Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability

University of Cambridge Lecture 2

The Pembroke Cambridge

Our World in Data website
Summer Programme

Sustainability
Lecture 2
Water and food

https://ourworldindata.org/un-population-2024-revision

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Our World in Data website - topics Sustainability: lectures

Lecture 1. Population changes and earth’s resources

a. Population: growth
b. Age demography and aging societies
c. Birth control and consequences
d. Migration: causes and effects
e. Earth’s resources and modelling the future

Lecture 2. Water and food

a. Water: purification and distribution
b. Food: land use, forests, diversity
c. Genetic modification
d. Fertilisers and pesticides
e. Preservatives
https://ourworldindata.org/un-population-2024-revision
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Sustainable development: Transforming our world:

Lecture 1: key issues the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
1. Population rate of growth 193 countries of the UN General Assembly adopted the 2030 Development
Earth’s capacity to provide food and water (principally) Agenda in September 2015.
Population: global variations
Population growth: strategies for the future? The agenda has:
17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) which include
2. Age demography: transition model and population pyramids 169 targets on directly associated topics.
Aging societies and potential consequences
Each target has between 1 and 3 indicators used to measure progress
toward reaching the targets by 2030.
3. Birth control and implications: freedom of individuals to choose
economic (GDP) dependences In total, there are 304 indicators that will measure compliance.
4. Migration: driving forces
Replacing the 8 Millennium goals (target completion date 2015).
consequences for countries losing or accepting migrants
strategies for the future?
https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda
5. Earth’s resources: modelling the future and potential strategies?
IPAT equation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals 12

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rob:[email protected] Page 1 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Transforming our world: Transforming our world:

the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)
Goal 1: No Poverty
Goal 2: Zero Hunger
Goal 3: Good Health and Well-Being for People
Goal 4: Quality Education
Goal 5: Gender Equality
Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
Goal 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
Goal 10: Reducing Inequalities
Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
Goal 13: Climate Action
Goal 14: Life Below Water
Goal 15: Life on Land
Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
Goal 17: Partnerships for the Goals
https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals 13 https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals 14

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Millennium Development Goals (MDG) Millennium Development Goals (MDG): 2015 report
“Despite many successes,
the poorest and most vulnerable people are being left behind”
1. Gender inequality persists.
2. Big gaps exist between poorest and richest households, and
between rural and urban areas.
3. Climate change and environmental degradation
undermine progress achieved, and poor people suffer the most.
3. Conflicts remain the biggest threat to human development.
4. Millions of poor people still live in poverty and hunger,
without access to basic services

The successes of the MDG agenda prove that global action works.
It is the only path to ensure that the new development agenda leaves no
www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG 2015 rev (July 1).pdf one behind.
www.theguardian.com/global-development/datablog/2015/jul/06/what-millennium-
development-goals-achieved-mdgs www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG 2015 rev (July 1).pdf

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Sustainability: lecture 2 Water

Water and food

a. Water: purification and distribution
b. Food: land use, forests, biodiversity
c. Genetic modification
d. Fertilisers and pesticides
e. Preservatives

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rob:[email protected] Page 2 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Water - SDG Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation Water - SDG Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all. sanitation for all.
Targets are that by 2030 Targets are that by 2030 [continued]:
6.1 Achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking
water for all 6.5 Implement integrated water resources management at all levels,
including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate
6.2 Achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for
all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of 6.6 Protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains,
women and girls and those in vulnerable situations forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes
6.3 Improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and 6.a Expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to
minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, halving the developing countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and
proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water
recycling and safe reuse globally efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies
6.4 Increase water-use efficiency across all sectors substantially, and 6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in
ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of freshwater to address improving water and sanitation management
water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering
from water scarcity Targets continued….
https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal6
https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal6

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Water Water: what is changing (drivers)

Availability: Water usage and availability is changing due to human activities, not nature:
Water covers about three-quarters of the earth's surface. - population growth and migration (global and/or to cities)
- climate changes and variability (droughts and floods)
Acute shortage of safe-to-drink (potable) water in many countries since
- land use pressures and energy choices (crops versus fuels)
∼ 97.5% of the earth's water is salt water in oceans
- global regional poverty (health issues)
2.5% is fresh water in ground water, lakes and rivers.
- economic investment (financial commodity)
Hence need ways to purify salt water to meet increasing demands .
Water: requirements include
Usage: - agreements and policies for water sustainability
- 70% agriculture - mainly for irrigation - clean and sufficient supplies
- 10% domestic usage [of which ~90% is returned] - awareness to reduce usage
- 20% industry [of which ~95% is returned to rivers/sea] - improved purification methods (desalination currently “too expensive”)
- affordability
- ownership: should it be state or private
https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/chart-globally-70-freshwater-used-agriculture www.nwri-usa.org/_files/ugd/632dc3_cb1a78bc774a4e07a885090f5d6f9c77.pdf

