62 Chapter 2 Probability

B: the card is the jack, queen, or king of diamonds,

C: the card is an ace.
Clearly, the event A ∩ C consists of only the two red aces.
Several results that follow from the foregoing definitions, which may easily be
verified by means of Venn diagrams, are as follows:

1. A ∩ φ = φ. 6. φ = S.
2. A ∪ φ = A. 7. (A ) = A.
3. A ∩ A = φ.
4. A ∪ A = S. 8. (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B  .
5. S  = φ. 9. (A ∪ B) = A ∩ B  .

Exercises

2.1 List the elements of each of the following sample comes up 3 followed by a head and then a tail on the
spaces: coin, construct a tree diagram to show the 18 elements
(a) the set of integers between 1 and 50 divisible by 8; of the sample space S.
(b) the set S = {x | x2 + 4x − 5 = 0}; 2.6 Two jurors are selected from 4 alternates to serve
(c) the set of outcomes when a coin is tossed until a at a murder trial. Using the notation A1 A3 , for exam-
tail or three heads appear; ple, to denote the simple event that alternates 1 and 3
(d) the set S = {x | x is a continent}; are selected, list the 6 elements of the sample space S.
(e) the set S = {x | 2x − 4 ≥ 0 and x < 1}.
2.7 Four students are selected at random from a
chemistry class and classified as male or female. List
2.2 Use the rule method to describe the sample space the elements of the sample space S1 , using the letter
S consisting of all points in the first quadrant inside a M for male and F for female. Define a second sample
circle of radius 3 with center at the origin. space S2 where the elements represent the number of
females selected.
2.3 Which of the following events are equal?
(a) A = {1, 3}; 2.8 For the sample space of Exercise 2.4,
(b) B = {x | x is a number on a die}; (a) list the elements corresponding to the event A that
(c) C = {x | x2 − 4x + 3 = 0}; the sum is greater than 8;
(d) D = {x | x is the number of heads when six coins (b) list the elements corresponding to the event B that
are tossed}. a 2 occurs on either die;
(c) list the elements corresponding to the event C that
a number greater than 4 comes up on the green die;
2.4 An experiment involves tossing a pair of dice, one
green and one red, and recording the numbers that (d) list the elements corresponding to the event A ∩ C;
come up. If x equals the outcome on the green die (e) list the elements corresponding to the event A ∩ B;
and y the outcome on the red die, describe the sample (f) list the elements corresponding to the event B ∩ C;
space S
(g) construct a Venn diagram to illustrate the intersec-
(a) by listing the elements (x, y); tions and unions of the events A, B, and C.
(b) by using the rule method.
2.9 For the sample space of Exercise 2.5,
2.5 An experiment consists of tossing a die and then (a) list the elements corresponding to the event A that
flipping a coin once if the number on the die is even. If a number less than 3 occurs on the die;
the number on the die is odd, the coin is flipped twice. (b) list the elements corresponding to the event B that
Using the notation 4H, for example, to denote the out- two tails occur;
come that the die comes up 4 and then the coin comes
up heads, and 3HT to denote the outcome that the die (c) list the elements corresponding to the event A ;
Exercises 63

(d) list the elements corresponding to the event A ∩ B; (b) Given that A is the set of nonmedicated subjects
(e) list the elements corresponding to the event A ∪ B. and B is the set of walkers, list the elements of
A ∪ B.
2.10 An engineering firm is hired to determine if cer- (c) List the elements of A ∩ B.
tain waterways in Virginia are safe for fishing. Samples
are taken from three rivers. 2.13 Construct a Venn diagram to illustrate the pos-
(a) List the elements of a sample space S, using the sible intersections and unions for the following events
letters F for safe to fish and N for not safe to fish. relative to the sample space consisting of all automo-
biles made in the United States.
(b) List the elements of S corresponding to event E
that at least two of the rivers are safe for fishing. F : Four door, S : Sun roof, P : Power steering.
(c) Define an event that has as its elements the points
{F F F, N F F, F F N, N F N }. 2.14 If S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A =
{0, 2, 4, 6, 8}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, C = {2, 3, 4, 5}, and
D = {1, 6, 7}, list the elements of the sets correspond-
2.11 The resumés of two male applicants for a college ing to the following events:
teaching position in chemistry are placed in the same (a) A ∪ D;
file as the resumés of two female applicants. Two po-
sitions become available, and the first, at the rank of (b) A ∩ B;
assistant professor, is filled by selecting one of the four (c) B  ;
applicants at random. The second position, at the rank (d) (B  ∩ D) ∪ A;
of instructor, is then filled by selecting at random one (e) (S ∩ D) ;
of the remaining three applicants. Using the notation
M2 F1 , for example, to denote the simple event that (f) A ∩ C ∩ D  .
the first position is filled by the second male applicant
and the second position is then filled by the first female 2.15 Consider the sample space S = {copper, sodium,
applicant, nitrogen, potassium, uranium, oxygen, zinc} and the
(a) list the elements of a sample space S; events
(b) list the elements of S corresponding to event A that A = {copper, sodium, zinc},
the position of assistant professor is filled by a male B = {sodium, nitrogen, potassium},
applicant;
C = {oxygen}.
(c) list the elements of S corresponding to event B that
exactly one of the two positions is filled by a male List the elements of the sets corresponding to the fol-
applicant; lowing events:
(d) list the elements of S corresponding to event C that (a) B  ;
neither position is filled by a male applicant; (b) B ∪ C;
(e) list the elements of S corresponding to the event (c) (A ∩ B  ) ∪ C;
A ∩ B; (d) A ∩ C;
(f) list the elements of S corresponding to the event (e) A ∩ B ∩ C;
A ∪ C;
(f) (A ∪ B  ) ∩ (A ∩ C).
(g) construct a Venn diagram to illustrate the intersec-
tions and unions of the events A, B, and C.
2.16 If S = {x | 0 < x < 12}, M = {x | 1 < x < 8},
and N = {x | 0 < x < 6}, find
2.12 Exercise and diet are being studied as possi-
ble substitutes for medication to lower blood pressure. (a) M ∪ N ;
Three groups of subjects will be used to study the ef- (b) M ∩ N ;
fect of exercise. Group 1 is sedentary, while group 2 (c) M  ∩ N  .
walks and group 3 swims for 1 hour a day. Half of each
of the three exercise groups will be on a salt-free diet.
2.17 Let A, B, and C be events relative to the sam-
An additional group of subjects will not exercise or re-
ple space S. Using Venn diagrams, shade the areas
strict their salt, but will take the standard medication.
representing the following events:
Use Z for sedentary, W for walker, S for swimmer, Y
for salt, N for no salt, M for medication, and F for (a) (A ∩ B) ;
medication free. (b) (A ∪ B) ;
(a) Show all of the elements of the sample space S. (c) (A ∩ C) ∪ B.
64 Chapter 2 Probability

