Questions to be prepared for Interview

Function of fan in system / if it’s stopped how to solve this

Symptoms of Fan Failure

1. System continuously reboots and doesn't start unless the power button is pressed to reboot the system.
2. System occasionally reboots or crashes.
3. System stops booting completely.
4. Temperature of the system (chassis) is warm to hot
5. Noisy fan (grinding noises when fan spins, knocking, ticking, like a fan blade is hitting something).

Troubleshooting Fan Failure

These tips might help in the case of fan failure:

1. Check the power cord that is connected from the fan to the motherboard. Processor’s fan might be incorrectly installed.
2. Try plugging the fan heatsink cable into a different header on the motherboard.
3. Clean up the dust. When the system is used for a long time, sometimes in dry and hot conditions, the fan can accumulate
dust.
4. Check to see if the fan stopped working. Fans do have lifespans that may end when used for a long time. Poor quality fans
can also stop working.
5. Check to see if the fan is drawing air in the same direction as the overall system airflow.
6. Check to ensure the processor is properly installed in the system. The fan will start but will shut down shortly, causing the
system to shut down to protect the processors from the heat damage.
7. Check the hotspots of the chassis that are significantly warmer than the rest of the chassis air. Such areas can be created
by improper positioning of the exhaust fan, adapter cards, cables, or chassis brackets and subassemblies. These can block
the airflow within the system. To avoid hotspots:
o Place exhaust fans as needed.
o Re-position full-length adapter cards or use half-length cards.
o Reroute and tie cables.
o Ensure space is provided around and over the processor
8. Try using another working fan if you have one.

BIOS

BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a computer's microprocessor uses to start the computer system after it is powered
on. It also manages data flow between the computer's operating system (OS) and attached devices, such as the hard disk, video
adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.

Uses of BIOS

The main use of BIOS is to act as a middleman between OSes and the hardware they run on. BIOS is theoretically always the
intermediary between the microprocessor and I/O device control information and data flow. Although, in some cases, BIOS can
arrange for data to flow directly to memory from devices, such as video cards, that require faster data flow to be effective.

How does BIOS work?

BIOS comes included with computers, as firmware on a chip on the motherboard. In contrast, an OS like Windows or iOS can
either be pre-installed by the manufacturer or vendor or installed by the user. BIOS is a program that is made accessible to the
microprocessor on an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) chip. When users turn on their computer, the
microprocessor passes control to the BIOS program, which is always located at the same place on EPROM.

When BIOS boots up a computer, it first determines whether all of the necessary attachments are in place and operational. Any
piece of hardware containing files the computer needs to start is called a boot device. After testing and ensuring boot devices are
functioning, BIOS loads the OS -- or key parts of it -- into the computer's random access memory (RAM) from a hard disk or
diskette drive (the boot device).

The 4 functions of BIOS

BIOS identifies, configures, tests and connects computer hardware to the OS immediately after a computer is turned on. The
combination of these steps is called the boot process.

These tasks are each carried out by BIOS' four main functions:

1. Power-on self-test (POST). This tests the hardware of the computer before loading the OS.

2. Bootstrap loader. This locates the OS.

3. Software/drivers. This locates the software and drivers that interface with the OS once running.

4. Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) setup. This is a configuration program that enable users to alter
hardware and system settings. CMOS is the name of BIOS' non-volatile memory.

Accessing BIOS

With BIOS, the OS and its applications are freed from having to understand exact details, such as computer hardware addresses,
about the attached I/O devices. When device details change, only the BIOS program needs to be changed. Sometimes, this
change can be made during system setup.

Users can access BIOS and configure it through BIOS Setup Utility. Accessing BIOS Setup Utility varies somewhat depending on
the computer being used. However, the following steps generally enable users to access and configure BIOS through Setup Utility:

 Reset or power off the computer.

 When the computer turns back on, look for a message that says "entering setup" or something similar. Accompanying
that message will be a key that the user should press to enter system configuration. Here's an example message a user
might see: "Press [key] to enter BIOS setup." Some keys often used as prompts are Del, Tab, Esc and any of the
function keys (F1-F12).

 Upon seeing the prompt, quickly press the key specified.

Once in BIOS Setup Utility, users can change hardware settings, manage memory settings, change the boot order or boot device,
and reset the BIOS password, among other configuration tasks.

BIOS security

BIOS security is a somewhat overlooked component of cybersecurity; however, it should still be managed to prevent hackers from
executing malicious code on the OS. Security group Cylance, in 2017, showed how modern BIOS security flaws could enable
ransomware programs inside a motherboard's UEFI and exploit other PC BIOS vulnerabilities.

Another unique exploit involving the manipulation of BIOS was Plundervolt. Plundervolt could be used to mess with a computer's
power supply at the time data was being written to memory, causing errors that lead to security gaps. Intel released a BIOS patch
to defend against it.

BSOD
What is Bsod and how to fix it?

The BSOD is a warning you see when your computer interrupts operations and displays this warning on a blue screen. Officially,
it’s called a “Stop error.” The warning informs you of a critical issue that’s forcing Windows to reboot. Before rebooting, Windows
usually saves a “minidump” file on your computer, carrying data about the error. To fix BSOD, it's best to get your device checked
for software and hardware issues.

What is the main cause of BSOD?

It can be anything from hardware issue to a virus, overheating and a bigger malware exposure. Get your computer check in case of
BSOD.

OP devices/Input devices/ I/P devices:-

what is an input and output (IO) device?

An input/output (I/O) device is any hardware used by a human operator or other systems to communicate with a computer. As the
name suggests, input/output devices are capable of sending data (output) to a computer and receiving data from a computer
(input).

Input devices allow users to interact with a computer by providing data or commands. Some common input devices include
keyboards, mice, microphones, webcams, and scanners.

Output devices allow users to see, hear, or otherwise perceive the results of the computer's processing. Some common output
devices include monitors, printers, speakers, and headphones.

I/O devices are essential for the operation of any computer system. They allow users to interact with the computer and provide the
computer with the data it needs to function.

CMOS- Central Memory Allocation System

What Is CMOS and What Is It For?
CMOS (short for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) is the term usually used to describe the small amount of memory
on a computer motherboard that stores the BIOS settings. Some of these BIOS settings include the system time and date as well
as hardware settings.

A CMOS sensor is different—it's used by digital cameras to convert images into digital data.

Other Names for CMOS CMOS (pronounced see-moss) is sometimes referred to as Real-Time Clock (RTC), CMOS RAM, Non-
Volatile RAM (NVRAM), Non-Volatile BIOS memory, or complementary-symmetry metal-oxide-semiconductor (COSMOS).