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Water: different aspects to value Water UK: ownership of resource and consequences
Sources and ecosystems
Water cycle is a critical “ecosystem” so need to protect environment to: History
- ensure good water supply, and Government in 1989 privatised water in England and Wales.
- gain resilience to extremes e.g. floods, droughts. Welsh Water is now not-for-profit. England has a unique model of privatisation.
Supply infrastructures: storage, sewage treatment, cost Assets and infrastructure entirely sold.
Infrastructures needed to: - store, move to where needed, and Ownership
Consequences
- collect, clean, return to nature. 70%
Bills increased
owned by by
shareholders
over 40% even
abroad,
though
for example:
lower bills were promised.
If inadequate infrastructures, socio-economic development is limited.
•Investment in water
Wessex Water companies
is 100% ownedreduced by 15%, company,
by a Malaysian and debt is over £60 billion
YTL.
Difficult to recover full costs from charges so need state involvement. (paid for by consumers).
• Northumbrian Water is owned by Hong Kong businessman Li Ka Shing.
Environmental costs often ignored. Shareholders (mainly non-UK) have received £78 billion over the last 35 years.
• Thames Water is partly owned by investors from the United Arab Emirates,
Food security Raw sewage
Kuwait, poured
China and into rivers and seas, plus huge water leakage daily.
Australia.
Agriculture places greatest demand on water.
Going forward
Environmental concerns include:
Ensure statuary bodies take action: Ofwat and the Environment Agency.
amounts used; polluting run-offs; deforestation.
Fine for not meeting standards, and use fines to improve infrastructure.
Water costs have not been directly included in food production traditionally.
Re-nationalise: water should not be an investment commodity
Valuing water: healthcare, well-being [and even spiritual well-being]
But these can be difficult to evaluate or quantify. https://weownit.org.uk/public-ownership/water

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rob:[email protected] Page 3 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Water availability case study: Water – benefits of clean water

1-2. Water supply quality, sanitation and hygiene improvements
reduces many diseases and water-related deaths (by 21%).
Tension over use of water from two 3. Increase amount of healthy, better grown food and so reduce malnutrition.
rivers which originate in Turkey. 4. Reduce pollution from poor waste-water management and so avoid
contaminating other consumable water supplies.
Turkey built 22 dams & planned
19 hydroelectric power plants 5. Gender equality: women in Africa do 90% of wood / water gathering.
(Southeastern Anatolia Project) Access to water can take up to 6 hours each day.
6. When less time is spent fetching water, women able to contribute more
Plans also to divert waters of the and so improve impoverished communities in many ways.
basin, with immense tunnels into
the Harran field for irrigation to 7. Better school attendance. Cutting travel time to water from 30 to 15 mins.
develop south-eastern Turkey. resulted in 12% increase in girls attending school.
8. Reduce conflict where scarce water resources shared by multiple nations.
Syria and Iraq concerned about
significant reduced water supply. 9. Protect biodiversity. Many fully functioning ecosystems (animals and
natural vegetation) need clean water to thrive.
10. Climate change impact. Weather disruptions caused by climate change
https://climate-diplomacy.org/case-studies/turkey-syria-and-iraq-conflict-over-euphrates- can potentially cause an increased level of serious droughts.
tigris
www.water-technology.net/projects/ataturk-dam-anatolia-turkey/ https://thewaterproject.org/why-water/10-ways-clean-water-changes-the-world

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Water usage in supply of food Fresh water withdrawals (litres) per kilogram of food

Changing usage:
- global nutrition improving via high-yielding seeds, irrigation, plant nutrition;

- now more food per capita at lower costs but population also increasing;

- food and agriculture require x100 more water than for humans’ personal
needs;

- hence additional water needed to produce increasingly required food from

agriculture, livestock, fisheries and forestry;

- cereals still are most important source of total food consumption;

- in developing countries, 30 years ago 61% of total calories from cereals

although now decreased to 56%;
- meat production requires between 6 - 20 times more water than for cereals.

