ENGINE TECHNOLOGY AND PRACTICE I

{Lecture Notes for DAE 3 (Sept – Dec 2022 Class)}

Prepared by Mr. Oyugi George
Technical University of Mombasa
Mechanical and Automotive Engineering Dept.

TOPICS
1. Introduction to engine technology 4. Engine Operating Principles
2. Engine construction 5. Engine layouts
3. Reciprocating engine design and operating
parameters

TOPIC 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ENGINE TECHNOLOGY
1.1 OVERVIEW
Heat engine: A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal
energy and uses this energy to produce mechanical work. The engine provides the energy to propel
(move) the vehicle and operate the other systems.
Heat engines are classified into two types-
(a) External combustion engine
(b) Internal combustion engine
External combustion engine:
In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel, transfer heat to a second fluid, which is the
working fluid of the cycle.
Examples:
I. In the steam engine or a steam turbine plant, the heat of combustion is employed to generate steam,
which is used in a piston engine (reciprocating type engine), or a turbine (rotary type engine) for useful
work.
II. In a closed cycle gas turbine, the heat of combustion in an external furnace is transferred to gas,
usually air, which is the working fluid of the cycle.
Internal combustion engine:
In this engine, the combustion of air and fuels take place inside the cylinder and are used as the direct
motive force.
Most IC engines consume gasoline or diesel fuel. The fuel burns in the engine to produce heat. This
heat causes gas expansion, creating pressure inside the engine. The pressure moves internal engine parts
to produce power.
Thus, an engine is a device that converts the chemical energy in the fuel into a mechanical energy
available at the crankshaft in the right form, time and quantity as needed to propel an automobile.
The motor vehicle engine is basically a device for converting the internal energy stored in its fuel into
mechanical energy. It is classified as an internal combustion engine by virtue of this energy conversion
taking place within the engine cylinders.
Since the term ‘energy’ implies the capacity to perform work, the engine is thus able to propel the
vehicle along the road and, within limits, overcome unwanted opposition to its motion arising from
rolling friction, gradient resistance and air drag.
To facilitate this process the engine is combined with a transmission system to transfer this power
developed to the road wheels in the correct form, time and quantity so as to move the vehicle.

1.2 ENGINE CLASSIFICATION

Internal combustion engines can be classified into the following types:
1. According to the basic engine design- (a) Reciprocating engine (Use of cylinder piston
arrangement), (b) Rotary engine (Use of turbine)
2. According to the type of fuel used- (a) Petrol engine, (b) diesel engine, (c) gas engine (CNG,
LPG), (d) Alcohol engine (ethanol, methanol etc)
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle- (a) Four stroke and (b) Two stroke engine
4. According to the method of igniting the fuel- (a) Spark ignition engine, (b) compression ignition
engine and (c) hot spot ignition engine
5. According to the working cycle- (a) Otto cycle (constant volume cycle) engine, (b) diesel cycle
(constant pressure cycle) engine, (c) dual combustion cycle (semi diesel cycle) engine. (d)
stirling engine
6. According to the fuel supply and mixture preparation- (a) Carbureted type (fuel supplied
through the carburettor), (b) Injection type (fuel injected into inlet ports or inlet manifold, fuel
injected into the cylinder just before ignition).
7. According to the number of cylinder- (a) Single cylinder and (b) multi-cylinder engine
8. Method of cooling- (a) liquid cooled or (b) air cooled
9. Speed of the engine- (a) Slow speed, (b) medium speed and (c) high speed engine
10. Cylinder arrangement- (a) Vertical, (b) horizontal, (c) V-type, radial, (d) opposed, cylinder or
piston engines (e) inline.
11. Valve or port design and location- (a) Overhead (I head), (b) side valve (L head); in two stroke
engines: (c) cross scavenging, (d) loop scavenging, (e) uni-flow scavenging.
12. Method governing- (a) Hit and miss governed engines, (b) quantitatively governed engines and
(c) qualitatively governed engine
13. Application- (a) Automotive engines for land transport, (b) marine engines for propulsion of
ships, (c) aircraft engines for aircraft propulsion, (d) industrial engines, (e) prime movers for
electrical generators.
14. Position of the camshaft – (a) Overhead camshaft, and (b) camshaft in the crankcase
15. Method of induction – (a) Naturally aspirated, and (b) Forced induction engines
16. Engine Capacity – (a) 1000 cc, (b) 1800 cc, (c) 2400 cc, etc.
17. Type of Air –Fuel mixture in the combustion chamber – (a) Rich burn engine, (b) stoichiometric
engine, and (c) lean burn engine
18. Type of fuel injection – (a) Direct injection, and (b) In-direct injection engines
19. Valve timing – (a) variable valve injection timing (vvit), (b) fixed valve timing
 20. Number of valves – (a) 4-valve. (b) 12- valve, (c) 16-valve, etc.
21. Combustion chamber design. (a) Open chamber (many designs: e.g., disc, wedge, hemisphere,
bowl-in-piston), (b) divided chamber (small and large auxiliary chambers; many designs: e.g.,
swirl chambers, pre-chambers)
22. Method of load control. (a) Throttling of fuel and air flow together so mixture composition is
essentially unchanged, (b) control of fuel flow alone, (c) a combination of these
Comparison between external combustion engine and internal combustion engine:
External combustion engine Internal combustion engine
Combustion of air-fuel is outside the engine Combustion of air-fuel is inside the engine
cylinder (in a boiler) cylinder (combustion chamber)
The engines are running smoothly and silently due Very noisy operated engine
to outside combustion
Higher ratio of weight and bulk to output due to It is light and compact due to lower ratio of weight
presence of auxiliary apparatus like boiler and and bulk to output.
condenser. Hence it is heavy and cumbersome.
Working pressure and temperature inside the Working pressure and temperature inside the
engine cylinder is low; hence ordinary alloys are engine cylinder is very much high; hence special
used for the manufacture of engine cylinder and its alloys are used
parts.
It can use cheaper fuels including solid fuels High grade fuels are used with proper filtration
Lower efficiency about 15-20% Higher efficiency about 35-40%
Higher requirement of water for dissipation of Lesser requirement of water
energy through cooling system
High starting torque IC engines are not self-starting

TOPIC 2
2.0 RECIPROCATING ENGINE CONSTRUCTION

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The construction of an engine varies a little, regardless of size and design. The intended use of the
engine determines its size and design, and the temperature at which the engine will operate determines
the type of metal it will be built from
The engine components are divided into two main categories, the stationary components and the
moving components.
The Stationary components of an I. C. Engine include:
1. Cylinder, 4. Cylinder block, 7. Gaskets and seals,
2. Cylinder head, 5. Crank case, 8. Engine support mountings
3. Cylinder liner, 6. Sump
The Moving components of an I. C. Engine include:
1. Piston, 5. Crank Shaft, 9. Valve trains
2. Piston Rings, 6. Camshaft 10. Timing gears
3. Gudgeon Pin, 7. Engine Bearing
4. Connecting Rod, 8. Flywheel

2.2 THE STATIONARY PARTS OF AN ENGINE

The basic parts of a simplified one-cylinder engine.

1. The cylinder block and Cylinder
The upper portion of the engine block is the cylinder block. This portion contains the cylinders, the
water passages (commonly known as the "water jacket"), and oil passages. Cylinder block is a one-
piece metal casting that holds the cylinder cavities. Maybe made from Cast iron or Aluminium alloys. It
is the part of the engine in which the conversion of thermal energy to mechanical work takes place. The
piston reciprocates inside the cylinder. Since energy conversion takes place inside the cylinder it must
withstand high pressure and temperature. It must also be able to resist wear and tear and must dissipate
heat. So material selection is an important consideration. Ordinarily cast iron is used in light duty
engines but in heavy duty engines alloy steels are used.
The cylinders are individual housings for the pistons. They are large holes cast into the cylinder block,
extending completely through it.