CMOS is also an abbreviation for other terms that are unrelated to what's talked about on this page, like cellular management
operation system and comparison mean opinion score.
Clearing CMOS Most talk of CMOS involves clearing CMOS, which means to reset the BIOS settings to their default levels. This is
a really easy task that's a great troubleshooting step for many types of computer problems.
For example, maybe your computer is freezing up during the POST, in which case clearing the CMOS to reset the BIOS settings to
factory default levels, might be the easiest solution. Or maybe you need to clear CMOS to reset misconfigured BIOS settings to fix
certain hardware-related error messages, such as Code 29 errors.
Other CMOS errors revolve around low battery voltage, CMOS checksum, battery failure, and read error.
How BIOS and CMOS Work Together
The BIOS is a computer chip on the motherboard like CMOS except that its purpose is to communicate between the processor and
other hardware components like the hard drive, USB ports, sound card, video card, and more. A computer without a BIOS wouldn't
understand how these pieces of the computer work together. The BIOS firmware is also what performs the Power On Self Test to
test those pieces of hardware, and what ultimately runs the boot loader to launch the operating system.

What Is the BIOS?

CMOS is also a computer chip on the motherboard, or more specifically a RAM chip, which means it would normally lose the
settings it's storing when the computer is shut down (just like how the contents of RAM aren't maintained each time you restart your
computer). However, the CMOS battery is used to provide constant power to the chip. When the computer first boots up, BIOS pulls
information from the CMOS chip to understand the hardware settings, time, and anything else that's stored in it. The chip typically
stores as little as 256 bytes of information.

What Is a CMOS Battery?

The CMOS is usually powered by a coin-sized CR2032 cell battery, referred to as the CMOS battery. Most CMOS batteries will last
the lifetime of a motherboard, up to 10 years in most cases, but will sometimes need to be replaced depending on how the device is
being used.
Incorrect or slow system date and time, and loss of BIOS settings, are major signs of a dead or dying CMOS battery. Replacing
them is as easy as swapping out the dead one for a new one. More About CMOS & CMOS Batteries
While most motherboards have a spot for a CMOS battery, some smaller computers, like many tablets and laptops, have a small
external compartment for the CMOS battery that connects to the motherboard via two small wires.
Some devices that use CMOS include microprocessors, microcontrollers, and static RAM (SRAM). It's important to understand that
CMOS and BIOS are not interchangeable terms for the same thing. While they work together for a specific function within the
computer, they are two entirely different components. When the computer is first starting up, there's an option to boot into BIOS or
CMOS.

Opening the CMOS setup is how you can change the settings it's storing, like the date and time and how the different computer
components are first started up. You can also use CMOS setup to disable/enable some hardware devices. CMOS chips are
desirable for battery-powered devices like laptops because they use less power than other types of chips. Although they use both
negative polarity circuits and positive polarity circuits (NMOS and PMOS), only one circuit type is powered on at a time. The Mac
equivalent to CMOS is PRAM, which stands for Parameter RAM. You can also reset your Mac's PRAM.
IP

OP devices
Primary and secondary storage devices:-
Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory – Comparison Table
Primary memory is used for temporarily storing data that is actively being used by the computer's CPU, while secondary memory
(storage) is used for long-term data storage, such as files and programs that are not currently in use. Listed below are some other
primary and secondary memory differences.

Comparison
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
Parameters

Primary memory is the main

Secondary memory is the external memory and
Storage validity memory and stores data
stores data permanently.
temporarily.

The CPU can directly access the

Access The CPU cannot directly access the data.
data.

Primary memory is volatile. It loses Secondary memory is non-volatile; data is stored

Volatility
data in case of a power outage. even during a power failure.

Data is stored inside costly Data is stored on external hardware devices like hard
Storage
semiconductor chips. drives, floppy disks, etc.

They do not have such a classification. Secondary

It can be divided into RAM and
Division memories are permanent storage devices like CDs,
ROM
DVDs, etc.

Speed Faster Slower

It saves the data that the computer It can save various types of data in various formats
Stored data
is currently using. and huge sizes.

What is Primary Memory?

Primary memory is a computer system's internal memory. It stores and retrieves data, instructions, and information. The CPU
directly and randomly accesses primary memory, also called Random Access Memory (RAM). Primary memory is volatile and
loses data and instructions when the power turns off.

Types of Primary Memory:

RAM (Random Access Memory)

Random Access Memory, or RAM, is usually provided as the computer system’s main memory. It is also regarded as temporary or
cache memory constantly being written to and read. Information saved in primary memory will be lost when the computer or
laptop's power supply turns off. Simply put, RAM is a primary memory from which you can only read information.

ROM (Read-Only Memory)

ROM is a non-volatile memory containing data that we cannot change. In this case, information is not lost when the power supply is
turned off. The computer manufacturer determines ROM information. It is permanently stored at the time of manufacture so that the
user cannot overwrite it.

Primary Memory Characteristics

 The computer cannot function without primary memory.
  Primary memory is also known as the main memory.
 You may lose data in case the power is off
 Also known as volatile memory
 It is the working memory of the computer.
 It is faster as compared to secondary memory.
 Examples: RAM, ROM, cache, PROM, EPROM, registers, etc.

What is Secondary Memory?

Secondary memory is a permanent storage device that the CPU cannot access directly.
The CPU accesses these devices through an input/output channel. Data is first transferred to primary from secondary storage
before its assessment. Modern computers often use hard drives and optical storage devices (CDs, DVDs) as secondary storage
devices.
A secondary storage device organizes data into files and directories based on a file system. It also allows the user to access or use
additional information like access permissions, owner, last access time, etc. Also, secondary memory keeps less used data
temporarily when primary memory gets full.
Secondary memory devices are less expensive and can store vast amounts of data, audio, video, and multimedia files.
Organizations can store the equivalent of a roomful of data on disks that consume dramatically and significantly less physical
space.
Types of Secondary Memory
 Solid-state storage devices, such as USB memory sticks.

 Optical storage devices, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.

 Examples: Magnetic storage devices include zip, floppy, and hard disk drives.
Secondary Memory Characteristics
 These are magnetic and optical memories.

 It is a type of non-volatile memory.

 Data is permanently stored even when the computer is turned off
 It helps store data on a computer
 The computer can function without secondary memory
 Slower than primary memory
 Examples: magnetic tapes, optical discs, floppy disks, flash memory [USB drives], paper tape, punched cards, etc.
Causes of BSOD

What causes the blue screen of Death?

Blue Screen of Death(BSOD) can be occurred due to several reasons related to the operating system.
Some of the related and common main reasons or causes for Blue Screen of Death are:
 Hardware malfunctioning can cause this error
 Faulty memory
 Improper written device drives
 Components getting overheated
 Hardware crossing the limits of specifications
 Lack of memory protection
 Overcrowded memory
 Errors in the software of the system
 Not updating the hardware program can cause stop errors
 Improper installation of any hardware program
 Hardware changes that you made didn’t register which can cause blue screen
 Issues regarding power supplies
 Blue Screen of Death in Windows 9X era can be caused due to bugs or incompatible DLLs in the kernel operating
system.

Fixes for Blue Screen of Death

The blue screen of death is caused due to system failure. To fix it, firstly you need to find out the possible reason and then go for a
relatable solution. The blue screen of death can be caused either by an error in software or default in hardware, or sometimes it can
also be caused due to the mistake of a user.

