A Chemistry Guide

Unit
one
Atomic Structure and Properties
 Unit 1 Atomic Structure and Properties
1: Moles and Molar Mass
Moles are counting units in chemistry. One mole of a substance contains 6.022x10²³ particles of any item. Since atoms
can't be counted, scientists measure them in other ways and then convert. One way is to measure the mass and use the
atomic or molar mass to convert into moles. The mass of one particle of a substance is given in amu (atomic mass units)
while the mass for one mole of the same substance is the same value in grams.
n
Mass moles number of particles
Molar Mass = Σ(# atomsi )x(atomic massi )
i=1 1 mole / # grams 6.022x10²³ particles / 1 mole
means "sum of" Found on periodic table
from the chemical formula

2: Mass Spectra of Elements

A mass spectrum shows different isotopes of an element by separating the sample based
56.3% on different masses (mass/charge ratio). It shows what percentage of the sample is each
37.5% mass, this is the percent abundance.
Height of peak (y axis)= % or relative abundance
x axis = mass (or mass:charge ratio)
6.25% You can calculate/estimate
n
the average atomic mass by taking a weighted average.
69 70 71 72 73 74 75 Average Atomic Mass = Σ(Fractional Abundancei )x(massi )
i=1
m/z

Pure substances can be : 3: Elemental Composition of Pure Substances

individual molecules (such as CO₂),
individual atoms (such as Zn) or
ions held together in a fixed proportion (such as NaCl) (called a formula unit).
The law of definite proportions states that the ratio of masses in a compound must always be the same.
A chemical formula with the lowest whole number ratio of the atoms is called the empirical formula.
You may see empirical formula from % composition and/or combustion analysis for problems in this
section.

4: Compositions of Mixtures
Mixtures contain molecules/formula units/elements of two or more types in different
proportions. n = m/M
Elemental analysis can be used to determine the composition of the mixture or the purity.
Typically this is found using the percentage or mass of different elements in a mixture. n = moles
You can sometimes see these questions as one that involve percent yield. m = Mass
Percent Yield = 100 x Experimental Yield M = molar mass
Theoretical Yield

AP Chemistry A Chemistry Guide

 5: Atomic Structure and Electron Configuration
Atoms are composed of a positively charged nucleus containing protons and neutrons with negatively charged electrons in orbitals.
Electrons can be thought of as being arranged into shells or energy levels and subshells. The outermost electrons are called valence
electrons and dictate the properties of the atom while the inner ones are called core electrons. The electron configurations are
determined by quantum mechanics. The Aufbau principle describes the order that electrons fill the atoms, lowest energy levels
first. The energy needed to remove an electron (ionization energy) can be predicted using Coulomb's Law using the distance and
the effective nuclear charge. 1s² 2s²2p⁶ 3s²3p⁶4s²3d¹⁰4p⁶... (Valence electrons are removed first when forming ions)

6: Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES)

Evidence to prove the electron configurations
predicted
by Quantum Mechanics
Height of peak indicates: # electrons in a suborbital
highest energy means 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s²3p³
Energy indicates: Distance from nucleus closest to nucleus
First to remove are: Valence electrons
Hardest to remove are: closest to the nucleus
(highest binding energy) 1000 100 10 1
Always read the x-axis!!! Binding Energy

7: Periodic Trends
Ionization Energy - The energy required to remove one electron from the ground state of a gaseous atom. Large jumps in IE indicate
that all valence electrons have been removed and core electrons are being removed. Highest 1st ionization energy is He. Increases to
top because electrons are closer to and have greater nuclear attraction. Additionally, there is less shielding. Increases to right because
the electrons are closer to the nucleus and because there are more protons, increasing the attraction and thus the energy needed to
overcome the attraction.
Atomic and Ionic Radii - The radii of an atom or ion. Largest atomic radius is Fr. Increases down the periodic table as there are more
electron shells. Decreases to the right as more protons are added and the nuclear attraction increases. Cations are smaller than the
atom of the same element, as valence electrons are lost. Anions are larger as there are more electrons but the same number of protons.
Electron Affinity - energy (generally) released when an electron is added to an atom. Trend has MANY exceptions. Generally increases
(releases the most energy) to the top and right of the periodic table, highest is Cl. Similar reasons as IE.
Electronegativity - pull on shared electrons. Increases to F. Reasons similar to atomic radii. Important to determine polarity.
Shielding is when inner electrons block some of the nuclear charge so the outer electrons "feel" less of the attractive force. Effective
Nuclear Charge is the amount of the positive charge felt by a given electron. Coulomb's law can be used to explain these trends.