28 https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food#water-footprint-of-food

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Fresh water withdrawals per 100 grams protein Fresh water withdrawals per 1000 kilocalories

https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food#water-footprint-of-food https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food#water-footprint-of-food

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rob:[email protected] Page 4 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Water usage in agriculture Water usage in food and domestic products

1000 litres ≈
6 to 10 bathtubs

1 m3 = 1000 litres ≈ 6 to 10 bathtubs .

www.lenntech.com/water-food-agriculture.htm#ixzz4GehcJfGE

www.waterfootprint.org/resources/interactive-tools/product-gallery www.lenntech.com/water-food-agriculture.htm#ixzz4GehcJfGE 33

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Water and health

Water and food
World Health Organisation (WHO) data for 2020
- 74% (5.8 billion) world’s people have safely managed drinking-water service.
• 1 serving of hamburger, fries and
soda requires - 90% (6.8 billion people) of the global population had improved drinking-
water source within a round trip of 30 minutes to collect water.
• 5000 litres of water to produce it
• equivalent to 30 - 40 bath tubs - ~10% (772 million) people lacked basic drinking-water service, and included
122 million people who are dependent on surface water.
1000 litres ≈ 6 bathtubs - 2 billion people used drinking water source contaminated with faeces.
- Contaminated water transmits diseases such diarrhoea, cholera, dysentery,
typhoid, and polio. Estimated to cause 485,000 diarrhoeal deaths each year.

- 2.4 billion people – half of developing world – lack simple “improved” latrine
- In least-developed countries,
only 50% of health care facilities had basic water facilities,
only 37% had basic sanitation service, and
only 30% had basic waste management services.
- By 2025, half of the world’s population may be living in water-stressed areas.
www.gdrc.org/uem/water/water-serving.html 34 www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water

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Water: health consequences from lack of provision Purification of water and its transportation
Direct consequences:
- 1.6 million people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases (includes cholera) • desalinate sea water at coasts
attributable to lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
• use reverse osmosis or flash desalination to remove salt / purify
- 30% of these are children under 5, mostly in developing countries
- 88% of 4 billion cases of diarrheal disease annually due to unsafe water • energy from solar or wave power (renewable)

- 94% estimated to be preventable by improvements to the environment • transport to needy areas using pipe lines
- 240 million people are infected with bilharzia (schistosomiasis), a parasitic
worm which causes tens of thousands of deaths yearly by organ attack
- 500 million people are at risk of trachoma from which 146 million are
threatened by blindness and 6 million are visually impaired

Need to improve water supplies and sanitation in order to:

- enhance living conditions for those adversely affected
- boost countries' economic growth and greatly reduce poverty
- enhance health and welfare, plus well-being.

www.who.int/teams/environment-climate-change-and-health/water-sanitation-and-health
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rob:[email protected] Page 5 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Druzhba oil pipe line: some 5,327 km European oil and gas pipe lines

1600 km or
1000 miles

Existing pipeline
Existing bypass pipeline
Planned pipeline

Proposed bypass pipeline

Tanker route
https://backdoornoise.wordpress.com/2010/01/04/has-another-gas-crisis-been-averted/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druzhba_pipeline

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Water: urban water cycle (Ballina, Australia) Water contaminants and purification
Five classes of contaminants in water:
- particulates
- bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasites
and - minerals
water wells
- chemicals
- pharmaceuticals.

Purification of water approaches:

- large-scale production of clean water to supply consumers and industry
- water filter devices to improve on small scale, often in domestic situations
- portable techniques e.g. for use in emergencies
- desalination
- desalination
- reverse osmosis producing potable water from very contaminated sources
- distilled water, the use of distillation to remove contaminants from water
Drinking water
Recycled water
Waste water
- deionised water to produce ultra pure water
- sewage treatment.
www.ballinawater.com.au/general-information/urban-water-cycle.html
40 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification

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Water purification: possible approaches [1] Water purification: ultraviolet germicidal irradiation

Water desalination systems can utilise conventional or renewable energy.

Renewable energy sources include solar, wind, tidal and geothermal.
Four major approaches which vary in cost and amount of water treated:
separation chemicals oxidation filtration

High energy UV light on nucleic acids in micro-organisms

1. Separation.
- mutates their DNA, destroys their reproductive capabilities & kills them.
- Sedimentation: gravitationally settle heavy suspended material.
This short wavelength UV (254 nm - not in visible range) is substantially
- Boil water: 15 - 20 minutes kills 99.9% of all living things and vaporises
blocked by Earth’s atmosphere so micro-organisms not affected.
most chemicals. Minerals, solids, etc. become more concentrated.
- Distillation: boil and re-condense water, but many chemicals vaporise Now can use LEDs to remove pathogens, viruses and moulds
and re-condense at higher concentrations in output water. Expensive. - with filtration system gives safe drinking water potentially at high rates.
- Ultraviolet light – LEDs: good for bacteria but still being developed for Approach over 100 years old as 1903 Nobel Prize for Medicine awarded to
sufficient throughput of water. Niels Finsen for use of UV against tuberculosis.
www.enviroalternatives.com/watermethods.html 42 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_germicidal_irradiation