Fixing the blue screen of death is caused by software errors

Most of the common reasons for the blue screen of death is usually due to software programming errors.
 Sometimes the software is not compatible with the updated Windows version and if the troubleshooting gives you a hint
that the cause of the error might be due to the updated software program. In this case, try installing the version of the
software which is compatible with your Windows system. If your program is already updated then reinstall it and go for a
clean version of your software program.
 Even after updating and reinstalling the software doesn’t work, then a better option is to change the software program
and install a new one.
 List down all the error warnings that you got before which could help you find the particular defected area.
 Make sure that the internal storage of your device is not full and there is ample space.
 Uninstall any additional app that is unnecessary.
 Go for startup repairs. The startup repair is already installed in your system then restart the system and wait till works.
And if the startup repair is not pre-installed then go for the inbuilt startup repair in your computer and restart.
 Check out the antivirus protection program in your system. Some kind of viruses can interrupt the system settings and
can lead to system crashing.
 Uninstall the updates because it can also cause errors and then restart the computer using advanced startup.

Fixing Blue Screen Error if caused by hardware errors

After checking out all the software program for errors, but still, the problem is not solved then go for hardware. In most cases,
hardware’s are not the cause behind the Blue Screen.
 Test the hardware in order to get to the root of the error. Find out any damaged pieces in hardware and upon finding
one, then replace that particular part.
 Check out the memory and hard drive. If there is an error in it, then fix it.
 Avoid all unnecessary hardware in your PC.
 Start your device with minimum hardware and if it works then the removed hardware will be the culprit for the system
failure.
 Like software, make sure that the hardware is compatible with the Microsoft Windows version of your computer.
If the hardware you are using is old and outdated, not working, then the best option is to replace it. Hardware devices might be
costly, but it’s an effective remedy in most of the system crashes and even for Blue Screen of Death.
 Update the firmware.
Even after following all the steps in your troubleshooting list, don’t try anything else if you do not have much knowledge about it as it
will mess up with your system programs. Don’t take any rash steps in a hurry. If you are not able to fix MN, then it’s better to ask
the help of experts for a better and reliable solution.

No post(caused & fix fit)

Firmware & Types of firmware.
Firmware is a small software that is written to Hardware devices in non-volatile memory. Firmware software programs cannot be
changed and they won’t be erased when there is no power supply. But in the case of software whenever a programmer wants to
change or delete the software code or program it surely can be done. The programmer can Install and delete the software at any
point in time. On the other hand, Firmware, let’s say BIOS which is an example of firmware present in the CMOS chip. It won’t be
erased after the manufacturers of the system write it. BIOS helps the system to boot up and which is present in Non-Volatile
memory. RAM is volatile so this type of firmware is stored in non-volatile so it won’t be erased. There are many types of memory
storage which is capable of storing data and not allows to edit or deleting.
Non-volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory store firmware. These non-volatile memory
devices contain instructions that allow computers and other systems to boot up, to run the software.
 ROM (Read-Only Memory):
 ROM is not the same as volatile RAM. Because ROM is non-volatile, the contents of ROM will remain after you turn off
your computer.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory):
 A type of computer memory that retains its content when the power is turned off. It is the same as ROM but it can be
erased and used for another program.
 EEROM (Electrically Erasable Read-Only Memory):
 The abbreviation of EEROM is. Entire data can be deleted from it by using suitable electric signals. After deleting the
whole data we can use it and write another program.
 It can be erased and reprogrammed 100 times without damaging any device and without decreasing its performance.
 Flash memory: Flash memory is an electrically erasable and reprogrammable non-volatile electronic computer memory
storage medium.

History of Firmware:

Early days, every firmware was written in ROM (Read only memory). The problem raised to systems when that firmware gets
outdated and there was no option to update it because of the program of firmware written in ROM. So afterward firmware has now
started written on EPROM, EEROM which can be erased and reprogrammed. But another problem was there. These storage
devices are too expensive. Then cheap memory storage flash memory is used for writing the firmware.

Types of Firmware:

There are two types of firmware that can be serviced:

 System firmware: By controlling the flow of instructions and data between the hardware and software components,
system firmware is responsible for providing critical boot and runtime services to the system as a whole. As a result,
system firmware manages a device’s core functions such as hardware initialization, system configuration, and power
management.
 Device firmware: Device firmware is associated with a particular device integrated into a system. A firmware update is a
software program that can be used to update the firmware in these devices. Firmware updates can be used to improve
the device’s performance, reliability, and security.
For example, a user could download a firmware update for a network router that enhances its capabilities or fixes an issue.
Firmware updates are available from hardware manufacturers. ice firmware is associated with a particular device integrated into a
system.

EEPROM- Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory

EEPROM is Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, it is a non-volatile memory chip, used in computers,
microcontrollers, and remote systems. It allows small bytes of data to be stored, erased, and reprogrammed. This article covers
everything about Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, also called EEPROM. This article covers the necessary
reason for the invention of EEPROM and the different memory interfaces of EEPROM.

Origin of EEPROM

EEPROM was developed from the standard technology of EPROM, which is most widely used in the late 1970s. Data is stored in
EPROM memory chips, which is mostly machine software; it is later erased by exposing the chip to UV light if the software needs to
be changed. This erasing process nearly takes an hour, and this was acceptable for development environments. These memories
could not be erased electrically, and an electrical arrangement to erase these memories would be more convenient.

In 1983, Intel developed a technology, modifying the existing technology EPROM. With the same attributes of EPROM, EEPROM is
developed in which memory can be erased and written again electrically. The first EEPROM device to be launched was Intel 2816.

Later many experienced EEPROM developers from Intel dropped and started their own company named Seeq.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

EEPROM is a type of semiconductor chip, which is a non-volatile memory used to store small data. These stored data can be
erased and reprogrammed. To erase data, high voltage is required and EEPROMs produced back then, required high voltage.

To those who have experience with RAM, EEPROM is much slower compared to it, while erasing and writing. So, the data is stored
in EEPROM memory, such that it does not affect the operation of the overall system. In EEPROM the erase and write operations
are done on a byte per-byte basis. EEPROM uses the same technology used by EPROM memory. Even though the memory cell
configuration differs, the basic idea behind every memory cell is similar.

The memory cell has two transistors that are field effective:

· Storage transistor

· Access transistor

Storage transistor:

A storage transistor is also called a floating gate. Electrons are stored in this gate, the number of electrons that are present or
absent in this gate determines the data that has been stored.

Access transistor:

Access transistor takes care of operational aspects of the memory cell.

EEPROM’s serial and parallel interface

EEPROM uses serial and parallel interfaces for data input and output. The actual method in which the memory device is used
depends on the memory type and its interface.