Parts of an engine block

Aluminium has the following disadvantages when used for cylinder blocks:
 It is more expensive than cast iron
 It is not as strong as cast iron
 Due to its softness, it cannot be used on any surface of block that is subject to wear unless other
design considerations are introduced which increases the cost of production
 It has higher expansion rate than iron when heated thus creating problems with maintaining
tolerances.

2. Cylinder liners/sleeves
The walls of the cylinders are machined smooth to reduce the friction generated by the moving parts
inside of them. Some engines have cylinder liners inserted into the cylinder opening. The cylinders are
provided with liners so that they can be replaced when worn out. Cylinder sleeves or liners, are metal
pipe-shaped inserts that fit into the cylinder cavity. They act as cylinder walls for the piston to slide up
and down on. They can also be installed to repair badly damaged cylinder walls in cast iron blocks
Liners are made of nickel chrome iron. Cast iron liners are commonly used in aluminium blocks.
There are two types of cylinder liners
a) Dry liner – whereby there exists a thin wall
between the cylinder liner and the coolant in
the jackets – the thin wall providing support
for the thin sleeve. They are pressed into a
cylinder that has been machined oversize.
Dry cylinder liner

b) Wet liners – whereby the outside wall of the the bottom of the wet sleeve to prevent
liner is in direct contact with the engine coolant leakage into crankcase.
coolant. It must withstand combustion
pressures and heat without added support of
the cylinder block hence it must be thicker
than dry liner. It usually has a flange at the
top. When the head is installed, the clamping
action pushes down the sleeve and holds it to
position. A rubber or copper O-ring is used at Wet cylinder liner
 3. Crankcase
The crankcase, which supports the crankshaft, is hollow inside with one or more rib-like castings that
form the main frame. It is a metal casting that protects the crank shaft and other lower engine parts. It
covers up to 75% of the crankshaft leaving the underside to be covered by the oil pan. It can be made
separate from cylinder block (separate construction), or can be cast as one unit with the cylinder block
(unitary construction). Separate construction allows the cylinder block and crankcases to be constructed
with two different materials like Aluminium alloys and cast iron. This helps in reducing the weight of
the engine block.
Crankcase also has brackets to support the entire engine on the vehicle frame. These brackets are either
an integral part of the crankcase or are bolted to it in such a way that they support the engine at three or
four points. These points are cushioned by rubber mounts that insulates the frame and body of the
vehicle from engine vibrations

Air cooled crankcase

Engine block- The lower part is the crankcase

NOTE: Engine block is a combination of cylinder block and crankcase joined together to form one unit.

Engine block
Engine block, gasket and cylinder head unit

4. The cylinder head

Cylinder head bolts to the deck of the cylinder block. It covers and seals the top of the cylinder. It also
holds the valves, rocker arms, and often, the camshaft. The cylinder head closes one side of the cylinder.
They are usually cast as a single piece and are bolted to the top of the cylinder. Between the cylinder
and the cylinder head, gasket is provided in order to act as sealing (to prevent gases escaping during the
expansion stroke) and also to reduce shock. Some cylinder heads have the combustion chamber gorged
in them. Cylinder-head design depends on the valve arrangement of the engine it is used on.
The cylinder head is of two designs, flat-head and valve-in-head. The flat-head is designed for use with
the L-head engine and the valve-in-head is designed for use with the I-head and F-head engines.
Valve guides are small holes machined through the cylinder head for the valves. The valves fit into and
slide in these guides.
Liquid cooled engines cylinder heads were majorly made from castiron. Bur due to weight
consideration, alarge percentage of cylinder heads now are being made from aluminium. As for air
cooled engines, the cylinder heads are made exclusively from aluminium alloys due to its good thermal
conductivity.

Cylinder head

The functions of the cylinder head may be listed as follows:

a) It must provide a closure or chamber for the upper part of each cylinder, so that the gas pressure
created by the combustion process is constrained to act against the piston.
b) Associated with function 1 is the need to incorporate a gas porting system with inlet and exhaust
valves, as well as a platform upon which to mount their operating mechanism. Provision must
also be made for a screwed boss to retain the sparking plug.
c) Similar to the cylinder block, the head must form a jacket that allows liquid coolant to circulate
over the high temperature metal surfaces.
d) It is required to contribute to the overall rigidity of the engine structure and maintain a uniform
clamping pressure on its sealing gasket with the cylinder block.

5. The oil pan/ crankcase sump

It is a large metal pan fitted and bolted to the bottom of the crankcase. It holds the lubrication oil and
encloses the crankcase and all moving parts thus protecting the underside of the engine. It is made mainly
of hardened Aluminium metal or pressed steel. Since the oil pan is the lowest part of the engine, it must be
strong enough to withstand blows from flying stones and obstructions sticking up from the road surface. It
is provided with a gasket to seal the joint with crankcase preventing oil spillage. It also has a nipple at the
deepest end for draining oil during cleaning and /or oil change. Oil is picked up from the oil pan by the oil
pump and distributed throughout the engine

Functions of the sump:

a. Acts as a reservoir to store the oil for the
engine lubrication system.
b. Serves as a vessel in which any sludge,
water and metal particles in the oil can
settle out.
c. Provides an opportunity for any entrained
air to escape from the oil.
d. Sometimes it helps cool the oil

Sump/oil pan

6. Inlet Manifolds:
It is a pipe like structure that connects the carburetor with the inlet valves. The air fuel mixture
from the carburetor passes through the inlet manifold to the inlet valves. It can be made of cast
iron, aluminium, or plastic. In gasoline engine, it carries the air-fuel mixture and distributes it to the
cylinders. In diesel engines, the manifold carries only air into the cylinders.
For gasoline engines, the intake manifold is designed with the following functions in mind;
 Deliver the air-fuel mixture to the operations. The length of the passages
cylinders in equal quantities and should be as equal as possible to
proportions needed for smooth engine distribute the air-fuel mixture equally
  Aid in vaporization of the air-fuel reduce the condensing of the mixture.
mixture. It has a controlled system of and also increase volumetric efficiency
heating that must heat the mixture
enough to aid vaporization and without
reducing the volumetric efficiency.
 Help keep the vaporized fuel mixture
from condensing before reaching the
combustion chamber. The manifold
passages are designed with smooth walls
and minimum bends that collect fuel to

7. Exhaust manifold
This pipe like structure connects the outlet valve to the atmosphere. The exhaust gas from the
cylinder passes through the exhaust manifold into the atmosphere. On the L-head engines, the
exhaust manifold bolts to the side of the engine block, whereas on overhead-valve engines, it bolts
to the side of the cylinder head.
It is made of cast iron, lightweight aluminium, or stainless steel tubing. If it is made properly, it can
create a scavenging action that causes all of the cylinders to help each other get rid of the gases.
Backpressure can be reduced by making EM with smooth walls and without sharp bends. EM on
vehicles today are constantly changing in design to allow the use of various types of emission
controls.

8. Seals and Gaskets

a) Cylinder Head Gasket
Usually the head gasket can be installed only one way. If it is installed backwards, coolant and oil
passages may be blocked, causing serious problems. Markings usually indicate the front or top of the
head gasket. The gasket may be marked with the word “top” or “front” or may have a line to show
installation direction. Metal dowells are provided to aalign the head to the gasket
Most modern, Teflon-coated, permanent-torque cylinder head gasket should be installed clean and dry.
Sealer is not recommended. However some head gaskets may require retorquing and sealer.
b) Intake and Exhaust manifld gaskets
There are three types of manifold gaskets; the intake manifold, the exhaust manifold and the
combination of the two. Each type of manifold gaskethas its own sealing characteristics and problems
thus be sure to follow manufacturers instructions when installing them
c) Oil Pan Gasket
It seals the joint between the oil pan and the bottom of the block. It might also seal the bottom of the
cover and the lower section of the rear main bearing cap
It mus resist hot, thin engine oil. It is made of several material types, most commonly synthetic rubber.
This has long-term sealing ability, tough, durable and reists hot engine oil.
d) Synthetic Rubber Seals
This is the most common type of oil seal. It is composed of a metal case used to retain its shape and
maintain rigidity. A rubber element is bonded to the case, providing a sealing lip or lips agaist the
rotating shaft. A coil spring, (garter spring) is used to hold the rubber element around the shaft with
controlled force allowing the seal to conform to minor shaft runout.

