Mth401

Mid Term
Lecture-01
Linear: (one degree)
y=mx+c
Quadratic: (Two degree)
ax2+bx+c=0
Cubic: (Three degree)
ax3+bx2+cx+d=0
Differential Operator:
dy 1

dx x

Taking anti derivative on both sides

y=ln x
Partial Derivatives:
y  f  x
f  x, y   0
z  f  x, y 

Degree: Highest power of differential equation is called degree.

Order: Highest derivatives of differential equation is called order.

Lecture-02

Differential Equation: involves an unknown function with one or more of its

derivatives.
Ordinary D.E. – a function where the unknown is dependent upon only one
independent variable.
Examples of Des:
dy
 5y  1
dx
 y  x  dx  4 xdy  0
3
d2y  dy 
 5    4 y  ex
 dx 
2
dx
u v
x  u
x x
 2u  2u u
 2 2 0
x 2
t t

Specific Examples of ODE’s:

Note:
Power is called degree.
Number of derivative is called order.
Ordinary Differential Equation: (ODE)
Partial Differential Equation: (PDE)

Ordinary Differential Equation: (ODE)

For example the differential equation
04
Partial Differential Equation: (PDE)

Ordinary Differential Equation: Partial Differential Equation: (PDE)

(ODE)

1. ordinary derivatives of one or 3. partial derivatives of one or

more dependent variables, more dependent variables
2. w.r.t a single variable 4. w.r.t two or more independent
variables

Results from ODE data:

„ The solution of a general differential equation:
• f(t, y, y’, . . . , y(n)) = 0
„ y(t) and its first n derivatives exist for all t in I so that y(t) and its first n - 1
derivates must be continuous in I
„ y(t) satisfies the differential equation for all t in I

„ General Solution
Answer consist on –all constants
„ Particular Solution – contains no arbitrary constants
Initial Condition:

„ Boundary Condition
„ Initial Value Problem (IVP)
„ Boundary Value Problem (BVP)

Q: Write difference between IVP and BVP?

ANS:
In initial value problem: we are given the value of function y(x) and its
derivative y′(x) at the same point ( initial point ) sy at x=0 i.e y(0)=xi1
and y′(0)=x2.
Boundary Value Problems: In boundary value problem, we are given
the value of function y(x) at two different points, i.e y(a)=x1 and
y(b)=x2
Note:
If in question we have given only one condition then this called IVP.
If in question we have given two conditions and second with
derivatives then this called BVP.
IVP Examples:
5
BVP Examples:
5
Properties of ODE’s:
Linear: Only single derivative involve.

Nonlinear: double and above the double derivative.

Superposition:
allows us to decompose a problem into smaller, simpler parts and then
combine them to find a solution to the original problem.
Explicit Solution: js main hm y ki value easy find kr sakain.
6
Implicit Solution: js main hm y ki value easy find na kr sakain
A relation G(x,y) is known as an implicit solution of a differential equation, if
it defines one or more explicit solution on I.

Lecture 03
Separable Equations:
dy dy
 f ( x, y )   h  x, g  y
dx dx

The differential equation of the form

is called separable if it can be written in the form

Q: How we can solve separable equation?
ANS:
To solve a separable equation, we perform the following steps:
1. . We solve the equation g(y) = 0) to find the constant solutions of the
equation.
2. For non-constant solutions we write the equation in the form.
dy
 h( x)dx
g ( y)

1
 g ( y)dy   h( x)dx
Then integrate:
to obtain a solution of the form: G(y)=H(x)+C
3. We list the entire constant and the non-constant solutions to avoid
repetition.
4. If you are given an IVP, use the initial condition to find the particular
solution.

Q: Can we use two constant to solve integration?