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rob:[email protected] Page 6 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Water purification: possible approaches [2] Water purification: possible approaches [3]
2. Chemical (many and the below selection is indicative only). 4. Filtration
- Chlorine, bromine and iodine: all have limitations and can affect taste - Sand: but slow unless pressure used (then need daily backwash).
- Hydrogen peroxide: kills bacteria and used in emergencies. - Porous ceramic filters: expensive and chemicals, bacteria not affected.
- Silver: effective bactericide but is a cumulative poison. - Polymer filters: filter to sub-micron but limited capacity.
- Coagulation: suspended particles clump for later filtration or separation.
- Charcoal: various forms but not really practical.
- Ion exchange: exchange calcium or magnesium using salt.
- Reverse osmosis: membrane to filter but can leave chemicals, bacteria.
3. Oxidation. - Flash filtration: distil sea water by flashing into steam in multiple stages.
- Aeration: spray water into air to raise oxygen content, to break down
- Enzymes and bacteria: good potential.
odours, and to balance the dissolved gases.
- Ozone: very good bactericide and kills microorganisms, plus oxidise and - Plants: various plants and organisms that can be effective.
flocculate iron, manganese and other dissolved minerals.
- Electronic purification: create super oxygenated water to lower its surface
tension and effectively can treat physical, chemical and biological
contaminations.
www.enviroalternatives.com/watermethods.html www.enviroalternatives.com/watermethods.html
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Water purification: techniques to remove particles Water purification: polymer membranes

very small [particle size] very large

Many approaches - polymer membranes used increasingly

- GE’s Zeeweed poly (vinylidene fluoride) PVDF
- tiny holes “nano pores” 0.01 micron diameter
- filter out bacteria and germs but transmit water
- efficiency up to 99.9999%
www.freshwatersystems.com/blogs/blog/how-an-ultrafiltration-membrane-works https://innovate.wordpress.com/2009/09/25/zeeweed/ 47

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Water purification: osmosis and reverse osmosis Water purification: reverse osmosis method
Osmosis occurs naturally when a weak solution containing salts (saline) Reverse osmosis has a semi-permeable membrane which allows the
tends to migrate to and dilute a stronger saline solution. passage of water molecules but not the majority of large contaminants
such as dissolved salts, organics, bacteria and pyrogens.
Examples include - plant roots absorbing water from the soil
- kidneys absorbing water from our blood Pressure is applied to the impure water so that the pure smaller water
molecules are “pushed” through the semi-permeable membrane.
Relies on a semi-permeable membrane
which allows some atoms or molecules to
pass but not others
Gore-tex fabric is a membrane in which Energy is needed to overcome the
the polymer film contains pores: naturally occurring osmotic pressure
which operates in reverse direction.
- big enough to let out our water vapour,
- small enough that liquid rain water is
prevented from going through the film.

Reverse osmosis removes contaminants from water by applying

pressure to force water molecules through a semipermeable membrane
https://puretecwater.com/resources/the-basics-of-reverse-osmosis/ https://puretecwater.com/resources/the-basics-of-reverse-osmosis

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rob:[email protected] Page 7 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Water purification: reverse osmosis (RO) efficiency Water purification: flash desalination
Flash distillation uses heat to evaporate water and so leave salts behind.
Capable of removing up to 99%+ of the dissolved salts (ions), particles,
colloids, organics, bacteria and pyrogens from the feed water. Multi-stage generally to improve desalination.
Accounted for 26% of desalinated water in 2004.
Unlikely to remove 100% of bacteria and viruses.
Osmosis now preferred as lower energy consumption.
An RO membrane rejects contaminants based on size and charge.