2.3 MOVING COMPONENTS OF AN I.C. ENGINES

Fig. The exploded view of the moving parts of an engine

1. Piston and piston rings.
Pistons
The piston is a hollow metal tube with the top enclosed. The main function of the piston is to compress
the charge and to transmit the gas force to the connecting rod during the power stroke i.e. to convert the
heat energy into mechanical energy. The piston crown may be either flat topped or specially shaped in
order to conform to the particular design of combustion chamber of which it forms one wall.
Combustion loads are transmitted directly from the crown to the gudgeon pin bosses through
intermediate supporting webs, which also facilitate the flow of heat to the encircling piston rings and
thence to the cylinder walls. The structural components of the pistons are the head, skirt, ring grooves,
and lands however, all pistons do not look like the typical one shown here. Some have differently
shaped heads. The main part of the piston below the ring belt is termed the skirt, and this is made as
close fitting as practicable in the cylinder, thereby ensuring quiet operation and the maintenance of the
rings at their most favorable attitude to the cylinder wall. The piston skirt is not normally in direct
contact with the cylinder wall, but is separated from it by a film of oil.
Piston ring grooves are slots machined in the piston for the piston rings. The upper two grooves hold the
compression rings. The lower piston groove holds the oil ring.
The main function of the piston itself is twofold:
a) It acts as a moving pressure transmitter, by means of which the force of combustion is impressed
upon the crankshaft through the medium of the connecting rod and its bearings.
b) By supporting a gudgeon pin the piston provides a guiding function for the small end of the
connecting rod.
(a) Cut-away piston showing
internal parts, (b) External parts

c) The piston parts

Piston oil holes in the bottom ring groove allow the oil to pass through the piston and onto the cylinder
wall. The oil then drains back into the crankcase.
The piston ring lands are the areas between and above the ring grooves. They separate and support the
piston rings as they slide on the cylinder.
The piston boss is a reinforced area around the piston pin hole. It must be strong enough to support the
piston pin under severe loads.
A piston pin hole is machined through the pin boss for the piston pin. It is slightly larger than the piston
pin.
The piston pin, also called the wrist pin, allows the piston to swing on the connecting rod. The pin fits
through the hole in the piston and the connecting rod small end.
Piston clearance is the amount of space between the sides of the piston and the cylinder wall. Clearance
allows a lubricating film of oil to form between the piston and the cylinder. It also allows for expansion
when the piston heats up. The piston must always be free to slide up and down in the cylinder block.
Pistons, are normally cast or forged from an aluminum alloy. Cast pistons are relatively soft and are
used in slow-speed, low-performance engines. Forged pistons are commonly used in today’s
fuelinjected, turbocharged, and diesel engines. These engines expose the pistons to much higher stress
loads, which could break cast aluminum pistons.
A piston has two sides when considered in operation:
a) The thrust side (major thrust side) of the piston which reacts against the side force arising from
the angular motion of the connecting rod on the power stroke,
b) The non-thrust side (minor thrust side) which reacts against the lesser side forces on the
compression and exhaust strokes.
There are three types of pistons constructions used in pistons:
a) Solid skirt piston of rigid construction. It is preferred in modern vehicles because of the high
combustion loads now encountered. Its advantages are that it can be made thinner in section to
withstand a given loading, so that it affords a saving in weight. It does, however, need a good
deal of modification to provide acceptable expansion control of the skirt.
b) Split skirt piston. This incorporates a near-vertical slot extending from the centre of an upper
horizontal slot down to the base of the skirt on the non-thrust side of the piston. The split skirt
piston was originally introduced to provide quiet running and, by virtue of its skirt flexibility, to
accommodate a certain degree of cylinder bore distortion where this was prone to occur.
c) Squeeze cast pistons in which a predetermined amount of molten aluminium is poured into the
die, which is then closed and applies pressure to the casting as it solidifies, hence the term
squeeze casting.
Piston Rings
Piston rings are circumferential rings that are
provided in the piston grooves. The piston rings
are not fully circular; there is a clearance (Ring
gap) between the two ends. This is provided
because during the expansion stroke piston
rings expand.
There are two types of piston rings
 Compression rings 
 Oil scraper/oil control rings
The two upper rings are the compression rings. They help in sealing and preventing the gas from
leaking past the piston into the casing. The lower ring is the oil scraper/control ring (usually a three-
piece ring). It is provided to remove/wipe the excess oil film from the cylinder walls as the piston
travels downward.
The compression rings are usually of plain rectangular section, their inner and outer edges being slightly
chamfered to prevent sticking in the groove. The working surface of the ring may also assume a barrel
form, instead of being flat and parallel to the cylinder wall, so that it is better able to accommodate any
slight piston rock where the skirt length may be limited

2. Connecting rod:
The connecting rod connects the piston and the crankshaft to convert reciprocating motion into rotary
motion. The piston is connected to the connecting rod by means of gudgeon pin. The upper end of the
connecting rod is called small head that is connected to the piston and the lower end is called big end.
The connecting rods are in the form of an I-beam. passage in the connecting rod to provide oil to the
This design gives the highest overall strength and piston pin.
lowest weight. They are made of forged steel but
may also be made of aluminum in smaller engines.
The upper end of the connecting rod is connected to
the piston by the piston pin. The lower hole in the
connecting rod is split so it can be clamped around
the crankshaft. The bottom part, or cap, is made of
the same type of material as the rod and is attached
by two or more bolts.
The connecting rod bearings are fed a constant
supply of oil through a hole in the crankshaft
journal. A hole in the upper bearing half feeds a

3. Crankshaft:
The crankshaft is located in the bottom of the engine and is the part of the engine that transforms the
reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary motion. It transmits power through the flywheel, the clutch,
the transmission, and the differential to drive your vehicle.
Crankshafts are usually made of cast iron or forged steel. Forged steel crankshafts are needed for heavy-
duty applications, such as turbocharged or diesel engines. A steel crankshaft is stiffer and stronger than
a cast iron crankshaft. It will withstand greater forces without flexing, twisting or breaking.
Both the ends of the crankshaft are supported in crankshaft and out to the connecting rod
the bearings. One end is provided with the bearings.
flywheel.
Oil passages leading to the rod and main
bearings are either cast or drilled in the
crankshaft. Oil enters the crankshaft at the main
bearings and passes through holes in the main
journals. It then flows through passages in the

With an inline engine, only one connecting rod fastens to each rod journal. With a V-type engine, two
connecting rods bolt to each rod journal. The amount of rod journal offset controls the stroke of the
piston. The journal surfaces are precision machined and polished to very accurate tolerances. It is
common to have reduced journal, or crankpin, diameters in order to reduce friction in the bearings.
The crankshaft is provided with counter weights for balancing. A fully counterweighted crankshaft has
weights formed opposite every crankpin. A partially counterweighted crankshaft only has weights
formed on the center area. A fully counterweighted crankshaft will operate with less vibration than a
partially counterweighted crankshaft.
The crankshaft is supported in the crankcase and rotates in the main bearings. The connecting rods are
supported on the crankshaft by the rod bearings. Crankshaft bearings are made as precision inserts that
consist of a hard shell of steel or bronze with a thin lining of anti-frictional metal or bearing alloy.
Bearings must be able to support the crankshaft rotation and deliver power stroke thrust under the most
adverse conditions.