2.18 Which of the following pairs of events are mutu- (b) region 3;
ally exclusive? (c) regions 1 and 2 together;
(a) A golfer scoring the lowest 18-hole round in a 72- (d) regions 4 and 7 together;
hole tournament and losing the tournament.
(e) regions 3, 6, 7, and 8 together.
(b) A poker player getting a flush (all cards in the same
suit) and 3 of a kind on the same 5-card hand.
2.20 Referring to Exercise 2.19 and the Venn diagram
(c) A mother giving birth to a baby girl and a set of of Figure 2.5, list the numbers of the regions that rep-
twin daughters on the same day. resent the following events:
(d) A chess player losing the last game and winning the (a) The family will experience no mechanical problems
match. and will not receive a ticket for a traffic violation
but will arrive at a campsite with no vacancies.
2.19 Suppose that a family is leaving on a summer
(b) The family will experience both mechanical prob-
vacation in their camper and that M is the event that
lems and trouble in locating a campsite with a va-
they will experience mechanical problems, T is the
cancy but will not receive a ticket for a traffic vio-
event that they will receive a ticket for committing a
lation.
traffic violation, and V is the event that they will ar-
rive at a campsite with no vacancies. Referring to the (c) The family will either have mechanical trouble or
Venn diagram of Figure 2.5, state in words the events arrive at a campsite with no vacancies but will not
represented by the following regions: receive a ticket for a traffic violation.
(a) region 5; (d) The family will not arrive at a campsite with no
vacancies.

M T
4

5 7
1

2 3

6
8

Figure 2.5: Venn diagram for Exercises 2.19 and 2.20.

2.3 Counting Sample Points

One of the problems that the statistician must consider and attempt to evaluate
is the element of chance associated with the occurrence of certain events when
an experiment is performed. These problems belong in the field of probability, a
subject to be introduced in Section 2.4. In many cases, we shall be able to solve a
probability problem by counting the number of points in the sample space without
actually listing each element. The fundamental principle of counting, often referred
to as the multiplication rule, is stated in Rule 2.1.
Exercises 71

Using the multiplication rule (Rule 2.1) with n1 = 120 and n2 = 10, we have
(120)(10) = 1200 ways.

Example 2.23: How many different letter arrangements can be made from the letters in the word
STATISTICS ?
Solution : Using the same argument as in the discussion for Theorem 2.6, in this example we
can actually apply Theorem 2.5 to obtain
 
10 10!
= = 50, 400.
3, 3, 2, 1, 1 3! 3! 2! 1! 1!

Here we have 10 total letters, with 2 letters (S, T ) appearing 3 times each, letter
I appearing twice, and letters A and C appearing once each. On the other hand,
this result can be directly obtained by using Theorem 2.4.