8: Valence Electrons and Ionic Compounds

Valence electrons are in the outer most electron shell/orbital. They require the least energy to remove. They determine
Atomic Structure and Properties
many of the properties of an element. Thus, elements in the same column of the periodic table similar properties because
have the same number of valence electrons and thus typically form similarly charged ions.
The formula for compounds can be predicted if you know which column of the periodic table the element is located within.

Unit n = m/M
Coulomb's Law: Force ∝q₁q₂

One
r²
n = moles, m = Mass M = molar mass
q = charge, r = radius
 Review Do
Unit 1
Atomic Structure and Properties
A Chemistry Guide

1) How many atoms of copper were recovered in the sample? Report your
answer with significant figures

2) Calculate the percent by mass of copper recovered from the coin. Report your answer with significant figures.

3) Which element copper or zinc would have a higher first ionization energy? Justify your answer.

4) Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, was used to convert copper nitrate into copper hydroxide. If sodium hydroxide was unavailable, propose
another compound with the general formula XOH that may be substituted.
 5) The aufbau principle predicts that the electron configuration for Copper is 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶4s²3d⁹.
a) Does the abbreviated PES for copper support or refute this electron configuration? Justify your answer.
b) From which energy level (4s or 3d) will electrons be lost when this atom forms an ion? Explain
11
10
9
8
7

Intensity
6
5
4
3
2
1
10.7 7.69
10 1
Binding Energy (eV)

6) The other metal in the coin was analyzed and was found to have 5 isotopes as shown in the table below. Calculate the average atomic
mass for this element and determine the identity from the periodic table.

7) The accepted range for copper in these coins is typically between 40 % and 50%. One group reported results that
were 78%. Propose one experimental error that could have given these results.

8) Another group reported results that were 21%. Propose one experimental error that could have resulted in these results.

Unit 1: Atomic Structure and Properties A Chemistry Guide

F B He C N
Be N He H Li
Li O F He Be
N He Li B
Li B O H N
Li F
He O
O F N H He
C He Li B O

Brain Break
Move one match to make it true

Fill the beaker with bubbles

Finish the image

What’s Iron Man’s favorite amusement park ride? The ferrous wheel.
 Answer key
Review Do
Unit 1
Atomic Structure and Properties
A Chemistry Guide

1) How many atoms of copper were recovered in the sample? Report your
answer with significant figures

Mass of Cu = 2.01 g - 1.05 g = 0.96 g

0.96 g x 1 mole Cu x 6.022 x 10^23 atoms = 9.1 x 10 ^21 atoms Cu
63.546 g 1 mole Cu

2) Calculate the percent by mass of copper recovered from the coin. Report your answer with significant figures.

Mass of Coin = 3.25 g - 1.05 g = 2.20 g

0.96 g x 100 =44%
2.20 g

3) Which element copper or zinc would have a higher first ionization energy? Justify your answer.

Zinc would have a high first ionization energy. Zinc has more protons in the
nucleus and they have the same number of electron orbitals/electron shielding.
The effective nuclear charge on zinc is greater and thus the coulombic attraction
if greater. This results in a greater amount of energy required to remove an
electron.
4) Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, was used to convert copper nitrate into copper hydroxide. If sodium hydroxide was unavailable, propose
another compound with the general formula XOH that may be substituted.

Any alkali metal will work. LiOH, KOH etc.

 5) The aufbau principle predicts that the electron configuration for Copper is 1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶4s²3d⁹.
a) Does the abbreviated PES for copper support or refute this electron configuration? Justify your answer.
b) From which energy level (4s or 3d) will electrons be lost when this atom forms an ion? Explain
11
a) No, the PES does not support this electron 10
9
configuration. There are 10 3d electrons and only 1 4s 8
electron. The amended electron configuration would be 7

Intensity
6
[Ar] 4s¹3d¹⁰ 5

b) The electrons would be lost from the 4s orbital, they 4

3
require less energy to remove them and thus are lost 2
1
first. 10.7 7.69
10 1
Binding Energy (eV)

6) The other metal in the coin was analyzed and was found to have 5 isotopes as shown in the table below. Calculate the average atomic
mass for this element and determine the identity from the periodic table.

63.93 x (48.6/100) = 31.1

65.93 x (27.9/100) = 18.4
66.93 x (2.7/100) = 2.7
67.92 x (18.8/100) = 12.8
69.93 x (0.6/100) = 0.4
65.4 amu
the other metal is zinc.
7) The accepted range for copper in these coins is typically between 40 % and 50%. One group reported results that
were 78%. Propose one experimental error that could have given these results.

Answers will vary. For example: the sample wasn't completely dry when it was
weighed therefore the mass of the copper at the end included water.

8) Another group reported results that were 21%. Propose one experimental error that could have resulted in these results.

Answers will vary. For example: some of the metal was lost when filtering or was
not completely dissolved initially.

Unit 1: Atomic Structure and Properties A Chemistry Guide