The crankshaft rotates in the main bearings located at both ends of the crankshaft and at certain
intermediate points. The upper halves of the bearing fit right into the crankcase and the lower halves fit
into the caps that hold the crankshaft in place. These bearings often are channeled for oil distribution
and may be lubricated with crankcase oil by pressure through drilled passages or by splash. Some main
bearings have an integral thrust face that eliminates crankshaft end play. To prevent the loss of oil, place
the seals at both ends of the crankshaft where it extends through the crankcase.
The crankshaft has a tendency to bend slightly when subjected to tremendous thrust from the piston.
This deflection of the rotating member causes vibration. This vibration due to deflection is minimized
by heavy crankshaft construction and sufficient support along its length by bearings.
Torsional vibration occurs when the crankshaft twists because of the power stroke thrusts. It is caused
by the cylinders farthest away from the crankshaft output. As these cylinders apply thrust to the
crankshaft, it twists and the thrust decreases. The twisting and unwinding of the crankshaft produces a
vibration. The use of a vibration damper at the end of the crankshaft opposite the output acts to absorb
torsional vibration.

4. Cam and camshaft:

The camshaft is used to locate, support, and rotate
the cams in such a way that each valve is opened at
the correct time, is held open for the correct time,
and is closed at the correct time in relation to the
movement of the positions.
The cam is operated by means of gear arrangement
driven by the flywheel. The cam converts rotary
motion into linear motion that operates the rocker
arm. The motion of the rocker arm operates the
valves. Sometimes two camshafts are provided to
operate inlet valve and exhaust valve separately.
The inlet and exhaust valve cams for each cyclinder are paired and their relative positions on the shaft
are such that they form an angle when viewed from the endof the shaft. This angle determines the
opening and closing times of the valves, while the shape of the cam determines how long each valve is
held open. Each pair therefore determine the valve timing of their cylinder.
The correct induction sequence (firing order) is obtained by the disposition or arrangement of the
pairs of cams around the shaft i.e. by arranging the pairs at the correct angles to each other.
The camshaft is a one-piece forging of tough alloy of steel, or a casting of alloy iron similar to that used
for cast iron shafts. In some CI engines, the cam pairs are made separately and then secured to the shaft.
The shaft must be stiff and usually has three or four journals. In addition to to cams and journals, the
camshaft may also have an eccentric to operate the mechanical petrol pump, and a skew gear to drive
the lubricating oil pump and the distributor unit of the ignition system.
All the wearing surfaces must be hardened, but the shaft itself must be tough to resist shock and torsion
loads.
The camshft is generally arranged above, to one side of, and parallel with crankshaft, and rotates in
bearings in the cylinder block. In some high-performance engines the camshaft may be arranged very
high up in the cylinder block or on top of the cylinder head. Single camshafts are usually arranged at the
near side of the engine. Double camshafts may be used and these may have both inlet and exhaust cams
or one shaft may carry all the inlet cams and the other carries all the exhaust cams.

5. Valve Train:
Valves play a major role in allowing the air fuel mixture into the cylinder (inlet valve) for combustion and
also releasing the exhaust gases from the cylinder after combustion (outlet valve).
The overall function of the valve train and timing drive is to provide first for the admission and then the
retention of the combustible charge within the cylinder, and finally for the release of the burnt gases
from the cylinder, all in synchronism with the motion of the pistons
Valves are used to allow flow into and out of the cylinder at the proper time in the cycle. Most engines
use poppet valves, which are spring loaded closed and pushed open by camshaft action. Valves are
mostly made of forged steel. Surfaces against which valves close are called valve seats and are made of
hardened steel or ceramic. Rotary valves and sleeve valves are sometimes used, but are much less
common. Many two-stroke cycle engines have ports (slots) in the side of the cylinder walls instead of
mechanical valves.
The cooling of the exhaust valve which operates at about 700•‹C may be enhanced by using a hollow
stem partially filled with sodium which through evaporation and condensation carries heat from the hot
valve head to the cooler stem. Most modern spark-ignition engines have overhead valve locations
(sometimes called valve-in-head or l-head configurations). This geometry leads to a compact
combustion chamber with minimum heat losses and flame travel time, and improves the breathing
capacity. Previous geometries such as the L head where valves are to one side of the cylinder are now
only used in small engines.
The valve stem moves in a valve guide, which can be an integral part of the cylinder head (or engine
block for L-head engines), or may be a separate unit pressed into the head (or block). The valve seats
may be cut in the head or block metal (if cast iron) or hard steel inserts may be pressed into the head or
block.
A valve spring, attached to the valve stem with a spring washer and split keeper, holds the valve closed.
A valve rotator turns the valves a few degrees on opening to wipe the valve seat, avoid local hot spots,
and prevent deposits building up in the valve guide.
Push rods are mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on overhead valve engines with the
camshaft in the crankcase. Many push rods have oil passages through their length as part of a
pressurized lubrication system.

6. Flywheel
It is a rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft of the engine.
Functions of the flywheel
i) The main purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish a large angular momentum that
keeps the engine rotating between power strokes and smooths out engine operation.
ii) It forms the one driving face of the clutch assembly
iii) It has a ring gear that engages with the starter pinion used during engine cranking.
Note: On some aircraft engines the propeller serves as the flywheel, as does the rotating blade on many
lawn mowers.
The flywheel consists of a steel or cast-iron disc with a very heavy rim. This mass, at the largest
possible radius, gives the flywheel a large moment of inertia enabling it to store and release energy as
required.
The rare face of the flywheel is used to mount the clutch assembly, and this face is usually hardened to
resist wear.
The outer circumference of the flywheel carries a
set of ring gear teeth which may be integral with
the flywheel or may be a shrink fit. The gear on the
end of the shaft of the starter motor engages with
this ring gear when the motor is energized
It is essential to balance the crankshaft and the
flywheel assembly that both should rotate about
the same axis. The flywheel is therefore usually
recessed to fit tightly over a forged flange at the
end of the crankshaft, and is held in position by
two dowels. Cross-section view of a flywheel

7. Main bearing
The bearings connected to the engine block in which the crankshaft rotates. The maximum number of
main bearings would be equal to the number of pistons plus one, or one between each set of pistons plus
the two ends. On some less powerful engines, the number of main bearings is less than this maximum.
8. Gudgeon pins
The gudgeon pin is the vital mechanical link that hinges the piston to the connecting rod. It must
combine strength with lightness, be close fitting but with freedom to move, and resist wear without
promoting scuffing.
The gudgeon pin is of hollow construction and typically produced from a fine-grained plain carbon steel
with controlled hardenability. It is lapped to a mirror finish of 0.05–0.10 (2–4_in). The diameter of the
gudgeon pin may be up to 40 per cent of the piston diameter, so that maximum bearing pressure in the
piston bosses does not exceed 55MN/m2 (8250 lbf/in2).
Under load its ovality and longitudinal bending are not expected to exceed 0.025 mm (0.001 in) and
0.075mm (0.003 in) respectively.
Functions of gudgeon pin
The functions of the gudgeon pin include:
- To connect the piston to the small end of the connecting rod
- To support the small end of the connecting rod and allow it to pivot in relation to the piston.
- To transfer the force of the expanding gases from the piston to the connecting rod.
The methods used for gudgeon pin location depend on whether the arrangement is a semi-floating or
fully-floating one.

i) Semi-floating gudgeon pin

This is held rigidly in the connecting rod eye and oscillates only in the piston bosses (Figure 1.51a). A
semi-floating gudgeon pin is matched by grading to give a clearance of 0.0075–0.0125 mm (0.0003–
0.0005 in) in the piston pin holes. Current practice is for the gudgeon pin to be retained by an
interference fit, rather than by clamping it in a split eye with a pinch-bolt as in earlier designs.
Two advantages of the semi-floating arrangement are that there is less length of gudgeon pin subject to
bending loads, and it eliminates one potential source of noise that can otherwise develop in the small-
end bearing of a fully-floating arrangement.