Serial EEPROM memory:

The most commonly used serial interfaces are Microwire, I2P, SPI, and 1-Wire, UNI/O. The serial EEPROMs are difficult to
operate, as data is transferred in a serial fashion, this makes the process much slower than their parallel EEPROM interface.

An EEPROM serial protocol has three phases: OP-code phase, address phase, and data phase.

Every EEPROM device has its own set of OP–code instructions connected to different functions. Common operations performed by
Serial Peripheral Interface EEPROM devices are:

· Read Status Register (RDSR)

· Write Status Register (WRSR)

· Write enable (WRENAL)

· Write disable (WRDI)

· Read data (READ)

· Write data (WRITE)

Some other operations which can be performed by EEPROM devices are:

· Program

· Sector Erase

· Chip erase

Parallel EEPROM memory:

EEPROM devices, which are in parallel have an address bus and an 8-bit data bus, which covers the entire memory. These
devices have chip-protect pins. Microcontrollers use parallel EEPROM. The operation of Parallel EEPROM is simple and efficient.
Parallel EEPROM is faster compared to serial EEPROM, but the size of these devices is huge because of the large pin count,
nearly 28 pins, so it has been used less, and serial EEPROM is used. Flash memory has better performance at a similar cost to
EEPROM, while serial EEPROM offers a small size.
Disadvantages of EEPROM

There are two major limitations in EEPROM, one is reliability. Due to this reason, EEPROM is used less, as other memory devices
provide better reliable memory storage. Limitations of EEPROM

· Data Endurance

· Data Retention

Conclusion

EEPROM is a type of ROM that can be erased and written. This can regain memory even without power. It is reprogrammable and
cost-effective. The data inside the chip can be erased and reprogrammed any number of times. The time that is taken to erase data
is between 5 to 10 milliseconds. Compared to other memory units, in EEPROM a particular byte of data can be erased and written,
without deleting the entire memory unit.

OS installation.

Why learn operating systems?

Troubleshooting and identifying issues with an operating system are essential for many IT professional companies and can be a
valuable skill for anyone in the tech sector. Furthermore, knowing operating systems and how to use them can give you an edge in
the competitive field of software development and engineering. Learning operating systems can help you stay ahead of the curve in
an ever-evolving technological world.

Applications of Operating System

 Desktop Operating systems: These are designed for use on personal computers. They contain all the utilities and
applications that the users might need. They are usually updated with the latest software versions to provide a better user
experience.

 Mobile Operating systems: These are designed for use on cellular phones and other portable devices. They contain only the
essential software and minimalistic utilities. The advantage of using a mobile OS is that it is easier to update and maintain.

 Server Operating systems are updated with the latest software versions, versioning to support multiple users, and security
features. They run applications such as email servers, file sharing servers, and web servers.

Why use Operating System?

 Operating systems provide a platform on which the users can carry out their various activities.

 Operating systems are essential for the security and stability of the computer. They contain the latest security patches and
updates to protect the computer from malicious threats.

 For executing the programs

 Without an operating system, you can’t access hardware.

 Error Detection and Handling

 Keeping account of the functionality happening in the computer system.

What does an Operating System do?

The operating system of a computing device helps it run different applications. Many times, several different programs run
simultaneously on your device and they all need to access your computer's central processing unit (CPU), memory, and storage.
The operating system coordinates all of this to make sure each program runs properly.

Types of Operating Systems (OS)

The table below lists the different types of operating systems that are commonly used.

Operating System Description

Jobs with similar types of needs are batched together

Batch operating system and run as a group on a computer without manual
interventions.

Many users share the computer resources at the same

Time-sharing operating system time. The processor time (CPU) is shared among
multiple users.

Uses many processors located in different machines to

Distributed operating system
provide very fast computation.

Allows to connect and communicate various

Network operating system
autonomous computers over a network.

It is used for real-time application that process data as

Real-time operating system
it comes in, without buffer delay.

Mobile operating system

Designed for smartphones, tablets, and wearables
devices.

What are the two types of OS installation?

Single user operating system
Single user operating system is also known as a single-tasking operating system, and a single-user operating system is designed
especially for home computers. A single user can access the computer at a particular time. The single-user operating system
allows permission to access your personal computer at a time by a single user, but sometimes it can support multiple profiles. It
can also be used in official work and other environments as well.
So this operating system does not require the support of memory protection, file protection, and security system. The computers
based on this operating system have a single processor to execute only a single program at all times. This system provides all
the resources such as CPU, and I/O devices, to a single user at a time.

Single-user operating system

The operating system for those computers which support only one computer. In this operating system, another user can not
interact with another working user. The core part of the single-user operating system is one kernel image that will run at a time i.e
there is no other facility to run more than one kernel image.

Features of the Single-User Operating System:

 Interpreting user’s commands.

 File management.
 Memory management.
 Input/output management.
 Resource allocation.
 Managing process.

Advantages:

 This OS occupies less space in memory.

 Easy to maintain.
 Less chance of damage.
 This is a single-user interface it allows only one user’s tasks to execute in a given time.
 In this operating system only one user work at a time, so there will be no interruption of others.

Disadvantages:

 It can perform only a single task.

 The main drawback is, the OS remains idle for most of the time and is not utilized to its maximum.
 Tasks take longer to complete.
 It has a high response time.

Types of Single-user Operating Systems:

This operating system is of two types:-

1. Single User Single-Tasking
2. Single User Multi-Tasking
Single-User Single-Tasking: Operating system allows a single user to execute one program at a particular time. This operating
system is designed especially for wireless phones and two-way messaging. Some functions such as printing a document, and
downloading images and videos are performed in one given frame.
Example: MS-DOS, Palm OS (Used in Palm-held computers).
Single-User Single-Tasking

Advantages:
 Uses less area in memory
 Cost efficient
Disadvantage:
 Less Optimized
Single-User Multi-Tasking: Operating system allows a single user to execute multiple programs at the same time, the single
user can perform multiple tasks at a time. This type of operating system is found on personal desktops and laptops. The most
popular single-user multi-tasking is Microsoft windows. This single-user multi-tasking can be pre-emptive or cooperative.
 Pre-emptive: The operating system shares the central processing time by dedicating a single slot to each of the
programs.
 Co-operative: This is attained by relying on each process to give time to other methods in a defined manner. Some
example taking photos while capturing video, a user can perform different tasks such as making calculations in excel
sheets.
Example: Windows, Mac
Advantages:
 Time-saving
 High productivity in less time frame
 Less memory is used
Disadvantage:
 Require more space
 More complexity

Multi-User Operating System

An operating system is software that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware which does multiple
functions such as memory management; file management and processor management. The operating system should have to
meet the requirements of all its users in a balanced way so that if any problem would arise with a user, it does not affect any
other user in the chain.
In a multiuser operating system, multiple numbers of users can access different resources of a computer at the same time. The
access is provided using a network that consists of various personal computers attached to a mainframe computer system. A
multi-user operating system allows the permission of multiple users for accessing a single machine at a time. The various
personal computers can send and receive information to the mainframe computer system. Thus, the mainframe computer acts as
the server and other personal computers act as clients for that server.
Multi-user Operating system

