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Generation
Technologies
MODULE-1: Big Data , NoSQL , Introducing MongoDB

Compiled by: Prof. Seema Bhatkar

[email protected]
Vidyalankar School of
Information Technology
Wadala (E), Mumbai
www.vsit.edu.in
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Unit I Big Data , NoSQL , Introducing MongoDB

Contents :
Big Data: Getting Started, Big Data, Facts About Big Data, Big Data Sources, Three Vs of Big Data,
Volume, Variety, Velocity, Usage of Big Data, Visibility, Discover and Analyze Information,
Segmentation and Customizations, Aiding Decision Making, Innovation, Big Data Challenges, Policies
and Procedures, Access to Data, Technology and Techniques, Legacy Systems and Big Data, Structure
of Big Data, Data Storage, Data Processing, Big Data Technologies
NoSQL: SQL, NoSQL, Definition, A Brief History of NoSQL, ACID vs. BASE, CAP Theorem (Brewer‟s
Theorem), The BASE, NoSQL Advantages and Disadvantages, Advantages of NoSQL, Disadvantages
of NoSQL, SQL vs. NoSQL Databases, Categories of NoSQL Databases
Introducing MongoDB: History, MongoDB Design Philosophy, Speed, Scalability, and Agility, Non-
Relational Approach, JSON-Based Document Store, Performance vs. Features, Running the Database
Anywhere, SQL Comparison

Recommended Books :
1. Practical MongoDB by Shakuntala Gupta and Edward Navin Sabharwal published by Apress
2. Beginning jQuery by Jack Franklin and Russ Ferguson second edition published by Apress
3. Next Generation Databases by Guy Harrison published by Apress
4. Beginning JSON by Ben Smith published by Apress

Prerequisites/linkages
Unit II Pre- Sem. I Sem. II Sem. III Sem. IV Sem. VI
requisites
Big Data , - - WP DBMS CJ Project
NoSQL, Python
Introducing
MongoDB
Chapter -1
Big Data
Big data is data that has high volume, is generated at high velocity, and has multiple
varieties. Let’s look at few facts and figures of big data.

 Big Data Sources

The major sources of this data are

 Enterprises, which are collecting data with more granularities now, attaching more details
with every transaction in order to understand consumer behavior.
 Increase in multimedia usage across industries such as health care, product companies, etc.
 Increased popularity of social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, etc.
 Rapid adoption of smartphones, which enable users to actively use social media sites and
other Internet applications.
 Increased usage of sensors and devices in the day-to-day world, which are connected by
networks to computing resources.

Source:- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eVSfJhssXUA
 Three Vs of Big Data

1. Volume
Volume in big data means the size of the data. As businesses are becoming more transaction-
oriented so increasing numbers of transactions adding generating huge amount of data. This
huge volume of data is the biggest challenge for big data technologies. The storage and
processing power needed to store, process, and make accessible the data in a timely and cost
effective manner is massive.

2. Variety
The data generated from various devices and sources follows no fixed format or structure.
Compared to text, CSV or RDBMS data varies from text files, log files, streaming videos,
photos, meter readings, stock ticker data, PDFs, audio, and various other unstructured
formats.
New sources and structures of data are being created at a rapid pace. So the onus is on
technology to find a solution to analyze and visualize the huge variety of data that is out
there. As an example, to provide alternate routes for commuters, a traffic analysis application
needs data feeds from millions of smartphones and sensors to provide accurate analytics on
traffic conditions and alternate routes.

3. Velocity
Velocity in big data is the speed at which data is created and the speed at which it is required
to be processed. If data cannot be processed at the required speed, it loses its significance.
Due to data streaming in from social media sites, sensors, tickers, metering, and monitoring,
it is important for the organizations to speedily process data both when it is on move and
when it is static.

 Usage of Big Data

1. Visibility
Accessibility to data in a timely fashion to relevant stakeholders generates a tremendous
amount of value.
Example:- Consider a manufacturing company that has R&D, engineering, and
manufacturing departments dispersed geographically. If the data is accessible across all these
 departments and can be readily integrated, it can not only reduce the search and processing
time but will also help in improving the product quality according to the present needs.