Exercises

2.21 Registrants at a large convention are offered 5 not eat between meals. In how many ways can a person
sightseeing tours on each of 3 days. In how many adopt 5 of these rules to follow
ways can a person arrange to go on a sightseeing tour (a) if the person presently violates all 7 rules?
planned by this convention?
(b) if the person never drinks and always eats break-
fast?
2.22 In a medical study, patients are classified in 8
ways according to whether they have blood type AB + ,
AB − , A+ , A− , B + , B − , O + , or O − , and also accord- 2.27 A developer of a new subdivision offers a
ing to whether their blood pressure is low, normal, or prospective home buyer a choice of 3 designs, 3 differ-
high. Find the number of ways in which a patient can ent heating systems, a garage or carport, and a patio or
be classified. screened porch. How many different plans are available
to this buyer?
2.23 If an experiment consists of tossing a coin and
then drawing a letter at random from the English 2.28 A drug for the relief of asthma can be purchased
alphabet, how many points are there in the sample from 4 different manufacturers in liquid, tablet, or
space? capsule form, all of which come in regular and extra
strength. How many different ways can a doctor pre-
2.24 Students at a private liberal arts college are clas- scribe the drug for a patient suffering from asthma?
sified as being freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or se-
niors, and also according to whether they are male or 2.29 In a fuel economy study, 3 race cars are tested
female. Find the total number of possible classifica- using 6 different brands of gasoline at 7 test sites
tions for the students of that college. located in different regions of the country. If 2 drivers
are used in the study, and test runs are made once un-
2.25 A certain brand of shoes comes in 6 different der each distinct set of conditions, how many test runs
styles, with each style available in 5 distinct colors. If are needed?
the store wishes to display pairs of these shoes showing
all of its various styles and colors, how many different 2.30 In how many different ways can a true-false test
pairs will the store have on display? consisting of 10 questions be answered?

2.26 A California study concluded that following 7 2.31 A witness to a hit-and-run accident told the po-
simple health rules can extend a man’s life by 11 years lice that the license number contained the letters RLH
on the average and a woman’s life by 7 years. These followed by 4 digits, the first of which was a 5. If
7 rules are as follows: no smoking, get regular exer- the witness cannot recall the last 3 digits, but is cer-
cise, use alcohol only in moderation, get 7 to 8 hours tain that all 4 digits are different, find the maximum
of sleep, maintain proper weight, eat breakfast, and do number of automobile registrations that the police may
have to check.
72 Chapter 2 Probability

2.32 (a) In how many ways can 6 people be lined up (c) if all the men sit together to the right of all the
to get on a bus? women?
(b) If 3 specific persons, among 6, insist on following
each other, how many ways are possible? 2.39 In a regional spelling bee, the 8 finalists consist
(c) If 2 specific persons, among 6, refuse to follow each of 3 boys and 5 girls. Find the number of sample points
other, how many ways are possible? in the sample space S for the number of possible orders
at the conclusion of the contest for
2.33 If a multiple-choice test consists of 6 questions, (a) all 8 finalists;
each with 4 possible answers of which only 1 is correct, (b) the first 3 positions.
(a) in how many different ways can a student check off
one answer to each question? 2.40 In how many ways can 6 starting positions on a
basketball team be filled with 9 men who can play any
(b) in how many ways can a student check off one of the positions?
answer to each question and get all the answers
wrong? 2.41 Find the number of ways that 7 teachers can
be assigned to 4 sections of an introductory psychol-
2.34 (a) How many distinct permutations can be ogy course if no teacher is assigned to more than one
made from the letters of the word COLUMNS? section.
(b) How many of these permutations start with the let- 2.42 Three lottery tickets for the first, second, and
ter M ? third prizes are drawn from a group of 20 tickets. Find
the number of sample points, in S, for awarding the 3
2.35 A contractor wishes to build 8 houses, each prizes if each contestant holds only 1 ticket.
different in design. In how many ways can they place
these houses on a street if 5 lots are on one side of the 2.43 In how many ways can 6 different trees be
street and 3 lots are on the opposite side? planted in a circle?

2.36 (a) How many three-digit numbers can be 2.44 In how many ways can a caravan of 9 covered
formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 if wagons from Arizona be arranged in a circle?
each digit can be used only once?
(b) How many of these are odd numbers? 2.45 How many distinct permutations can be made
(c) How many are greater than 330? from the letters of the word IN F IN IT Y ?

2.46 In how many ways can 2 oaks, 5 pines, and 3

2.37 In how many ways can 3 boys and 4 girls sit in maples be arranged along a property line if one does
a row if the boys and girls must alternate? not distinguish among trees of the same kind?

2.38 Three married couples have bought 6 seats in 2.47 How many ways are there to select 3 candidates
the same row for a concert. In how many different from 7 equally qualified recent graduates for openings
ways can they be seated in an accounting firm?
(a) with no restrictions?
(b) if each couple is to sit together? 2.48 How many ways are there that no two students
will have the same birth date in a class of size 50?

2.4 Probability of an Event

Perhaps it was humankind’s unquenchable thirst for gambling that led to the early
development of probability theory. In an effort to increase their winnings, gam-
blers called upon mathematicians to provide optimum strategies for various games
of chance. Some of the mathematicians providing these strategies were Pascal,
Leibniz, Fermat, and James Bernoulli. As a result of this development of prob-
ability theory, statistical inference, with all its predictions and generalizations,
has branched out far beyond games of chance to encompass many other fields as-
sociated with chance occurrences, such as politics, business, weather forecasting,