Components of the multi-user operating system:

1. Memory: Consists of main memory (RAM). Main memory is determined as an important part of the operating system
because it specifies how many programs may be executed simultaneously. The system can correct data that is present
in the main memory, therefore every program that is executed must be copied from physical storage.
The types of physical storage:
 Hard disk: Hard disk can hold a huge amount of data and also determines how many programs can be run
at a single time.
 Floppy disk: It is more inexpensive, but it is potable
 Optical disks: They use a laser to read and write data. They can hold large data and portable
 Tapes: They are expensive but they can hold a huge amount of data.
2. Kernel: This component is embedded in the computer system’s main memory and may interact directly with the
system’s hardware. The multi-user operating system uses the kernel component at a low level, it is written in a low-
level language.
3. Processor: The core of the computer is called the central processing unit (CPU).
4. Device handler: The device handler’s primary goal is to provide all requests from the whole device request queue.
The device handler operates in continuous cycle mode, first discarding the I/O request block from the queue side. The
concept that is behind the handler is a queue where we follow the first in first out (FIFO) principle.
5. Spooler: Simultaneously peripheral output on line. The spooler runs all computer processes and outputs the results at
the same time.
6. User interface: Create a simple environment for all users for using the computer system. It is the point of
communication between users and hardware (or) software. The main frame is one of the systems which works on the
concepts of multi-user programming concept. It is widely used in banks, to store bank account and transaction details.
This mainframe helps in various ways: security and scalability.
Types of Multi-user Operating Systems:
The multi-user operating systems is of the following types:
1. Distributed System
2. Time sliced system
3. Multiprocessor system

Distributed system:

The distributed operating system also known as distributed computing is a collection of multiple computers located on different
computers. Communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another from any system. These all systems
emulate a single coherent system to the end user. The end user will communicate with them with the help of the network. This
system is divided in a way that multiple requests can be handled and in turn, the individual request can be satisfied eventually.
Examples: Electronic banking, Mobile apps

Time-sliced system:

It is the system where each user talk is allocated to a short span of cpu time. A small time duration is allotted to every task. CPU
time is divided into small time slices, and one time is assigned to each other. The decision to run the next piece of the job is
decided by the schedule. This schedule executes the run instructions that need to be executed. The user can take turns and thus
the operating system will handle the user’s request among the users who are connected. This feature is not applicable in the
single-user operating system. They use the mainframe system concurrently
Example: Mainframe, a partial exam of the time-sliced system.

Multi-processor system:

It involves multiple processors at a time. Enhance the overall performance. If one processor fails other continues
working. Example: Spreadsheets, Music player
Features:
The multi-user operating system has the following features:
Resource sharing: This maps to time slicing, multiple peripherals such as printers can be shared different files or

data.
 Time-sharing
 Background sharing
 Invisibility: Many functions of multi-user operating systems are invisible to the user.
Advantages:
 It helps in the sharing of data and information among different users.
 It also helps in the sharing of hardware resources such as printers.
 It avoids disruption if any one computer fails it does not affect any other computer present on that network.
 Users can share their work with other users.
 The multi-user operating system is very helpful in economic improvement.
 Backing up data can be done in the multi-user operating system.
 The services of the multi-user operating systems are very stable and systematic.
Disadvantages:
 It requires expensive hardware to set up a mainframe computer
 When multiple users log on or work on the same system it reduces the overall performance of the system.
 Information is shared with the public so privacy becomes a concern here.

VPNs vs. firewalls

Firewalls, on the other hand, aim to protect

VPNs are designed to improve privacy and security
Primary function your network from malicious traffic and
when transmitting data.
unauthorized access.
Firewalls monitor and regulate network
VPNs offer end-to-end encryption, securing data in
Level of protection traffic and don't offer end-to-end
transit
encryption.
You can count on VPNs to secure online privacy or Firewalls are suitable for protecting your
Usage:
bypass geo-restrictions. network from cyber threats.
Firewalls can be a built-in feature of your
router or operating system. You can also
Cost VPNs usually involve monthly or annual subscriptions
purchase firewalls as individual hardware
or software solutions with varying costs.
Situations where Protecting your home or office network
For maintaining privacy while browsing the internet
They are more from unauthorized access and potential
or using public Wi-Fi networks.
appropriate: cyber threats.
Controlling and monitoring network
Accessing geo-restricted content or bypassing
traffic, allowing or blocking specific data
censorship.
packets based on predefined rules.
Protecting your data while transmitting it over the Enforcing network security policies for
internet. your organization or personal network.
Accessing company resources securely as a
remote worker.

VPNs vs. antivirus

Antivirus vs. firewalls
What is WinRE (Windows Recovery) used for?

SSD (Solid State Drive )

difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection
virtualisation
Device manager
2 type of ip address
Types of usb port

PLEASE PREPARE THESE TOPICS AND ALSO PLEASE DO SELF STUDY AS QUESTIONES MIGHT BE ASKED OUTSIDE
THESE TOPICS TOO....
what is harddrive &functions of hard drive
what is storage device and functions of storage devices
what is OS
what is LAN & WAN
what is BIOS & functions of bios
what are the input output components of comp
what is brain of computer
What is CPU and what are the functions
cust scenario - laptop / desktop not powering up - what is the 1st resolution u will give to the cust
laptop not getting connected to television - what is the first resolution - screen sharing
what would u do if every time u switch on the computer and date and time shows incorrect on ur computer
what is "no boot" process - Ans -No Boot means the computer powers on, successfully completes the Power-On Self-Test, and
displays the Dell logo onscreen but cannot access the operating system.
If computer does not boot up it could be several reasons if it is getting stucked at blue screen than bsod comes in picture or else
it can be a black screen issue as well

what is harddrive &functions of hard drive

A hard drive is the hardware component that stores all of your digital content. Your documents, pictures, music, videos,
programs, application preferences, and operating system represent digital content stored on a hard drive. Hard drives can be
external or internal.

Everything stored on a hard drive is measured in terms of its file size. Documents (text) are generally very small whereas
pictures are large, music is even larger, and videos are the largest. A hard drive determines the size of digital files in terms of
megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), and terabytes (TB).

what is storage device and functions of storage devices

A storage device is a piece of computer hardware used for saving, carrying and pulling out data. It can keep and retain
information short-term or long-term. It can be a device inside or outside a computer or server. Other terms for storage device is
storage medium or storage media.
A storage device is one of the basic elements of any computer device. It almost saves all data and applications in a computer
except for hardware firmware. It comes in different shapes and sizes depending on the needs and functionalities.

what is OS
Operating system
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common
services for computer programs. Nearly every computer program requires an operating system to function. The two most
common operating systems are Microsoft Windows and Apple's macOS.

what is LAN & WAN

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a private computer network that connects computers in small physical areas. Example: A small
office, A Single building, Multiple buildings inside a campus etc. Wide Area Networks (WAN) is type of computer network to
connect offices which are located in different geographical locations.

what is BIOS & functions of bios

BIOS (basic input/output system) is the program a computer's microprocessor uses to start the computer system after it is
powered on. It also manages data flow between the computer's operating system (OS) and attached devices, such as the hard
disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse and printer.

what are the input output components of computer?