2. Discover and Analyze Information

Most of the value of big data comes from when the data collected from outside sources can
be merged with the organization’s internal data. Organizations are capturing detailed data on
inventories, employees, and customers. Using all of this data, they can discover and analyze
new information and patterns; as a result, this information and knowledge can be used to
improve processes and performance.

3. Segmentation and Customizations

Big data enables organizations to create tailor-made products and services to meet specific
segment needs. This can also be used in the social sector to accurately segment populations
and target benefit schemes for specific needs. Segmentation of customers based on various
parameters can aid in targeted marketing campaigns and tailoring of products to suit the
needs of customers.

4. Aiding Decision Making

Big data can substantially minimize risks, improve decision making , and uncover valuable
insights. Automated fraud alert systems in credit card processing and automatic fine-tuning
of inventory are examples of systems that aid or automate decision-making based on big data
analytics.

5. Innovation
Big data enables innovation of new ideas in the form of products and services. It enables
innovation in the existing ones in order to reach out to large segments of people. Using data
gathered for actual products, the manufacturers can not only innovate to create the next
generation product but they can also innovate sales offerings.
As an example, real-time data from machines and vehicles can be analyzed to provide insight
into maintenance schedules; wear and tear on machines can be monitored to make more
resilient machines; fuel consumption monitoring can lead to higher efficiency engines. Real-
time traffic information is already making life easier for commuters by providing them
options to take alternate routes.

 Big Data Challenges

1. Policies and Procedures
As more and more data is gathered, digitized, and moved around the globe, the policy and
compliance issues become increasingly important. Data privacy, security, intellectual
property, and protection are of immense importance to organizations.
Compliance with various statutory and legal requirements poses a challenge in data handling.
Issues around ownership and liabilities around data are important legal aspects that need to
be dealt with in cases of big data.
Moreover, many big data projects leverage the scalability features of public cloud computing
providers. This poses a challenge for compliance. Policy questions on who owns the data,
what is defined as fair use of data, and who is responsible for accuracy and confidentiality of
data also need to be answered.
 2. Access to Data
Accessing data for consumption is a challenge for big data projects. Some of the data may be
available to third parties, and gaining access can be a legal, contractual challenge. Data about
a product or service is available on Facebook, Twitter feeds, reviews, and blogs, so how does
the product owner access this data from various sources owned by various providers?
Likewise, contractual clauses and economic incentives for accessing big data need to be tied
in to enable the availability of data by the consumer.

3. Technology and Techniques

New tools and technologies built specifically to address the needs of big data must be
leveraged, rather than trying to address the aforementioned issues through legacy systems.
The inadequacy of legacy systems to deal with big data on one hand and the lack of
experienced resources in newer technologies is a challenge that any big data project has to
manage.

 Legacy Systems and Big Data

The challenges that organizations are facing when managing big data using legacy
systems .

1. Structure of Big Data

Legacy systems are designed to work with structured data where tables with columns are
defined. The format of the data held in the columns is also known. However, big data is data
with many structures. It’s basically unstructured data such as images, videos, logs, etc.
Since big data can be unstructured, legacy systems created to perform fast queries and
analysis through techniques like indexing based on particular data types held in various
columns cannot be used to hold or process big data.

2. Data Storage
Legacy systems use big servers and NAS and SAN systems to store the data. As the data
increases, the server size and the backend storage size has to be increased. Traditional legacy
systems typically work in a scaleup model where more and more compute, memory, and
storage needs to be added to a server to meet the increased data needs. Hence the processing
time increases exponentially, which defeats the other important requirement of big data,
which is velocity.

3. Data Processing
The algorithms in legacy system are designed to work with structured data such as strings
and integers. They are also limited by the size of data. Thus, legacy systems are not capable
of handling the processing of unstructured data, huge volumes of such data, and the speed at
which the processing needs to be performed.
As a result, to capture value from big data, we need to deploy newer technologies in the field
of storing, computing, and retrieving, and we need new techniques for analyzing the data.
 Big Data Technologies
The recent technology advancements that enable organizations to make the most of its big
data are the following:
1. New storage and processing technologies designed specifically for large
unstructured data
2. Parallel processing
3. Clustering
4. Large grid environments
5. High connectivity and high throughput
6. Cloud computing and scale-out architectures