ii) Fully-floating gudgeon pin

This is able to oscillate not only in the piston bosses, but also in the connecting rod eye that is bushed
for the purpose, as described later. In order to prevent it from escaping sideways and contacting the
cylinder wall, the fully-floating gudgeon pin must be located axially in the piston bosses. This is
because it is free to oscillate both in the connecting rod eye and the piston bosses at normal operating
temperature. Location is usually provided by spring retaining rings or circlips, which are expanded into
grooves near the outer end of each boss and thus act as removable shoulders (Figure 1.51b). A fully
floating gudgeon pin is matched by grading to give a clearance of 0.0025–0.0075 mm (0.0001–0.0003
in) in the piston pin holes.
iii) Offset gudgeon pin
When the power stroke begins, the piston is forced by a combination of gas pressure and connecting rod
angularity to move laterally across the cylinder; this effect is more pronounced with shorter centre
distances for the connecting rod, as found in modern engines. The manner in which this movement
occurs from the minor to the major thrust side can be such as to cause piston knocking. To minimize
noise from this source the axis of the gudgeon pin can be slightly offset from that of the piston and in
the direction of the major thrust side.
The effect is to tilt the piston during the compression stroke, so that contact is first established between
the lower part of the skirt and the major thrust side of the cylinder. At the beginning of the power stroke
it then only remains for the upper part of the piston to move across the cylinder to establish full skirt
contact with the major thrust side, this movement being beneficially damped by the friction of the rings
in their grooves. The amount of gudgeon pin offset used is generally in the region of 1.5 mm (0.06 in)
but it can also be influenced by piston clearance and a ‘listening session’ on the engine development test
bed. A stiffer design of piston skirt has sometimes been necessary where an offset gudgeon pin is used.

2.4 SUMMARY OF MATERIALS USED FOR ENGINE PARTS

S. No. Name of the Parts Materials of Construction
1 Cylinder head Cast iron, Cast Aluminium
2 Cylinder liner Cast steel, Cast iron
3 Engine block Cast iron, Cast aluminum, Welded steel
4 Piston Cast iron, cast steel, Aluminium alloy
5 Piston pin Forged steel, Casehardened steel.
6 Connecting rod Forged steel. Aluminium alloy.
7 Piston rings Cast iron, Pressed steel alloy.
8 Connecting rod bearings Bronze, White metal.
9 Main bearings White metal, Steel backed Babbitt base.
10 Crankshaft Forged steel, Cast steel
11 Camshaft Forged steel, Cast iron, cast steel,
12 Timing gears Cast iron, Fiber, Steel forging.
13 Push rods Forged steel.
14 Engine valves Forged steel, Steel, alloy
15 Valve springs Carbon spring steel.
16 Manifolds Cast iron, Cast aluminium
17 Crankcase Cast iron, Welded steel
18 Flywheel Cast iron
19 Studs and bolts Carbon steel.
20 Gaskets Coke, Copper, Asbestos.
 TOPIC 3
3.0 RECIPROCATING ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, some basic geometrical relationships and the parameters commonly used to characterize
engine operation are developed.
The factors important to an engine user are:
1. The engine's performance over its operating range
2. The engine's fuel consumption within this operating range and the cost of the required fuel
3. The engine's noise and air pollutant emissions within this operating range
4. The initial cost of the engine and its installation
5. The reliability and durability of the engine, its maintenance requirements, and how these affect
engine availability and operating costs

To understand the information given in an engine specification table, such as those included in a
manufacturer’s service manual or published in the motoring press, it is necessary to become familiar
with some commonly used terms. The ‘language’ of the reciprocating piston engine is summarized in
the following sections.
Fig: Engine Nomenclature

Key:
1 = Volume of combustion chamber
2 = Top dead centre (TDC)
3 = stroke
4 = Bottom dead centre
5 = Bore

3.2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGIES

Some of the common terms used in relation with the reciprocating engines include:
 Top Dead Centre (TDC): The top most position of the piston towards top end side is called top dead
center. But, in case of Horizontal Engines it is known as inner dead center.
 Bottom Dead Center (BDC): The lowest position of the piston towards crank end side is called
Bottom dead center.
 Cylinder Bore, d: The nominal inside diameter of the working cylinder
 Stroke, S: The linear distance between the two limiting positions (TDC and BDC positions) of the
cylinder.
 Stroke-to-bore ratio: This is the ratio of the piston stroke to piston bore. When the ratio is more than
one (stroke>bore), the engine is called under-square, while when the ratio is less than one (stroke <
bore), the engine is over-square
 Piston Area, A: The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore
 Piston displacement/Swept Volume, Vs: The volume swept by piston between TDC and BDC. It is
also called piston displacement.

Where Vs is the piston displacement or swept volume (cm 3), d is the cylinder bore (mm) and s
is the piston stroke (mm).
 Clearance Volume, Vc: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston when
piston is at the top is called Clearance Volume.
 Cylinder volume, V: It is the total volume of the cylinder
V = Vs + V c
 Compression Ratio, r: It is the ratio of total cylinder volume to clearance Volume.
Compression ratio (r) is given by:
Vs  Vc V
r  1 s
Vc Vc

 Average Piston Speed, Ūp: The average speed of the piston is called Piston Speed. The Average
engine speed of engines is 5 to 15 m/sec. (This speed is kept in this range because of strength of
material and noise consideration.
Ūp = 2sN
Where s = Stroke of Piston and N = RPM of engine.
 Direct Injection: Fuel is injected to the main combustion chamber of an engine.
 Indirect Injection: Fuel injected to the secondary combustion chamber of an engine.
 Smart Engine: The Engines made with computer controls that regulate operating characteristics
such as air-fuel ratio, ignition timings, valve timings, intake tuning and exhaust control.
 Air- fuel Ratio: It is ratio of the mass flowrate of air to mass flowrate of fuel. Fuel – Air ratio is the
reverse of air –fuel ratio
. .
m air m fuel
AFR  . FAR  .
m fuel m air
 Engine Capacity: This refers to the total piston displacement or the swept volume of all cylinders.
For example, if the swept volume of one cylinder of an engine is 375 cc and the engine has four
cylinders, then the engine capacity is 375 × 4 = 1500 cc or 1.5 litres (1). This can be simply stated
as: VT = Vs Nc, where VT is the engine capacity (cc), Vs is the piston displacement (cc) and Nc is
the number of cylinders
 Indicated power, Pi: Is the theoretical power the engine is expected to produce based on
thermodynamic analysis of the operating cycle drawn on a p-v diagram.
Pi = pSAENc
Where Pi is the indicated power (kW), p is the mean effective pressure (kN/m2), S is the
piston stroke (m), A is the piston area (m2), E is the number of effective working strokes
per second and Nc is the number of cylinders.
 Brake power, Pb: The amount of power developed by the engine that actual does work on the
driving wheels. This is measured using a dynamometer as the engine runs.
N/B: The significance of this is that the brake power delivered at the crankshaft is always less
than the indicated power, owing to internal friction losses in the engine.
 Mean effective pressure, mep: Because the gas pressure in the cylinder varies from a maximum at
the beginning of the power stroke to a minimum near its end. From this value must be subtracted the
mean or average pressures that occur on the non-productive exhaust, induction and compression
strokes. Engine mean effective pressure can be expressed in kilonewtons per square metre (kN/m2).
 Engine Torque, T: This is the force of rotation acting about the crankshaft axis at any given instant.
This is derived from combustion pressure acting upon the cross-sectional area of the piston, the
 resulting force from which applies a turning effort to the crankshaft through the connecting rod and
crank-throw arrangements. It is measured in newtons-metre (N-m)

3.3 ENGINE PARAMETERS

Consider an engine with bore B (see figure shown), crank offset a, stroke length S, turning at an engine
speed of N rpm:
b) Average piston speed, Ūp : Ūp = 2SN
where N is generally given in RPM, Ūp in m/sec
(ft/sec), and B, a, and S in m or cm (ft or in.).
c) The distance between crank pin axis and the
wrist pin axis is given by:

s  a cos   (r 2  a 2 sin 2  )
Where θ is the crank angle, measured from the
cylinder centerline and is zero when piston is at
TDC and 180 when at BDC
a) Stroke Length, S: S=2a

d) When s is differentiated with respect to time, the instantaneous piston speed can be obtained as:
Up =ds/dt
e) The ratio of instantaneous speed and average piston speed is written as