Input/Output Devices
A computer is an electronic device that operates data or information and can store, retrieve, and process data. Computers can be
used to create documents, play games, send emails, and browse the web. They are also used to edit or create spreadsheets,
presentations, and videos. To perform such useful operations on a computer, we need input and output devices to give
instructions to the system and receive information. Commonly used input and output devices include the keyboard, mouse,
scanner, printer, monitor, and speaker.

Share
The computer system is designed to perform tasks given by the user and produce results efficiently. It takes in the instructions (in
the form of inputs), performs the computing tasks (also known as processing) and gives back results (in the form of outputs). The
computer’s software is designed to do this task with the help of components of a computer, including an input unit, a processing
unit, and an output unit. The computer performs the tasks with the combination of input and output devices to give instructions to
the computer and receive the respective results of the operations performed.

Computer Systems and Their Components

Before we learn about input and output devices, we must understand what a computer is and its components and functionality. A
computer is an electronic device designed to make human tasks easier by taking instructions from the user through input
devices, processing them using a processing unit, and giving results using output devices. It is used for storing and processing
data and performing calculations. A computer’s functionality is based on the combined usage of its input, processing, and output
units. Hence, it becomes essential to know the working of these units.

Input Devices
An input device is a hardware device that takes instructions from the user and passes it to a processing unit, such as a CPU.
Input devices can transmit data to other devices by taking it from one device but cannot receive data—for example, the keyboard
or the mouse.

List of Input Devices

Some commonly used input devices are listed below:
Keyboard: It is a hardware device with keys with alphabets and numbers on it and is used to take alphanumeric input. It is the
most commonly used input device.
Mouse: It is a hardware device that takes input by clicking on keys on the surface of the mouse. The mouse is a pointing device
that points to icons on the screen to select them.
Microphone: It takes sound as a form of input and can convert it to a digital or electrical form.
Joystick: It is usually used to play games. It has a stick that is inclined to angle to control movement in video games.
Light Pen/stylus: It is a device used to give input by touching the device. A stylus is a light-dependent tool.
Scanner: It is used to scan images, text, or documents to convert them into digital form.
Output Devices
Output devices are hardware devices that receive data from the processing unit and other devices and return the result of the
data—for example, monitors and speakers.

List of Output Devices

Some commonly used output devices are listed below:

Monitor: It is a device through which we see and operate our software. All icons, text, and images are displayed here. We see all
the outputs on this screen.
Printer: It produces hard copies or prints of images, text, or documents on the computer.
Speakers: They yield output in the form of audio and allow users to listen to music, game sounds, etc. Speakers can be wired
and wireless.
Projector: It produces output by projecting images and videos on a big screen. When connected to a computer, the image on the
monitor will only be displayed on the screen.
Headphones: These devices also produce audio outputs but are only for personal use.
Input/Output Devices
An input/output device can perform the job of both input and output devices. In other words, it can receive data from other
devices or users (input) and send it to other devices (output).

Examples of input/output devices include:

CD/DVD drives: They copy data received from the computer and store it. They can also transfer data on the drive and pass it to
the computer’s storage
USB/Flash drives: They receive and send data from the computer to the drive and vice-versa
-
what are the input output components of comp

what is brain of computer

Central Processing Unit (CPU) ... The CPU is the brain of a computer, containing all the circuitry needed to process input, store
data, and output results.

What is CPU and what

are the functions
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores data,
intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer

cust scenario - laptop / desktop not powering up - what is the 1st resolution u will give to the cust
laptop not getting connected to television - what is the first resolution - screen sharing

What would u do if every time u switch on the computer and date and time shows incorrect on ur computer ?
>>To troubleshoot this issue, you can try the following steps:

Check the time zone settings on your laptop to make sure they are correct. To do this, right-click on the clock in the taskbar and
select "Adjust date/time". Then, make sure the correct time zone is selected.
Check the time synchronization settings in Windows. To do this, go to "Settings" > "Time & Language" > "Date & Time". Make
sure that "Set time automatically" is turned on, and that the correct time server is selected.
Check the CMOS battery (CR2032) on your laptop's motherboard. This battery is responsible for keeping the date and time
settings even when the laptop is turned off. If the battery is dead or dying, it could be causing this issue. You may need to replace
the battery to fix the problem.

what is "no boot" process - Ans - If computer does not boot up it could be several reasons if it is getting stuck at blue screen than
bsod comes in picture or else it can be a black screen issue as well

Post - power on self test

Bios basic input output system
Hardware components in a cpu

Shortcut keys to get 1.task manager

2. To get the upside down screen to normal
Basic unit of traffic
NIC network interface card/controller

What does MAC address refer to??

A MAC address (short for medium access control address) is a unique identifier assigned to a network interface controller (NIC)
for use as a network address in communications within a network segment.
What type of optical device that can read DVDs and CDs but can write only CDs?
-->>CD-R or CD-RW drives are also called CD writers, CD burners, or CD recorders can read the same formats as CD-ROM
drives CD-DA, CD-ROM, and CD-R/RW discs but can also write data to inexpensive CD-R (write-once) and CD-RW (rewritable)
discs.
Which component functions as temporary storage??
>>An accumulator acts as a temporary storage location to hold an intermediate result in mathematical and logical calculations.
Accumulator is a type of register present in a CPU (Central Processing Unit).
It works as a temporary storage location that keeps an intermediate value in logical and mathematical calculations.
Intermediate results of execution are progressively stored to the accumulator, replacing the previous value.

Apart from redX symbol the device manager may also display yellowX symbol what does that indicate??
>>>A red X indicates the device is not installed correctly or disabled by the user or administrator.
A yellow exclamation point indicates a problem with the device.

Which device does not store data permanently? ans- RAM

What is vpn and its functions?

A VPN, or Virtual Private Network, is a service that helps protect your online privacy and security. It does a few things:

Encryption: It encrypts your internet traffic, which means your data is turned into a code that is unreadable without a decryption
key. This protects your information from hackers and other malicious entities.

Masking IP Address: A VPN masks your IP address, making your online actions practically untraceable. This is especially useful
for accessing content that might be geo-restricted.

Secure Connection: It creates a secure connection between your device and the VPN server. This means your browsing activity is
protected even when you're using public Wi-Fi.

it as a tunnel between your device and the internet, shielding you from prying eyes. How do you feel about online privacy?

Exactly, it’s like having your own secret passage on the internet. Online privacy, in my view, is like a fundamental right. With so
much of our lives being lived online, it’s critical to have some control over who gets to see our personal information and activities.
Do you take any other steps to protect your online privacy, like using strong passwords or two-factor authentication? I promise not
to snoop if you share!
Hard Disk Drive HDD

A hard disk drive (HDD) is an internal or external computer component that stores data, such as the operating system,
applications, and user files.