ANS: No!
No need to use two constants of integration because C1C2C.
Example 1:
Find the particular solution of
1
Example 2:
Solve the differential equation

Example 3:
Solve the initial value problem
Example 4:
Comparison:
A radical change in the solutions of the differential equation has Occurred
corresponding to a very small change in the condition!!
Note:
See example no 01 to 07.
Exercise:
See it again 15

Lecture 04
Homogeneous Differential Equations
Homogeneous Differential Equations: (HDE)
dy
 f ( x, y )  f  xt , yt   t n f  x, y 
dx

A differential equation of the form

Is said to be homogeneous if the function f(x,y is homogeneous, which means

For some real number n, for any number

Q: How we solve homogeneous?
ANS:
To solve the homogeneous differential equation we use the substitution.
Homogeneous of degree zero.
Summary:
Q: How we check that this is homogeneous equation?
ANS:
Identify the equation as homogeneous by checking f(xt, yt)=tnf(x,y).
Trick to check that this is homogeneous equation:
ager bata ky upper or nichy degree same ho to this isa homogeneous equation.
Q: To solve the homogeneous equation we put (Method to solve homogeneous
equation0?
ANS:
y=vx
Equations reducible to homogenous form:
Q: If a equation is not a homogenous can we convert it to homogenous?
ANS: Yes
It can be reduced to a homogenous form.
Q: How many steps are required to make a equation to homogenous?
ANS:
Two
1. Case 1
a1 b1

a2 b2
2. Case 2
a1 b1

a2 b2

Case 1:
a1 b1

a2 b2

We use the substitution: z=a1x+b1y

Case 2:
a1 b1

a2 b2

In this case we substitute: x=X+h, y=Y+K

 Lecture 05

Exact Differential Equations

Let us first rewrite the given differential equation:

dy
 f  x, y 
dx
STEP 01:
M N

y x
STEP 02 :
F F
 M  x, y  ,  N  x, y 
x y

This equation is an exact differential equation if the following condition is

satisfied:

This condition of exactness insures the existence of a function F(x,y)( such

that:
Method of Solution:
If the given equation is exact then the solution procedure consists of the
following steps:
Step 1. Check that the equation is exact by verifying the condition:

Step 2. Write down the system:

Step 3. Integrate either the 1st equation w. r. to x or 2nd w. r. to y. If we

choose the 1st equation then:

The function θ y)( is an arbitrary function of y , integration w.r.to x ; y being

constant.
Step 4. Use second equation in step 2 and the equation in step 3 to find θ ′ (y)
Step 5. Integrate to find θ (y)( and write down the function F (x, y);
Step 6. All the solutions are given by the implicit equation:

Step 7. If you are given an IVP, plug in the initial condition to find the
constant C.
Caution: x should disappear fromθ ′ y)( . Otherwise something is wrong!

Page 27 to 33

See

Lecture - 6
Integrating Factor Technique
If the equation:

is not exact, then we must have:

becomes exact. The function u (x, y) (if it exists) is called the integrating factor
(IF) and it satisfies the equation due to the condition of exactness.

The differential equation of the form:

dy
a  x  b  x y  c  x
dx
int o

is a linear differential equation of first order.

The equation can be rewritten in the following famous form.
dy
 p  x y  q  x
dx

here p(x) and q(x)are continuous functions.

The general solution of the first order linear differential equation is given by:

The function u(x) is called the integrating factor.

A differential equation that can be written in the form:
dy
 p  x y  q  x yn
dx

is called Bernoulli equation.

1. For n = 1,0 the equation reduces to 1st order linear DE and can be
solved accordingly.
2. For n ≠ 1,0 we divide the equation with yn to write it in the form.
 3. If n > 1, then we add the solution y = 0 to the solutions found the above
technique.
Standard methods used to solve separable:
1. homogeneous
2. exact
3. linear
4. Bernoulli’s differential equation.
The differential equation in the example possesses the trivial solution y=0 , but
then this function is not included in the one-parameter family of solution.
Model for the phenomenon:
A set of equations that describe the system adequately. This set of equations is
called a Model for the phenomenon.
The applications of the differential equations we will discuss in next two
lectures include:
1. ‰Orthogonal Trajectories.
2. ‰Population dynamics.
3. ‰Radioactive decay.
4. ‰Newton’s Law of cooling.
5. ‰Carbon dating.
6. ‰Chemical reactions.
F  x, y, C   0

with 1 parameterC , which represents a family of curves.