 Applications of Big Data

Big data has found many applications in various fields today. The major fields where big
data is being used are as follows.
1. Government
Big data analytics has proven to be very useful in the government sector. Big data
analysis played a large role in Barack Obama’s successful 2012 re-election campaign. Also
most recently, Big data analysis was majorly responsible for the BJP and its allies to win a
highly successful Indian General Election 2014.
2. Social Media Analytics
Social media can provide valuable real-time insights into how the market is
responding to products and campaigns. With the help of these insights, the companies can
adjust their pricing, promotion, and campaign placements accordingly. Before utilizing the
big data there needs to be some preprocessing to be done on the big data in order to derive
some intelligent and valuable results.
3. Technology
The technological applications of big data comprise of the following companies
which deal with huge amounts of data every day and put them to use for business decisions
as well. For example, eBay.com uses two data warehouses at 7.5 petabytes and 40PB as well
as a 40PB Hadoop cluster for search, consumer recommendations, and merchandising.
4. Agriculture
A biotechnology firm uses sensor data to optimize crop efficiency. It plants test crops
and runs simulations to measure how plants react to various changes in condition. Its data
environment constantly adjusts to changes in the attributes of various data it collects,
including temperature, water levels, soil composition, growth, output, and gene sequencing
of each plant in the test bed. These simulations allow it to discover the optimal environmental
conditions for specific gene types.
5. Marketing
Marketers have begun to use facial recognition software to learn how well their
advertising succeeds or fails at stimulating interest in their products.
6. Smart phones
Perhaps more impressive, people now carry facial recognition technology in their
pockets. Users of I Phone and Android smartphones have applications at their fingertips that
use facial recognition technology for various tasks.
 Chaper-2

NoSQL
 SQL

The language used to query RDBMS(Relational Database Management System) systems is

SQL (Sequel Query Language ). RDBMS systems are well suited for structured data held in
columns and rows, which can be queried using SQL.
The RDBMS systems are based on the concept of ACID transactions. ACID stands for
Atomic, Consistent, Isolated, and Durable, where

• Atomic implies either all changes of a transaction are applied completely or not applied at
all.

• Consistent means the data is in a consistent state after the transaction is applied. This
means after a transaction is committed, the queries fetching a particular data will see the
same result.

• Isolated means the transactions that are applied to the same set of data are independent of
each other. Thus, one transaction will not interfere with another transaction.

• Durable means the changes are permanent in the system and will not be lost in case of any
failures.

 NoSQL
NoSQL is a term used to refer to non-relational databases . Thus, it encompasses majority of
the data stores that are not based on the conventional RDBMS principles and are used for
handling large data sets on an Internet scale.
NoSQL is an umbrella term for data stores that don’t follow the RDBMS principles.

A Brief History of NoSQL

In 1998, Carlo Strozzi coined the term NoSQL . He used this term to identify his
database because the database didn’t have a SQL interface. The term resurfaced in early 2009
when Eric Evans (a Rackspace employee) used this term in an event on open source
distributed databases to refer to distributed databases that were non-relational and did not
follow the ACID features of relational databases.

 ACID vs. BASE

In the introduction, we mentioned that the traditional RDBMS applications have
focused on ACID transactions . Howsoever essential these qualities may seem, they are quite
ncompatible with availability and performance requirements for applications of a Web scale.
In contrary to the ACID approach of traditional RDBMS systems, NoSQL solves the
problem using an approach popularly called as BASE.

 CAP Theorem ( Brewer’s Theorem )

Eric Brewer outlined the CAP theorem in 2000. The theorem states that when designing
an application in a distributed environment there are three basic requirements that exist, namely
consistency, availability, and partition tolerance.
 • Consistency means that the data remains consistent after any operation is performed that
changes the data, and that all users or clients accessing the application see the same updated
data.
• Availability means that the system is always available.
• Partition Tolerance means that the system will continue to function even if it is partitioned
into groups of servers that are not able to communicate with one another.

The CAP theorem states that at any point in time a distributed system can fulfil only two of the
above three guarantees.

 The BASE
Eric Brewer coined the BASE acronym . BASE can be explained as

 Basically Available means the system will be available in terms of the CAP theorem.

 Soft state indicates that even if no input is provided to the system, the state will change over
time. This is in accordance to eventual consistency.

 Eventual consistency means the system will attain consistency in the long run, provided no
input is sent to the system during that time.