Contaminants having molecular weights greater than 200 are likely to be Principle
rejected (note: a water molecule has a molecular weight of 18).
- Incoming seawater is pumped to a high pressure and heated to near
Contaminants with large ionic charges tend not to be able to pass through boiling.
the RO membrane. Small ions such as Na+ & Ca+2 ions can pass.
- In each of a series of stages, the seawater pressure is decreased and this
Gases such as CO2 are not well generates vapour.
removed as they are not highly
ionised (charged) when in - This vapour contains less contaminants and so provides purer water as it
solution and also have low is condensed by the colder incoming seawater.
molecular weights.

https://puretecwater.com/reverse-osmosis/what-is-reverse-osmosis https://academic.oup.com/ijlct/article/9/1/1/663897
https://sites.google.com/site/kjdesalination/vacuum-distillation

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Water purification: flash desalination Sewage and waste water

Flash distillation uses heat to evaporate water and so leave salts behind.
Multi-stage generally to improve desalination. Waste water: water from human domestic or industrial activity
Accounted for 26% of desalinated water in 2004. Sewage: suspension of water and solid waste (faeces, urine and
laundry waste).
Osmosis now preferred as lower energy consumption.
Volume of sewage globally increases with population growth.
Acute problem in densely populated areas lacking treatment facilities
- can result in diseases including cholera, typhoid and dysentery.

Sewage and wastewater potentially contain:

- hazardous chemicals including medications and toxic substances
- debris associated with modern consumer lifestyles
- plastic particles - micro from washing clothes and also larger
- microbiological pollutants including organisms such as bacteria,
viruses and protozoa (single-celled organisms).
https://academic.oup.com/ijlct/article/9/1/1/663897 54

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Sewage dumped into rivers and sea in England Sewage and waste water: treatment

Primary stage: temporarily holding sewage in quiescent tank allows:

– heavy solids to settle to bottom of tank;
Water companies are allowed to discharge untreated sewage into rivers, – oil, grease and lighter solids to float to surface;
lakes and seas only at times of exceptional rainfall. – subsequent separation of these heavy solids and light material.

Secondary stage: removes dissolved and suspended biological matter:

Environment Agency: – use indigenous, water-borne micro-organisms in a managed habitat;
- 3.6 million hours of spills in 2023 (cf. 1.75 million hours in 2022); – may need final separation process to remove micro-organisms from
- 1,271 spills a day across England (compared to 825 in 2022); treated water prior to discharge or tertiary treatment.

Real figure is believed to be much higher due to under-reporting. Tertiary stage: optional additional treatment to allow water ejection into
sensitive or fragile ecosystems (estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs,...)
Related to earlier slide about ownership of water companies (privitised).
– can use for irrigation of a golf courses or parks;
– if sufficiently clean, can use for groundwater recharge or agricultural
www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-68665335
purposes.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment 56

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rob:[email protected] Page 8 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Sewage and waste water: treatment Sewage and waste water: treatment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment 57 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment 58

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Sustainability: lecture 2
Sewage / waste: future fertiliser or energy sources?

Possible excreta reuse includes purposes such as:

fertilisers and irrigation water in agriculture and horticulture, e.g. use

– recovered and treated water for irrigation
– composted excreta or treated biosolids as fertiliser and soil conditioners Water and sewage:
– treated source-separated urine as fertiliser
- are there other considerations?
energy produce biogas (methane) by digesting feces / other organic waste
- what are the issues where you live or in
other options other countries that you know about?
– produce protein feeds for livestock e.g. using black soldier fly larvae
– use organic matter as building material or in paper production

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969714008158

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuse_of_excreta
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Sustainability: lecture 2 Food

Water and food

a. Water: purification and distribution
b. Food: land use, forests, biodiversity
c. Genetic modification
d. Fertilisers and pesticides
e. Preservatives

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rob:[email protected] Page 9 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Population growth: earth’s capacity for food Global land use for food production
(from lecture 1)

Earth has finite capacity to provide resources for mankind.

Majority of people ignore seriousness of growth and threats posed, e.g.

- outright population growth - largely in less developed countries,
- over consumption of natural resources especially in developed countries.

How many people can the earth sustain long term? 1% for urban & built-up land
1% for fresh water
Consider just food.
Assume maximum efficiency and all grains grown used to feed humans
(not animals, as inefficient if plant energy converted into animal feedstock).
< 7.5% of earth’s surface
Available arable land: 3.5 billion acres provide ~ 2 billion tons grains annually.
This could feed 10 billion vegetarians, [but only 2.5 billion omnivores].

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https://ourworldindata.org/global-land-for-agriculture
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Land use per kilogram of food product Land use per 100 gram protein

https://ourworldindata.org/land-use https://ourworldindata.org/land-use

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GHG emissions per kilogram of food product

Land use of foods per 1000 kilocalories

Emissions measured in CO2 equivalents.