Up   cos  

 sin  1  
Up 2  ( R 2  sin 2  
Where R = r/a
f) Displacement/ Swept volume is given by: Vs = VBDC – VTDC = V – Vc
g) For one cylinder, displacement is given by:

Vs  B2S
4
For Nc cylinders,

Vs  Nc B2 S
4

h) The compression ratio of an engine is defined as:

VBDC Vs  Vc V
r   1 s
VTDC Vc Vc
i) The cylinder volume V at any crank angle is given by:

  B2 
V  Vc   r  a  s
 4 
Where Vc = clearance volume, B = bore, r = connecting rod length, a = crank offset and s = piston
position ant angle θ.
This can also be written in a non-dimensional form by dividing by Vc, substituting for r, a and s, and employing
the definition of R.
V 1
 1  (rc  1)[ R  1  cos   R 2  sin 2 
Vc 2

Where rc = compression ratio, and R = r/a

j) The combustion chamber surface area is given by:
A = Ap + Acy + Ach
Where Ap is the cross-sectional area of a flat-topped piston given by:
 B2
Ap 
4

Acy is the surface area of the a cylinder wall at crank angle θ, given by Acy = πB(r + a – s)
And Ach is the cylinder head surface area, which will be somewhat larger than Ap.
Then if the definitions for r, a, s, and R are used, then the equation of A can be written as

  BS   
A  Ach  Ap     R  1  cos   R  sin  
2 2

 2 
k) Engine Brake Torque and Brake Power
Engine torque is usually measured using a dynamometer. A simple set u is shown below

Fig: Schematic of a principle of operation of a dynamometer

If the torque exerted by the engine is T, then T = F b
The power P delivered by the engine and absorbed by the dynamometer is the product of torque
and angular speed:
Pb = 2πNT/60 Where N is engine speed in rpm
Exercises
1. A four cylinder 2.4-litre engine operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3200 RPM. The compression ratio
is 9.4:1, the connecting rod length r = 18 cm, and the bore and stroke are related as S = 1.06 B.
Calculate:
a) Clearance volume of one cylinder in cc, and L
b) Bore and stroke in cm
c) Average piston speed in m/sec.
2. John’s automobile has three-litre SI V6 engine that operates on a four-stroke cycle at 3600 RPM.
The compression ratio is 9, the length of connecting rods is 16.6 cm, and the engine is square (B =
S). At this speed, combustion ends at 20° after TDC. Determine:
a) The cylinder bore and stroke length [B = S = 0.0860m = 8.60 cm]
 b) The average piston speed [10.32 m/sec]
c) The clearance volume of one cylinder [Vc = 0.000059 m3 = 59 cm3]
d) The piston speed at the end of combustion [6.89 m/sec]
e) The distance the piston has travelled from TDC at the end of combustion [0.003 m = 0.3 cm]
f) The volume in the combustion chamber at the end of combustion [0.0000779 m3 = 77.9 cm3]
3. The engine in Exercise Problem No. 2 above is connected to a dynamometer which gives a brake
output torque reading of 205 N-m at 3600 RPM. At this speed air enters the cylinders at 85 kPa and
60°C, and the mechanical efficiency of the engine is 85%.
a) Brake power [77.3 kW = 104 hp]
b) Indicated power [90.9 kW = 122 hp]
c) Brake mean effective pressure [859 kPa = 12 psia]
d) Indicated mean effective pressure [1010 kPa = 146 psia]
e) Friction mean effective pressure [151 kPa = 22 psia]
f) Power lost to friction [13.6 kW = 18 hp]
 TOPIC 4
4.0 ENGINE OPERATING PRINCIPLES
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The induction stroke, during which air only is taken into the combustion chamber and
cylinder, as a result of the partial vacuum or depression created by the retreating piston.
The compression stroke, in which the advancing piston compresses the air into the very
small volume of the combustion chamber and raises its temperature high enough to
ensure self-ignition of the fuel charge. This demands compression pressures considerably
in excess of those employed in the petrol engine.
The power stroke, immediately preceding which the fuel charge is injected into the
combustion chamber and mixes with the very hot air, and during which the gases of
combustion expand and perform useful work on the retreating piston.
The exhaust stroke, during which the products of combustion are purged from the
cylinder and combustion chamber by the advancing piston and discharged into the
exhaust system.

4.2 OPERATIONS OF SPARK IGNITION ENGINES

4.2.1 Four-Stroke SI Engine
1. First Stroke; Intake Stroke or Induction: The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake
valve open and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the combustion
chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum. The resulting pressure differential through the intake
system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the inside causes air to be
pushed into the cylinder. As the air passes through the intake system, fuel is added to it in the
desired amount by means of fuel injectors or a carburetor.
2. Second Stroke; Compression Stroke: When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and
the piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel mixture, raising
both the pressure and temperature in the cylinder. The finite time required to close the intake valve
means that actual compression doesn't start until sometime aBDC. Near the end of the compression
stroke, the spark plug is fired and combustion is initiated.
3. Combustion: Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length of time
with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume combustion). It starts near the end of the
compression stroke slightly bTDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly aTDC. Combustion
changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust products and increases the
temperature in the cylinder to a very high peak value. This, in turn, raises the pressure in the
cylinder to a very high peak value.
4. Third Stroke; Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke: With all valves closed, the high pressure
created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which
produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder
volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop.
5. Exhaust Blowdown: Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust blow down
occurs. Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings at this
point, and a pressure differential is created through the exhaust system which is open to
atmospheric pressure. This pressure differential causes much of the hot exhaust gas to be pushed
 out of the cylinder and through the exhaust system when the piston is near BDC. This exhaust gas
carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers the cycle thermal efficiency. Opening the
exhaust valve before BDC reduces the work obtained during the power stroke but is required
because of the finite time needed for exhaust blowdown.
6. Fourth Stroke; Exhaust Stroke: By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is
complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure. With
the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in the exhaust stroke.
This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust system at
about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance volume when the piston
reaches TDC. Near the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC, the intake valve starts to open, so that it is
fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke starts the next cycle. Near TDC the exhaust valve
starts to close and finally is fully closed sometime aTDC. This period when both the intake valve
and exhaust valve are open is called valve overlap.

Four-stroke SI engine: a) Intake stroke, b) Compression stroke, c) Combustion at almost constant

volume neat TDC, d) Power or Expansion stroke, e) Exhaust blowdown, f) Exhaust stroke
4.2.2 Two-Stroke SI Engine
1. Combustion: With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the temperature and
pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume.
2. First Stroke; Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke: Very high pressure created by the combustion
process forces the piston down in the power stroke. The expanding volume of the combustion
chamber causes pressure and temperature to decrease as the piston travels towards BDC.
3. Exhaust Blowdown: At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and blowdown occurs. The
exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot in the side of the
cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC. After blowdown the cylinder remains
filled with exhaust gas at lower pressure.
4. Intake and Scavenging: When blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50° bBDC, the intake slot on
the side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel enters under pressure. Fuel is added to the
air with either a carburetor or fuel injection. This incoming mixture pushes much of the remaining
exhaust gases out the open exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible air-fuel mixture, a
process called scavenging. The piston passes BDC and very quickly covers the intake port and then
the exhaust port (or the exhaust valve closes). The higher pressure at which the air enters the
cylinder is established in one of two ways. Large two-stroke cycle engines generally have a
supercharger, while small engines will intake the air through the crankcase. On these engines the
crankcase is designed to serve as a compressor in addition to serving its normal function.
5. Second Stroke; Compression Stroke: With all valves (or ports) closed, the piston travels towards
TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture to a higher pressure and temperature. Near the end of the
 compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the time the piston gets to IDC, combustion occurs
and the next engine cycle begins.