nth order DE will yields an n-parameter family of curves/solutions
1. y=mx: straight lines passing through the origin
2. x2 +y2 =C2 : circles centered at the origin
Q: Line are perpendicular to mean?
ANS: i.e. orthogonal to each other.
tangent line to the circle i.e: at the point of intersection.
Orthogonal curves:
Any two curves C1 and C2 are said to be orthogonal if their tangent lines T1
and T2 at their point of intersection are perpendicular. This means that slopes
are negative reciprocals of each other, except when T1 and T2 are parallel to
the coordinate axes.
Orthogonal Trajectories (OT):
When all curves of a family ℑ1: G(x,y, c1)=0
orthogonally intersect all curves of another family
ℑ2: H(x,y, c2)= 0then each curve of the families is said to be orthogonal
trajectory of the other.

Q: Write the example of orthogonal trajectories?

ANS:
1. y=mx: straight lines passing through the origin
2. x2 +y2 =C2 : circles centered at the origin
Trajectories of a family of curves ℑ

The rate of change of the population is proportional to the existing

population.
k > 0 for growth
k < 0 for the decay.
half-life of C-14: is 5568 ± 30 years.
The isotope C–14 is produced in the atmosphere by the action of cosmic
radiation on nitrogen.
‰The ratio of C-14 to ordinary carbon in the atmosphere appears to be
constant.
The solution of the exponential model for the population growth is:
p(t) p0 ekt
P0 being the initial population
(a) If k > 0 the population grows and expand to infinity.
(b) If k < 0 the population will shrink to approach 0, which means extinction.
logistic model (also called Verhulst-Pearl model).

Suppose that a>0 is constant average rate of birth and that the death rate is proportional to the
1 dP
population at any time P (t) at any time t. Thus if is the rate of growth per individual then
P dt
1 dP
 a  dp
P dt
or
dP
 p a  b
dt
where b is constant of proportionality.

Chemical reactions: In a first order chemical reaction, the molecules of a substance A decompose into
smaller molecules.

In a 2nd order reaction two chemicals A and B react to form another chemical C at a rate proportional to
the product of the remaining concentrations of the two chemicals

The velocity v of a falling mass m , subjected to air resistance proportional to instantaneous velocity, is
given by the differential equation

dy
m  mg  kv
dx

Linear differential equation with variable coefficients:

Where a0 (x), a1(x), …..,an(x) ,g(x) are functions of x and an≠0 is called a linear
differential equation with variable coefficients.
Non-homogeneous differential equation:

where a0 , a1, …..,an are real constants. This equation is non-homogeneous

differential equation
Associated homogeneous differential equation:
‰If g(x) = 0then the differential equation becomes:

which is known as the associated homogeneous differential equation.

Solution of IVP:
A function satisfying the differential equation on I whose graph passes
through (x0, y0) such that the slope of the curve at the point is the number is
called solution of the initial value problem.
Solution of BVP:
A solution of the boundary value problem is a function satisfying the
differential equation on some interval I , containing a and b , whose graph
passes through two points (a y0) and (b, y0).
BVP:
There are an infinite number of solutions of the boundary value problem.
Linear Dependence:
A set of functions

is said to be linearly dependent on an interval I if ∃ constants c1, c2,……cn

not all zero, such that
Linear Independence
A set of functions

is said to be linearly independent on an interval I if

only when
c1=c2,…..cn=0
linearly dependent:
Any two functions f1(x) and f2(x)are linearly dependent on an interval I if and
only if one is the constant multiple of the other.
linearly independent:
Any two functions are linearly independent when neither is a constant
multiple of the other on an interval I.
Wronskian:
At least n-1 derivtatives
denoted by:
w(f1(x), f1(x),……..f1(x))
The superposition principle is a property of?
i): linear differential equations
II): non linear differential equations

General Solution = Complementary solution + any particular solution.

D is known as differential operator.
general solution of the homogeneous differential equation
L(y) =0
The linear differential operator:
D4+2D2+1
Annihilates the functions:
cos x, sin x, x cos x, x sin x