Non-CO2 gases are weighted by the amount of
warming they cause over a 100 years (lecture 7).

https://ourworldindata.org/land-use
https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/ghg-per-kg-poore

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rob:[email protected] Page 10 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Food: some issues Food: additional issues

Competing use of land for: cities, food, biofuels, CO2 sequestration Wastage
- 4.4 billion people (55% population) lived in urban areas in 2018 - causes: production processing distribution sales consumption
- 7 billion (78% population) anticipated in cities in 2050 from total - amount: 18% of global food (11% households, 5% food services, 2% retail)
population of ~9 billion
- GHG: emissions globally accounts for ~10%
- depletion of Amazon rain forests:
o in past 50 years, ~18% Amazon rain forest has been cut down. - SDG12 addressed in Sustainability Development Goal 12.3
o probably greater as also have selective logging - less easily seen. Recycle unwanted food to those in need plus use of food banks
o concern that an additional 20% forest will be lost in next 20 years. (??) - stringent health and safety issues need to be followed
Type of food: meat versus non-meat (cereals and rice) - increasingly possible and carried out
- water and land demands for different crops see earlier slides Famines
- greenhouse gas emissions see earlier slides - conflicts, climate change, poverty, COVID-19 pandemic
- genetically modified foods [GM] to improve yields see later slides è lead to massive humanitarian crises in many countries
Fertilisers and phosphates Global interdependencies - currently illustrated by Ukraine war
- insufficient in longer term and concerns about effect on ecosystems - wheat & sunflower oil shortages lead to price escalation and indebtedness
- run-off into rivers, water tables and sea causing pollution - eutrophication - exacerbating food crises (famine) in many countries in Africa & Middle East
Use of pesticides, preservatives and antibiotics see later slides www.unep.org/resources/report/unep-food-waste-index-report-2021
https://fareshare.org.uk/

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Food Food
Food sector needs actions on:
1. problems from intensive modern agriculture:
- how to address water needs and greenhouse gas emissions The food sector challenges include:
- biodiversity loss
- degradation of soil health
1. production challenge to change how food is produced by improving
- chemical fertilisers and pesticides excessive usage - the unit efficiency of food production
- pollution - sustainability of food production (e.g. yield, water usage, pollution);
2. tracing an item to its source to ensure sustainable & ethical production
3. “greenwashing”: need to verify transparency of each component in supply chain 2. consumption challenge, by changing
to ensure good practices or identify areas for improvement - the dietary drivers that determine food production (health issues)
4. food security and supply chain issues
- what is socially accepted by consumers (change in eating habits)
5. cheap foods: prices of many supermarket foods products do not reflect
- food waste;
true costs to society involved with making food:
- found that every £1 spent on food incurs an additional cost of 97p
- extra cost is not included in retail price of food but hidden and absorbed by 3. socio-economic challenge, which requires changes in how the food
society in ways such as production-related ill-health, diet-related diseases, system is governed and global interdependencies - Ukraine grain?
supply chain plus import charges / controls
6. health issues: e.g. excessive sugar and obesity, salt, fat, cost of quality diets
7. food waste www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/food-
8. packaging: some barrier properties sacrificed if completely plastic-free sustainability-problems-perspectives-and
solutions/B75C1F93146221F8EDD98A90CF9A67A2

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Food and agriculture: environmental impacts Food: production and greenhouse gas emissions
Food production
- contributes around 25 per cent of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
- diets have huge impact on climate change.
- animal-based foods produce roughly twice emissions of plant-based foods

Chatham House approaches to reduce pressure on land and to create a

more sustainable food system:
- change dietary patterns to reduce food demand and encourage more
eutrophication - process by which water (rivers, sea) becomes enriched with minerals and nutrients, plant-based diets;
particularly nitrogen and phosphorus.
- protect and set aside land for nature by re-establishing native
ecosystems on spared farmland or by integrating pockets of natural
habitat into farmland;
- shift to more sustainable farming.

www.newscientist.com/article/2290068-food-production-emissions-make-up-more-than-
a-third-of-global-total [2021]
https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food www.chathamhouse.org/2021/02/food-system-impacts-biodiversity-loss

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rob:[email protected] Page 11 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Agriculture and greenhouse gas [GHG] emissions Food: use of land for biofuels
Biofuels versus food? Perhaps no longer relevant – electric cars?
- need more food
Agriculture is responsible for GHG emissions: - tension between land use for food and biofuel
- 8.5% directly - consider only using left-over biomass as feedstock for biofuel.
[B] - 14.5% from land use change [B]
mainly deforestation in developing world Corn and soybeans will not work
[A] - USA total land area is 3.7 million square miles
Greenhouse gases sources from agriculture: - to meet petrol and diesel fuel demands of USA would require
- release of nitrous oxide from agricultural soils for soybeans: 150% USA land area
- methane from livestock and manures [A] for corn: 15% USA land area
- for algae: ~ 1% USA land area