Hence BASE is in contrast with the RDBMS ACID transactions.

You have seen that NoSQL databases are eventually consistent but the eventual consistency
implementation may vary across different NoSQL databases.
NRW is the notation used to describe how the eventual consistency model is implemented across
NoSQL databases where

• N is the number of data copies that the database has maintained.

• R is the number of copies that an application needs to refer to before returning a read request’s
output.
• W is the number of data copies that need to be written to before a write operation is marked as
completed successfully.

Using these notation configurations , the databases implement the model of eventual consistency.

Write Operations
 N=W implies that the write operation will update all data copies before returning the control
to the client and marking the write operation as successful. This is similar to how the
traditional RDBMS databases work when implementing synchronous replication. This setting
will slow down the write performance.
 If write performance is a concern, which means you want the writes to be happening fast, you
can set W=1, R=N. This implies that the write will just update any one copy and mark the
write as successful, but whenever the user issues a read request, it will read all the copies to
return the result. If either of the copies is not updated, it will ensure the same is updated, and
then only the read will be successful. This implementation will slow down the read
performance.
 Hence most NoSQL implementations use N>W>1. This implies that greater than one node
needs to be updated successfully; however, not all nodes need to be updated at the same time.

Read Operations
 If R is set to 1, the read operation will read any data copy, which can be outdated.
 If R>1, more than one copy is read, and it will read most recent value. However, this can
slow down the read operation.
 Using N<W+R always ensures that a read operation retrieves the latest value. This is because
the number of written copies and read copies are always greater than the actual number of
copies, ensuring that at least one read copy has the latest version.
Advantages of NoSQL

1. High scalability : This scaling up approach fails when the transaction rates and fast response
requirements increase. In contrast to this, the new generation of NoSQL databases is
designed to scale out (i.e. to expand horizontally using low-end commodity servers).
2. Manageability and administration : NoSQL databases are designed to mostly work with
automated repairs, distributed data, and simpler data models, leading to low manageability
and administration.
3. Low cost : NoSQL databases are typically designed to work with a cluster of cheap
commodity servers, enabling the users to store and process more data at a low cost.
4. Flexible data models : NoSQL databases have a very flexible data model, enabling them to
work with any type of data; they don’t comply with the rigid RDBMS data models. As a
result, any application changes that involve updating the database schema can be easily
implemented.

Disadvantages of NoSQL

1. Maturity: Most NoSQL databases are pre-production versions with key features that are still
to be implemented. Thus, when deciding on a NoSQL database, you should analyze the
product properly to ensure the features are fully implemented and not still on the To-do list .

2. Support: Support is one limitation that you need to consider. Most NoSQL databases are
from start-ups which were open sourced. As a result, support is very minimal as compared to
the enterprise software companies and may not have global reach or support resources.

3. Limited Query Capabilities: Since NoSQL databases are generally developed to meet the
scaling requirement of the web-scale applications, they provide limited querying
capabilities. A simple querying requirement may involve significant programming expertise.

4. Administration : Although NoSQL is designed to provide a no-admin solution, it still

requires skill and effort for installing and maintaining the solution.

5. Expertise : Since NoSQL is an evolving area, expertise on the technology is limited in the
developer and administrator community.
SQL vs. NoSQL Databases

SQL NoSQL
Types All types support SQL standard. Multiple types exists, such as
document stores, key value stores,
column databases, etc.
Development Developed in 1970. Developed in 2000s.
History
Examples SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL. MongoDB, HBase, Cassandra.
Data Storage Model Data is stored in rows and columns The data model depends on the
in a table, where each column is of database type. Say data is stored as a
a specific type. key-value pair for key-value stores.
The tables generally are created on In documentbased databases, the
principles of normalization. data is stored as documents.
Joins are used to retrieve data from The data model is flexible, in
multiple tables. contrast to the rigid table model of
 the RDBMS.
Schemas Fixed structure and schema, so any Dynamic schema, new data types, or
change to schema involves altering structures can be accommodated by
the database. expanding or altering the current
schema.
New fields can be added
dynamically.
Scalability Scale up approach is used; this Scale out approach is used; this
means as the load increases, bigger, means distributing the data load
expensive servers are bought to across inexpensive commodity
accommodate the data. servers.
Supports Supports ACID and transactions. Supports partitioning and
Transactions availability, and compromises on
transactions.
Transactions exist at certain level,
such as the database level or
document level.
Consistency Strong consistency. Dependent on the product. Few
chose to provide strong consistency
whereas few provide eventual
consistency.
Support High level of enterprise support is Open source model. Support through
provided. third parties or companies building
the open source products.
Maturity Have been around for a long time. Some of them are mature; others are
evolving.
Querying Available through easy-to-use GUI Querying may require programming
Capabilities interfaces. expertise and knowledge. Rather
than an UI, focus is on functionality
and programming interfaces.
Expertise Large community of developers Small community of developers
who have been leveraging the SQL working on these open source tools.
language and RDBMS concepts to
architect and develop applications.