Two stroke SI engine: a) Power or expansion stroke, b) Exhaust blowdown, c) Cylinder scavenging,
d) Compression stroke, e) Combustion at almost constant volume near TDC

4.3 OPERATIONS OF COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES

4.3.1 Four-Stroke CI Engine
1. First Stroke; Intake Stroke: The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with one major
difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air. Only air is inducted into the cylinder
2. Second Stroke; Compression Stroke: The same as in an SI engine except that only air is
compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature. Late in the compression
stroke fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, where it mixes with the very hot air.
This causes the fuel to evaporate and self-ignite, causing combustion to start.
3. Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant pressure
until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.
4. Third Stroke; Power Stroke: The power stroke continues as combustion ends and the piston travels
towards BDC.

5. Exhaust Blowdown: Same as with an SI engine.

6. Fourth Stroke; Exhaust Stroke: Same as with an SI engine.

4.3.2 Two-Stroke CI Engine

The two-stroke cycle for a CI engine is similar to that of the SI engine, except for two changes. No fuel
is added to the incoming air, so that compression is done on air only. Instead of a spark plug, a fuel
injector is located in the cylinder. Near the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the hot
compressed air and combustion is initiated by self-ignition.

4.3.3 Comparison of four-stroke and two-stroke engine:

Four-stroke engine Two-stroke engine
1 Four stroke of the piston and two Two stroke of the piston and one
revolution of crankshaft revolution of crankshaft
2 One power stroke in every two revolution One power stroke in each revolution of
of crankshaft crankshaft
3 Heavier flywheel due to non-uniform Lighter flywheel due to more uniform
turning movement turning movement
4 Power produced is less Theoretically power produced is twice
than the 4-stroke engine for same size
5 Heavy and bulky Light and compact
6 Lesser cooling and lubrication Greater cooling and lubrication
requirements requirements
7 Lesser rate of wear and tear Higher rate of wear and tear
8 Contains valve and valve mechanism Contains ports arrangement
9 Higher initial cost Cheaper initial cost
10 Volumetric efficiency is more due to greater Volumetric efficiency less due to lesser
time of induction time of induction
11 Thermal efficiency is high and also part Thermal efficiency is low, part load
load efficiency better efficiency lesser
12 It is used where efficiency is important. It is used where low cost, compactness
and light weight are important.
Examples – cars, buses, trucks, tractors, Examples – lawn mowers, scooters,
industrial engines, aero planes, power motor cycles, mopeds, propulsion ship
generation etc. etc.

4.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TWO STROKE CYCLE OVER FOUR

STROKE CYCLE
4.4.1 Advantages:
1. The two-stroke cycle engine gives one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft.
Hence theoretically the power developed for the same engine speed and cylinder volume is
twice that of the four-stroke cycle engine, which gives only one working stroke for every two
revolutions of the crankshaft. However, in practice, because of poor scavenging, only 50-60%
extra power is developed.
2. Due to one working stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft, the turning moment on the
crankshaft is more uniform. Therefore, a two-stroke engine requires a lighter flywheel.
3. The two-stroke engine is simpler in construction. The design of its ports is much simpler and
their maintenance easier than that of the valve mechanism.
4. The power required to overcome frictional resistance of the suction and exhaust strokes is saved,
resulting in some economy of fuel.
5. Owing to the absence of the cam, camshaft, rockers, etc. of the valve mechanism, the
mechanical efficiency is higher.
6. The two-stroke engine gives fewer oscillations.
7. For the same power, a two-stroke engine is more compact and requires less space than a four-
stroke cycle engine. This makes it more suitable for use in small machines and motorcycles.
 8. A two-stroke engine is lighter in weight for the same power and speed especially when the
crankcase compression is used.
9. Due to its simpler design, it requires fewer spare parts.
10. A two-stroke cycle engine can be easily reversed if it is of the valve less type.
4.4.2 Disadvantages:
1. The scavenging being not very efficient in a two-stroke engine, the dilution of the charges takes
place which results in poor thermal efficiency.
2. The two-stroke spark ignition engines do not have a separate lubrication system and normally,
lubricating oil is mixed with the fuel. This is not as effective as the lubrication of a four-stroke
engine. Therefore, the parts of the two-stroke engine are subjected to greater wear and tear.
3. In a spark ignition two-stroke engine, some of the fuel passes directly to the exhaust. Hence, the
fuel consumption per horsepower is comparatively higher.
4. With heavy loads a two-stroke engine gets heated up due to the excessive heat produced. At the
same time the running of the engine is riot very smooth at light loads.
5. It consumes more lubricating oil because of the greater amount of heat generated.
6. Since the ports remain open during the upward stroke, the actual compression starts only after
both the inlet and exhaust ports have been closed. Hence, the compression ratio of this engine is
lower than that of a four-stroke engine of the same dimensions. As the efficiency of an engine is
directly proportional to its compression ratio, the efficiency of a two-stroke cycle engine is
lower than that of a four-stroke cycle engine of the same size

4.5 COMPARISON BETWEEN SI ENGINE AND CI ENGINE

SI engine CI engine
1 Working cycle is Otto cycle. Working cycle is diesel cycle.
2 Petrol or gasoline or high octane fuel is used. Diesel or high cetane fuel is used.
3 High self-ignition temperature. Low self-ignition temperature.
4 Fuel and air introduced as a gaseous mixture Fuel is injected directly into the
in the suction stroke. combustion chamber at high pressure at
the end of compression stroke.
5 Carburettor used to provide the mixture. Injector and high pressure pump used to
Throttle controls the quantity of mixture supply of fuel. Quantity of fuel regulated
introduced. in pump.
6 Use of spark plug for ignition system Self-ignition by the compression of air
which increased the temperature
required for combustion
7 Compression ratio is 6 to 10.5 Compression ratio is 14 to 22
8 Higher maximum RPM due to lower weight Lower maximum RPM
9 Maximum efficiency lower due to lower Higher maximum efficiency due to
compression ratio higher compression ratio
10 Lighter Heavier due to higher pressures
4.6 VALVE TIMING DIAGRAMS
The exact moment at which the inlet and outlet valve opens and closes with reference to the position of
the piston and crank shown diagrammatically is known as valve timing diagram. It is expressed in terms
of degree crank angle.
The theoretical valve timing diagram is shown
in the diagram beside. Inlet valve opens exactly
at TDC as the induction stroke begins and
closes exactly at BDC as the compression
stroke begins. Exhaust valve opens exactly at
BDC as the exhaust stoke begins and closes as
the induction starts at TDC

But actual valve timing diagram is different from theoretical due to two factors-mechanical and
dynamic factors.
4.6.1 Terms Used
1. Lead
Advance time of the inlet and exhaust valves opening before TDC and BDC respectively
2. Lag
Delay time of the inlet and exhaust valve closing after BDC and TDC respectively
3. Overlap
The period within which both valves are open. The opening of the inlet valve before top dead centre on
the exhaust stroke, and the closing of the exhaust valve after top dead centre on the induction stroke,
result in a period when both valves are either partially or fully open. The superimposing of that part of
the valve periods where the inlet valve opens before the exhaust valve closes is termed the valve overlap
The intake valve is opened before the exhaust gases have completely left the cylinder, and their
considerable velocity assists in drawing in the fresh charge. Engine designers aim to close the exhaust
valve just as the fresh charge from the intake valve reaches it, to prevent either loss of fresh charge or
unscavenged exhaust gas.

General outlook of a timing diagram

4.4.2 Timing Diagrams for Petrol Engines

4.4.2.1 Four-stroke Engines
For convenience of expression the opening and closing points of the valves have traditionally been
shown in the form of a valve timing diagram (Figure 1.121c), although the trend in present-day service
manuals is merely to tabulate this data, or simply to quote the number of degrees before top dead centre
when the inlet valve begins to open.