How does land use affect food supply and carbon emissions?
- farming on large scale requires energy input
- land used for biofuels would increase carbon output in short term
www.ipcc.ch/srccl - worsens global warming
www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/food- - growing single crops over large areas can affect environment by loss of
sustainability-problems-perspectives-and biodiversity (insects and pests).
solutions/B75C1F93146221F8EDD98A90CF9A67A2 77

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Biodiversity: what is it? Biodiversity: threats from human activity

Biodiversity (biological diversity) is the interrelatedness of genes,
species, and ecosystems and their interactions with the environment.
Threats to biodiversity from human activity and climate change include
It includes: all organisms, species, and populations; - rising temperatures
the genetic variation among these; - extreme weather events including wild fires and floods
all their complex assemblages of communities and ecosystems.
- changed land usage due to increased cities plus intensive agriculture
Why biodiversity matters. - changing rainfall patterns plus droughts and floods
- healthy ecosystems need a vast assortment of plant and animal life - water shortages and contamination
- fragile interdependency so that loss of one species destroys balance - pollution: air, oceans (acidification and microplastics)
and can put other species at risk
- food production: a principal driver of accelerating biodiversity loss
- similar effect if foreign or invasive species are introduced
- essential for our food, medicines, and environmental well-being.
What should we do?
www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/may/06/biodiversity-climate-change- www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/may/06/biodiversity-climate-change-
mass-extinctions mass-extinctions
www.ipbes.net/global-assessment-report-biodiversity-ecosystem-services [2019] www.ipbes.net/global-assessment-report-biodiversity-ecosystem-services [2019]
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79 80

Sustainability: lecture 2 Genetic modification GM and genome editing GE

Genetic modification: process of changing the DNA of an organism, such

as a bacterium, plant or animal, by
introducing elements of DNA from a different organism.
Water and food
a. Water: purification and distribution Genome editing involves changing an organism's DNA by making
alterations to its genetic code.
b. Food: land use, forests, biodiversity Genome is the complete set of DNA (genetic material) in an organism.
c. Genetic modification Gene editing uses a precision editing tool CRISPR which is a naturally
occurring enzyme in bacteria.
d. Fertilisers and pesticides CRISPR - Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat.
e. Preservatives
GE advantages over GM: less expensive, easier to use, more accurate;
GE is simply speeding up natural selection.

https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2022/05/gmos-and-gene-editing-whats-the-
difference
81 www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10591184/

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rob:[email protected] Page 12 July 2024

 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Genetic modification GM and genome editing GE Genetic modification GM

1. What are GM organisms and GM foods?
Organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) in which their DNA
has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally.
Allows selected individual genes (DNA) to be transferred from one
organism into another, also between non-related species.

2. Why are GM foods potentially beneficial?

Lower prices and/or higher crop yields due to:
- improved durability and better nutritional value
- crop protection by combating diseases caused by insects / viruses
- increased tolerance towards herbicides
- drought resistance
3. Assessment of GM foods relative to conventional food?
More rigorous testing, now mandatory in many countries, includes:
nutritional effects potential for allergic reactions
toxicity stability of inserted gene (outcrossing)
https://medecon.org/is-there-a-difference-between-a-gene-edited-organism-and-a-gmo-
the-question-has-important-implications-for-regulation/ www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/food-genetically-modified

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Genetic modification GM (2) Sustainability: lecture 2

4. What are the issues of concern for the environment?

- GM organisms escaping and being absorbed by “natural” populations
- persistence of genes after the GM crops have been harvested Water and food
- vulnerability of non-target organisms (e.g. insects which are not pests)
- stability of gene and environmental safety (geographically determined) a. Water: purification and distribution
- loss of biodiversity b. Food: land use, biodiversity, forests
- increased use of chemicals in agriculture.
c. Genetic modification
5. Are there implications for farmers?
- intellectual property rights and patenting can restrict access to crops d. Fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides
- control of seed markets by relatively few chemical companies e. Preservatives
- divide between developed and developing countries accentuated
- biodiversity will decrease since no longer a rich variety of crops
- greater dependence on fewer GM crops.

www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/food-genetically-modified
86

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Fertilisers and pesticides Fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides

Global agricultural production 60% higher in 2050 than in 2005/07.
Increased production will be dependent on improved yields.