HDDs are “non-volatile” storage devices, meaning they retain stored data even when power isn't being supplied.

How does a hard drive work?

An HDD includes two main elements; a spinning platter and an actuator arm.

 The platter is a circular magnetic disk containing tracks and sectors that retain data.
 The actuator arm moves across the platter to read and write data.

The platter spins (hence the name) on a spindle to help speed up the read/write process as the actuator arm moves across it.

The data sectors are spread out randomly (also known as fragmented) across the platter, and below we'll discuss defragmenting a
hard drive to boost performance.

What does a hard disk drive look like?

The platter and the actuator arm are delicate physical mechanisms, so a solid case covers them to prevent damage under normal
use. The hard drive cover will look like a metal box, and it will be clearly labelled as a hard disk drive or HDD.

Here's what an internal HDD looks like beneath its metal casing. You can see the spinning platter and the actuator arm, and how
they work together to read and write the data upon request.

Instead of an HDD, newer computers are usually fitted with an SSD (solid state drive).

What are the advantages and disadvantages of an HDD?

Advantages of an HDD: Disadvantages of an HDD:

 HDDs can store a large amount of data (this varies by the  HDDs can be slow at retrieving larger files
drive size)  They consume more power
 They are relatively cheap compared to other storage  The moving parts produce a lot of heat
solutions  They are less durable, especially in portable devices

If you’d like to learn more, check out our article comparing SSDs and HDDs.

How to improve hard disk performance

As time goes on, you may start to experience HDD lagging, with slow start-ups and longer load times.

You can help prevent this by occasionally doing a little maintenance work, which should improve performance immediately after
you follow these steps:

1. Defrag your hard disk drive – this reorganizes the data to store it sequentially for faster read times.

2. Delete temporary files – programs and apps can store temporary data that can take up a lot of storage space on your drive.
Depending on what Windows version you’re using, these steps may be slightly different:

a. In the search box on the taskbar, type disk cleanup, and select "Disk Cleanup."
b. Select the drive you want to clean up and select OK.
c. Under "Files to delete," select the file types you want to remove. You can also select a file type to read a description of what
it is.
d. Select OK when you have made your selections.

3. Remove unnecessary data – freeing space is a great way to improve storage performance. This could be deleting old programs
and apps you no longer use or moving photos, films and games over to an external storage device until you need them. These
are the steps to remove apps and programs, but this may differ depending on the Windows version in use:

a. In the search box on the taskbar, type programs, and select "Add or remove programs,"
b. Select the programs you want.
c. Then select “Remove.”
4. Enable write caching –this step enables the volatile memory (RAM) to collect data in a cache before writing it to the storage
device. The cache can process the data faster, resulting in fast load times. Again, these steps may differ depending on the windows
that you're using.

a. Right-click "My Computer," and then click "Properties."

b. Click the "Hardware tab" and then click "Device Manager."
c. Expand "Disk Drives."
d. Right-click the drive where you want to turn disk write caching, then click "Properties."
e. Click the "Policies" tab.
f. Click to select or clear the "Enable write caching" on the disk check box as appropriate.
g. Click OK.

5. Upgrade your storage – the quickest way to improve performance is to upgrade to an SSD (solid state drive), which we'll talk
about in the next section.

Other memory storage options

Solid state drives

You now have a good idea of how HDDs work, but there's also a new generation of computer storage available – the SSD.

SSDs are storage drives that fulfil the same purpose as an HDD, only using a more advanced technology.

The benefits of an SSD include:

 They use less power

 They produce less heat
 They don't have moving parts, making them more durable

Upgrading to a solid state drive can help boost the performance of your PC or laptop, but one thing to consider when doing so is
compatibility.

SSDs come in different forms, whether that be SATA or NVMe. The Crucial® System Selector or System Scannercan help you
find a suitable SSD for your computer.

External storage

If you want to increase your data capacity without replacing your internal hard disk, adding an external storage drive is a quick
and easy way to expand your storage capabilities.

What is an SSD?

An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers. This non-volatile storage media stores persistent data
on solid-state flash memory. SSDs replace traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers and perform the same basic functions
as a hard drive. But SSDs are significantly faster in comparison. With an SSD, the device's operating system will boot up more
rapidly, programs will load quicker and files can be saved faster.

A traditional hard drive consists of a spinning disk with a read/write head on a mechanical arm called an actuator. An HDD reads
and writes data magnetically. The magnetic properties, however, can lead to mechanical breakdowns.

By comparison, an SSD has no moving parts to break or spin up or down. The two key components in an SSD are the flash
controller and NAND flash memory chips. This configuration is optimized to deliver high read/write performance for sequential and
random data requests.

SSDs are used anywhere that hard drives can be deployed. In consumer products, for example, they are used in personal
computers (PCs), laptops, computer games, digital cameras, digital music players, smartphones, tablets and thumb drives. They
are also incorporated with graphics cards. However, they are more expensive than traditional HDDs.

Businesses with a rapidly expanding need for higher input/output (I/O) have fueled the development and adoption of SSDs.
Because SSDs offer lower latency than HDDs, they can efficiently handle both heavy read and random workloads. That lower
latency stems from the ability of a flash SSD to read data directly and immediately from stored data.
High-performance servers, laptops, desktops or any application that needs to deliver information in real-time can benefit from solid-
state drive technology. Those characteristics make enterprise SSDs suitable to offload reads from transaction-heavy databases.
They can also help to alleviate boot storms with virtual desktop infrastructure, or inside a storage array to store frequently used data
locally using a hybrid cloud.

How do SSDs work?

An SSD reads and writes data to underlying interconnected flash memory chips made out of silicon. Manufacturers build SSDs by
stacking chips in a grid to achieve different densities.

SSDs read and write data to an underlying set of interconnected flash memory chips. These chips use floating gate transistors
(FGTs) to hold an electrical charge, which enables the SSD to store data even when it is not connected to a power source. Each
FGT contains a single bit of data, designated either as a 1 for a charged cell or a 0 if the cell has no electrical charge.

Every block of data is accessible at a consistent speed. However, SSDs can only write to empty blocks. And although SSDs have
tools to get around this, performance may still slow over time.

SSDs use three main types of memory: single-, multi- and triple-level cells. Single-level cells can hold one bit of data at a time -- a
one or zero. Single-level cells (SLCs) are the most expensive form of SSD, but are also the fastest and most durable. Multi-level
cells (MLCs) can hold two bits of data per cell and have a larger amount of storage space in the same amount of physical space as
a SLC. However, MLCs have slower write speeds. Triple-level cells (TLCs) can hold three bits of data in a cell. Although TLCs are
cheaper, they also have slower write speeds and are less durable than other memory types. TLC-based SSDs deliver more flash
capacity and are less expensive than an MLC or SLC, albeit with a higher likelihood for bit rot due to having eight states within the
cell.