Categories of NoSQL Databases

 The NoSQL databases are categorized on the basis of how the data is stored. NoSQL mostly
follows a horizontal structure because of the need to provide curated information from large
volumes, generally in near real-time. They are optimized for insert and retrieve operations on a large
scale with built-in capabilities for replication and clustering.
Table 2-4 briefly provides a feature comparison between the various categories of NoSQL
databases

Chapter -3

Introducing MongoDB
History
In the later part of 2007, Dwight Merriman, Eliot Horowitz, and their team decided to
develop an online service. The intent of the service was to provide a platform for developing,
hosting, and auto-scaling web applications, much in line with products such as the Google App
Engine or Microsoft Azure. Soon they realized that no open source database platform suited the
requirements of the service.
A year later, the database for the service was ready to use. The service itself was never
released but the team decided in 2009 to open source the database as MongoDB. In March of
2010,the release of MongoDB 1.4.0 was considered production-ready. The latest production release
is 3.0and it was released in March 2015.MongoDB was built under the sponsorship of 10gen, a New
York–based startup.

 MongoDB Design Philosophy

1. Speed, Scalability, and Agility
The design team’s goal when designing MongoDB was to create a database that was fast,
massively scalable, and easy to use. To achieve speed and horizontal scalability in a partitioned
database, as explained in the CAP theorem, the consistency and transactional support have to be
compromised. Thus, per this theorem,MongoDB provides high availability, scalability, and
partitioning at the cost of consistency and transactional support. In practical terms, this means
that instead of tables and rows, MongoDB uses documents to make it flexible, scalable, and fast.
 2. Non-Relational Approach
Traditional RDBMS platforms provide scalability using a scale-up approach, which
requires a faster server to increase performance. The following issues in RDBMS systems led to
why MongoDB and other NoSQL databases were designed the way they are designed:
 In order to scale out, the RDBMS database needs to link the data available in two or more
systems in order to report back the result. This is difficult to achieve in RDBMS systems
since they are designed to work when all the data is available for computation together. Thus
the data has to be available for processing at a single location.
 In case of multiple Active-Active servers, when both are getting updated from multiple
sources there is a challenge in determining which update is correct.
 When an application tries to read data from the second server, and the information has been
updated on the first server but has yet to be synchronized with the second server, the
information returned may be stale.
The MongoDB team decided to take a non-relational approach to solving these
problems. As mentioned, MongoDB stores its data in BSON documents where all the related
data is placed together,which means everything is in one place. The queries in MongoDB are
based on keys in the document, so the documents can be spread across multiple servers.
Querying each server means it will check its own set of documents and return the result. This
enables linear scalability and improved performance.
MongoDB has a primary-secondary replication where the primary accepts the write
requests. If the write performance needs to be improved, then sharding can be used; this
splits the data across multiple machines and enables these multiple machines to update
different parts of the datasets. Sharding is automatic in MongoDB; as more machines are
added, data is distributed automatically.

