank. It is represented by ‘d’. For a bolt, nominal diameter is the gross diameter.
2. Pitch (p): The center-to-center distance between individual fasteners in a line, in the direction
of load/stress. (clause 1.3.72, IS 800:2007)
3. Gauge (g): The spacing between adjacent parallel lines of fasteners, transverse to the direction
of load/stress. (clause 1.3.55, IS 800:2007)
4. Edge distance (e): Distance from the center of fastener hole to the nearest edge of an element
measured perpendicular to the direction of load transfer. (clause 1.3.33, IS 800:2007)
5. End distance (e’): distance from the center of a fastener hole to the edge of an element
measured parallel to the direction of load transfer. (clause 1.3.40, IS 800:2007)