Two alternate extreme agricultural paradigms:

industrial agriculture is dependent on
agrochemicals, GM approaches, robotics
fuel-based mechanisation irrigation etc.
or sustainable, low external input agriculture centred on preservation of
soil organic matter.

Problems with first of the above include:

- over use of fertilisers, pesticides, herbicides;
- run-off into rivers and oceans;
- unknown longer-term effects of pesticides (e.g. on bees);
- not preserving soil organic matter (traditionally done by crop rotation).

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/592253-
87 Pedercini-Fertilizer%20addiction.pdf 88

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 Pembroke Cambridge Summer Programme Sustainability
University of Cambridge Lecture 2

Fertilisers Pesticides and herbicides

Fertilisers used to meet the ever-increasing need for greater yield. Pesticides kill insects which attack plants and improve agricultural yield.
40 to 60% agricultural crops now grown use fertilisers: Herbicides kill unwanted plants with aim of leaving desired crop unharmed.
- synthetic fertilisers - used on more than 50% crops Detrimental effects of pesticides and herbicides
nitrogen or phosphorous (phosphates & potash). - excessive use of either reduces biodiversity
- organic fertilisers - manures and animal wastes
- can remain active for long periods of time, potentially causing soil and
Detrimental effects of fertilisers water contamination and adverse effects to non-target organisms
- deterioration of soil’s fertility by increasing acid levels - pesticides are detrimental to bees
- eutrophication: dense growth in water of plants, e.g. algae, due to excess • neonicotinoids poison the nervous system
nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) run-off from land • used on ~ 80% of commercial food crops in USA but banned in EU
• phosphorus pollution mainly from households and industry, including • exceptionally resilient in environment and seen in many of our foods
phosphorus-based detergents - glyphosate is active ingredient in most herbicides
• nitrogen pollutants is largely run-off from agricultural land • also kills many beneficial bacteria in guts of bees, dogs and humans
- poorer drinking water quality and also toxic for aquatic life • probable carcinogen (WHO)

- greenhouse gas emissions (methane, CO2, ammonia, and nitrogen) • required for production of most GM crops

www.environment.co.za/environmental-issues/how-do-fertilizers-affect-the- www.researchgate.net/publication/286042190_Effects_of_Pesticides_on_Environment
environment.html 89 https://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/15/opinions/schubert-bees-herbicides/index.html

89 90

Antibiotics on crops Antibiotics on crops

Antibiotics, some critically important for human medicine, are being used
extensively in order to prevent disease, and sometimes in copious quantities. Relatively few countries have national legislation to regulate the use of or
monitor antibiotics in crop agriculture.

Antibiotic use in crop agriculture possibly at a significantly lower level than in

livestock agriculture. However, data are not available for many countries.

Uptake of antibiotics by crops differs widely according to many factors, including

antibiotic class, crop type and variety, and soil type.

Pick-up from soil, rather than from direct application, may be a large source of
antibiotics, e.g. from livestock (manure) or human (sewage sludge) origin.

Pick-up from soil can introduce antimicrobial resistant organisms or antimicrobial

resistance (AMR) genes to crops.

Methods to detect antibiotics in crops are limited although rapid methods have been
developed to test for both antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes and phenotypic
Breakdown of problems against which antibiotics were recommended by region. antimicrobial resistance in bacteria.

www.cabi.org/news-article/new-study-reveals-use-of-antibiotics-on-crops-is-more-
https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/media/document/review-of-antibiotic-use-in-crops-
widespread-than-previously-thought associated-risk-of-antimicrobial-resistance-and-research-gaps-final.pdf [2020]

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Sustainability: lecture 2 Preservatives

Preservatives and additives
- added to food to maintain or improve safety, freshness, taste, texture,
or appearance (including colour)
Water and food - some are traditional, e.g. for preservation: salt, sugar, SO2 (in wine)
- slow down decomposition caused by mould, air, bacteria, or yeast
a. Water: purification and distribution
- needed if transporting food from factories to warehouses to shops and
b. Food: land use, forests, biodiversity finally to consumers

c. Genetic modification - derived either from plants, animals, minerals, or synthetic

- three broad categories
d. Fertilisers and pesticides • flavouring agents, e.g. spices
e. Preservatives • enzymes (proteins) to assist biochemical reactions. e.g. in baking,
wine making or beer brewing, cheese manufacture, etc.
• other additives for preservation, colouring, and sweetening
- must not mislead consumers by promoting consumption and purchases
- must not be detrimental to health: e.g. possible colon cancer from
nitrites or nitrates used in processed meats
93 www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-additives [2023]

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