3. JSON-Based Document Store

MongoDB uses a JSON-based (JavaScript Object Notation) document store for the data.
JSON/BSON offers a schema-less model, which provides flexibility in terms of database design.
Unlike in RDBMSs, changes can be done to the schema seamlessly.
This design also makes for high performance by providing for grouping of relevant data
together internally and making it easily searchable.
A JSON document contains the actual data and is comparable to a row in SQL. However, in
contrast to RDBMS rows, documents can have dynamic schema. This means documents within a
collection can have different fields or structure, or common fields can have different type of data.
A document contains data in form of key-value pairs. Let’s understand this with an

example:
{
"Name": "ABC",
"Phone": ["1111111",
........"222222"
........],
"Fax":..}
As mentioned, keys and values come in pairs. The value of a key in a document can be left
blank. In the above example, the document has three keys, namely “Name,” ”Phone,” and “Fax.”
The “Fax” key has no value.
4. Performance vs. Features
In order to make MongoDB high performance and fast, certain features commonly
available in RDBMS systems are not available in MongoDB. MongoDB is a document-oriented
DBMS where data is stored as documents. It does not support JOINs, and it does not have fully
generalized transactions. However, it does provide support for secondary indexes, it enables
users to query using query documents, and it provides support for atomic updates at a per
document level. It provides a replica set, which is a form of master-slave replication with
automated failover, and it has built-in horizontal scaling.

5. Running the Database Anywhere

The language used for implementing MongoDB is C++, which enables MongoDB to
run on servers, VMs, or even on the cloud. The 10gen site provides binaries for different OS
platforms, enabling MongoDB to run on almost any type of machine.

 SQL Comparison
The following are the ways in which MongoDB is different from SQL.
1. MongoDB uses documents for storing its data, which offer a flexible schema (documents in
same collection can have different fields). This enables the users to store nested or multi-
value fields such as arrays, hashes, etc. In contrast, RDBMS systems offer a fixed schema
where a column’s value should have a similar data type. Also, it’s not possible to store arrays
or nested values in a cell.

2. MongoDB doesn’t provide support for JOIN operations, like in SQL. However, it enables the
user to store all relevant data together in a single document, avoiding at the periphery the
usage of JOINs. It has a workaround to overcome this issue.

3. MongoDB doesn’t provide support for transactions in the same way as SQL. However, it
guarantees atomicity at the document level. Also, it uses an isolation operator to isolate write
operations that affect multiple documents, but it does not provide “all-or-nothing” atomicity
for multi-document write operations.

Source:- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EE8ZTQxa0AM
 Questions

1. What is Big Data? What are the different sources of Big Data?(Nov-2018)
2. Explain the three Vs of Big Data. (Nov-2018)
3. Compare ACID Vs BASE(Nov-2018)
4. With the help of a neat diagram explain, the CAP theorem. (Nov-2018)
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of NoSQL databases? (Nov-2018)
6. What are the different categories of NoSQL database? Explain each with an example.
(Nov-2018)
7. What are the different challenges Big Data posses? (May-2019)
8. Differentiate between SQL and NoSQL Databases. (May-2019)
9. What is MongoDB Design Philosophy? Explain. (May-2019)
10. Write a short note on Non-Relational Approach. (May-2019)
11. Discuss the various applications of Big Data. (May-2019)

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which of the following language is MongoDB written in ?
a) Javascript
b) C
c) C++
d) All of the mentioned

2. Point out the correct statement :

a) MongoDB is classified as a NoSQL database
b) MongoDB favours XML format more than JSON
c) MongoDB is column oriented database store
d) All of the mentioned

3. Which of the following format is supported by MongoDB ?

a) SQL
b) XML
c) BSON
d) All of the mentioned

4. Point out the wrong statement :

a) Secondary indices is not available in MongoDB
b) MongoDB supports search by field, range queries, regular expression searches
c) MongoDB can store the business subject in the minimal number of documents
d) All of the mentioned

5. MongoDB is a _________ database that provides high performance, high availability, and
easy scalability.
a) Graph
b) key value
c) Document
d) all of the mentioned

6. Dynamic schema in MongoDB makes ____________ easier for applications.

a) inheritance
b) polymorphism
c) encapsulation
d) none of the mentioned
7. With ________ MongoDB supports a complete backup solution and full deployment
monitoring.
a) MMS
b) AMS
c) CMS
d) DMS

8. Which of the following is a NoSQL Database Type ?

a) SQL
b) Document databases
c) JSON
d) All of the mentioned

9. NoSQL databases is used mainly for handling large volumes of ______________ data.
a) Unstructured
b) Structured
c) semi-structured
d) all of the mentioned

10. MongoDB uses a ____________ lock that allows concurrent read access to a database but
exclusive write access to a single write operation.
a) Readers
b) readers-writer
c) writer
d) none of the mentioned