Typical valve timing diagram for 4-stroke for Typical valve timing diagram for 4-stroke for high
medium performance petrol engine performance petrol engine

Description – Inlet Valve (I.V.)

• The inlet valve is given a lead in opening before the piston reaches TDC on the exhaust stroke,
so that least resistance is offered to the incoming flow of air and petrol mixture as the piston
begins its induction stroke.
• The lead facilitates silent operation of the engine at high speed and also increases volumetric
efficiency.
• It is also provided with a lag in closing after the piston reaches BDC and is beginning the
compression stroke, so as to take advantage of the reluctance of the incoming mixture to cease
flowing as the piston ends its induction stroke – ram effect
• The maximum amount of air and petrol mixture is therefore induced to enter the cylinder, upon
which depends the power developed by the engine.

Description – Exhaust Valve (E.V.)

• The EV is given a lead in opening before the piston reaches BDC on the power stroke, so that
the burnt gases can leave the cylinder under their own pressure as the piston begins its exhaust
stroke thus reducing work
• At the end of expansion stroke, the pressure inside the chamber is high, hence work to expel out
the gases increases. Therefore the lead enables the engine to expend less energy on expelling the
gases than would otherwise be the case.
• The EV is also provided with a lag in closing after the piston reaches TDC and is beginning the
induction stroke to avoid the compression of burnt gases
• This not only better scavenges the combustion chamber of exhaust gases, but also lowers the
cylinder pressure to facilitate flow of the incoming air and fuel mixture

4.4.2.2 Two-stroke petrol engine

The port timing of a two-stroke petrol engine is determined by considerations similar to those affecting
the valve timing of a four-stroke unit. That is, the port timing must take into account the time lapse
before the ports are either fully uncovered or fully covered, and also the inertia effects of the incoming
and outgoing flows of the crankcase and the cylinder gases.
In order to avoid dilution of the crankcase charge, the exhaust port is uncovered at about 15° of
crankshaft angularity in advance of the transfer port, so that the latter remains covered until the cylinder
pressure drops below that existing in the crankcase. This is generally referred to as the blow-down
period in the two-stroke engine. However, as a consequence of symmetrical port timing, this lead in
exhaust port opening conversely becomes a lag in closing

4.4.3 Timing Diagrams for Diesel Engines

4.4.3.1 Four-Stroke diesel Engine
As in the case of the four-stroke petrol engine, the timing for the opening and closing of the inlet and
the exhaust valves departs from the basic four-stroke operating cycle. The valve timing values may
similarly be presented in the form of a diagram.
A critical factor lies in the choice of value for the inlet valve lag, so that the all-important pressure
energy generated during the compression stroke is always at a maximum. More specifically, the inlet
valve must neither close too late, which could be detrimental to easy starting of the engine, nor close too
early, which could detract from maximum performance.
The value of the exhaust valve lead is generally less critical with respect to diesel engine performance,
because of the lower operating speeds.
For turbocharged diesel engines a valve timing with an increased degree of overlap is generally
specified so that, with the earlier opening of the inlet and the later closing of the exhaust valves, the
pressurized charge of air can be utilized for more efficient scavenging of the exhaust gases.

Typical valve timing diagrams for four-stroke diesel engines: (a) commercial vehicle, medium speed (b)
passenger car, high speed
 TOPIC 5

5.0 MULTICYLINDER ENGINE ARRANGEMENTS

Every new engine must be designed with a specific type of service in view, which then determines its
general characteristics. Important among these for the car is smooth and efficient operation over a wide
range of speeds and loads.
Once the displacement and number of cylinders have been decided in relation to the required
performance characteristics of a new engine, the next consideration is how the cylinders are to be
arranged. In cars they may be arranged in three different ways, each with its own advantages and
disadvantages.

5.1 In-line cylinders

In this arrangement all the cylinders are mounted in a straight line along the crankcase, which confers a
degree of mechanical simplicity. Such engines are now produced with any number of cylinders from
two to six, with four cylinders continuing to represent a very widely used cylinder arrangement and the
single bank of cylinders may be contained in either a vertical or an inclined plane. The latter type is
sometimes referred to as a sloper or slant engine.

5.2 Horizontally opposed cylinders

Horizontally opposed engines have their cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two opposite banks and
are sometimes to as flat or boxer engines. They are typically produced in two-, four- and six-cylinder
versions.
The main advantages usually claimed for them include inherently good balance of the reciprocating
parts, a low centre of gravity, which contributes to car stability, and a short engine structure. It is the
latter feature that makes this arrangement of cylinders particularly suitable both for front-wheel-drive
and rear-engined cars, since the engine can be mounted either ahead of or behind the driven wheels with
the minimum of overhang. By virtue of its low overall height, the horizontally opposed engine can
readily allow a sloping bonnet line in front-engined cars and also provide additional space for stowing
luggage above it in rear-engined cars. Furthermore, it lends itself admirably to air cooling because with
an in-line cylinder arrangement it is difficult to get the rear cylinders to run as cool as the front ones,
unless the engine is installed transversely.
The disadvantages associated with horizontally opposed cylinders include the need for lengthy intake
manifolds if a central carburettor is used, the duplication of coolant inlet and outlet connections in the
case of liquid cooling, and much reduced accessibility for the cylinder heads and valve mechanism. Its
greater width can also impose restrictions on the available steering movements of the wheels.

5.3 V-formation cylinders

With V engines the cylinders are mounted on the crankcase in two banks set at either a right angle or an
acute angle to each other. They may be produced in four-, six-, eight- and occasionally twelve-cylinder
versions. Where a V cylinder arrangement has been adopted in preference to mounting the cylinders in
line, it has usually been in the interests of providing a more compact and less heavy engine.
In particular, the overall length of the engine can be appreciably reduced, so that both the structure and
the crankshaft can be made more rigid. The former is thus better able to accept greater combustion loads
and the latter is less prone to torsional vibrations. For typically large-displacement V engines, the
inherently wider cylinder spacings ensure adequate size of coolant passages, both around the cylinder
walls and in the hot exhaust valve regions in the cylinder heads
The main disadvantage of the V cylinder arrangement is that it is generally more difficult to balance and
also demands a more elaborate intake manifold from a central carburettor or a single-point fuel injection
system.
 5.4. W-formation cylinders
A more recent development has been the ‘double-V’ or ‘W’ cylinder engine, introduced in eight-,
twelve- and sixteen-cylinder versions by the Volkswagen group. Basically the W engine, as it is now
generally known, comprises two wide-angle cylinder banks, each of which incorporates two offset rows
of cylinders inclined at a much narrower angle

EAMPLES OF PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Describe a procedure for overhauling a conventional motor vehicle engine

2. Describe a typical procedure for:

i) Dismantling a conventional engine.
ii) Reassembling a conventional engine that had been disassembled and the parts
are lying on the working table

3. Describe a typical procedure for conducting inspection and repair on the following
engine parts:
a) Piston and piston rings
b) Camshaft
c) Crankshaft
d) Engine block
e) Etc.

4. Explain the various precautions a mechanic should observe when fitting the cylinder
head

5. Describe typical procedures for performing the following:

a) Valve seat grinding
b) Valve lapping

6. One of the methods for correctly setting valve tappet clearances is by adding one to the
total number of valves. Write down a typical sequence that a mechanic should follow
when setting the clearances for tappets for a typical 4-cylinder 2-valve engine to ensure
accuracy.
7. Describe a typical procedure for
i) Removing the engine timing belt
ii) Installing the timing belt
iii) Inspecting the timing belt
8. Describe a typical procedure for:
i) Removing and re-installing a cylinder head
ii) Removing and reinstalling a crankshaft
iii) Removing and reinstalling a piston
iv) Removal and reinstallation of rocker arm assembly
v) Etc.