What are the major features of SSDs?

Several features characterize the design of an SSD. Because it has no moving parts, an SSD is not subject to the same
mechanical failures that can occur in HDDs. SSDs are also quieter and consume less power. And because SSDs weigh less than
hard drives, they are a good fit for laptop and mobile computing devices.

In addition, the SSD controller software includes predictive analytics that can alert a user in advance of a potential drive failure.
Because flash memory is malleable, all-flash array vendors can manipulate the usable storage capacity using data reduction
techniques.

What are the advantages of SSDs?

The benefits of SSDs over HDDs include:

Faster read/write speeds. SSDs can access large files quickly.

Quicker boot times and better performance. Because the drive does not need to spin up as an HDD would, it is more responsive
and provides better load performance.

Durability. SSDs are more shock-resistant and can handle heat better than HDDs because they do not have moving parts.

Power consumption. SSDs need less power to operate than HDDs due to their lack of moving parts.

Quieter. SSDs produce less audible noise because there are no moving or spinning parts.

Size. SSDs come in a variety of form factors whereas HDD sizes are limited.

What are the disadvantages of SSDs?

Downsides that come with SSDs include:

Cost. SSDs are more expensive than traditional HDDs.

Life expectancy. Some SSDs, for example, those using NAND memory-flash chips, can only be written a specified number of times
that is typically less than HDDs.

Performance. Limitations on the number of write cycles cause SSDs to decrease in performance over time.

Storage options. Because of cost, SSDs are typically sold in smaller sizes.

Data recovery. This time-consuming process can be expensive, as the data on damaged chips may not be recoverable.

What are the types of SSD non-volatile memory?

NAND and NOR circuitry differ in the type of logic gate they use. NAND devices use eight-pin serial access to data. Meanwhile,
NOR flash memory is commonly used in mobile phones, supporting 1-byte random access.

Compared with NAND, NOR flash offers fast read times, but is generally a more expensive memory technology. NOR writes data in
large chunks, meaning it takes longer to erase and write new data. The random-access capabilities of NOR are used for executing
code, while NAND flash is intended for storage. Most smartphones support both types of flash memory, using NOR to boot up the
operating system and removable NAND cards to expand the device's storage capacity.

What are the types of SSDs?

Types of SSDs include:

Solid-state drives. Basic SSDs deliver the least performance. SSDs are flash devices that connect via Serial Advanced Technology
Attachment (SATA) or serial-attached SCSI (SAS) and provide a cost-effective first step into the solid-state world. For many
environments, the performance boost in sequential read speeds from a SATA or SAS SSD will suffice.

PCIe-based flash. Peripheral Component Interconnect Express-based flash is the next step up in performance. While these devices
typically offer greater throughput and more input/output operations per second, the biggest advantage is significantly lower latency.
The downside is that most of these offerings require a custom driver and have limited built-in data protection.

Flash DIMMs. Flash dual in-line memory modules reduce latency, going further than PCIe flash cards by eliminating the potential
PCIe bus contention. They require custom drivers unique to flash DIMMS, with specific changes to the read-only I/O system on the
motherboard.

NVMe SSDs. These SSDs use the non-volatile memory express (NVMe) interface specification. This accelerates data transfer
speeds between client systems and solid-state drives over a PCIe bus. NVMe SSDs are designed for high-performance non-
volatile storage and are well-suited for highly demanding, compute-intensive settings.

NVMe-oF. The NVMe over Fabrics protocol enables data transfers between a host computer and a target solid-state storage
device. NVMe-oF transfers data through methods such as Ethernet, Fibre Channel or InfiniBand.

Hybrid DRAM-flash storage. This dynamic random access memory (DRAM) channel configuration combines flash and server
DRAM. These hybrid flash storage devices address the theoretical scaling limit of DRAM and are used to increase throughput
between application software and storage.

SSD form factors

SSD manufacturers offer diverse form factors. The most common form factor is a 2.5-inch SSD that is available in multiple heights
and supports SAS, SATA and NVMe protocols.

The Solid State Storage Initiative, a project of the Storage Networking Industry Association, identified the following three major SSD
form factors:

SSDs that come in traditional HDD form factors and fit into the same SAS and SATA slots in a server.

Solid-state cards that use standard add-in card form factors, such as those with a PCIe serial port card. A PCIe-connected SSD
does not require network host bus adapters to relay commands, which speeds the performance of storage. These devices include
the U.2 SSDs that are generally considered the eventual replacement for drives used in thin laptops.

Solid-state modules that reside in a DIMM or small outline dual in-line memory module. They may use a standard HDD interface
such as SATA. These devices are known as non-volatile DIMM (NVDIMM) cards.

Two types of RAM are used in a computer system: DRAM, which loses data when power is lost, and static RAM. NVDIMMs provide
the persistent storage a computer needs to recover data. They place flash close to the motherboard, but operations are carried out
in DRAM. The flash component fits into a memory bus for backup on high-performance storage.
Both SSDs and RAM incorporate solid-state chips, but the two memory types function differently within a computer system.

Two newer form factors worth noting are M.2 and U.2 SSDs. An M.2 SSD varies in length -- typically from 42 millimeters (mm) to
110 mm -- and attaches directly to a motherboard. It communicates via NVMe or SATA. The small size of an M.2 limits the surface
area for heat dissipation which, over time, will reduce its performance and stability. In enterprise storage, M.2 SSDs often are used
as a boot device. In consumer devices, such as notebook computers, an M.2 SSD provides capacity expansion.

A U.2 SSD describes a 2.5-inch PCIe SSD. These small form-factor devices were formerly known as SFF-8639. The U.2 interface
enables high-speed NVMe-based PCIe SSDs to be inserted in a computer's circuit board, without the need to power down the
server and storage.

SSD manufacturers

The SSD market is dominated by a handful of large manufacturers, including:

Crucial

Intel

Kingston Technology

Micron Technology Inc.

Samsung

SanDisk

Seagate Technology

SK Hynix

Western Digital Corp.

These manufacturers produce and sell NAND flash chipsets to solid-state drive vendors. They also market branded SSDs based on
their own flash chips. Factors to consider when shopping for SSDs include:

Durability. Every SSD warranty covers a finite number of drive cycles, determined by the type of NAND flash. An SSD used only for
reads does not require the same level of endurance as an SSD intended to handle mostly writes.

Form factor. This determines if a replacement SSD works with existing storage and the number of SSDs that can fit in a single
chassis.

Interface. This determines maximum throughput and minimum latency thresholds, as well as the expansion capabilities of the SSD.
Manufacturers qualify their SSDs for NVMe, SAS and SATA.

Power usage. The drive interface also specifies the maximum power of an SSD, although many enterprise SSDs are engineered to
be tuned while in operation.

Historically, SSDs cost more than conventional hard drives. But due to improvements in manufacturing technology and expanded
chip capacity, SSD prices had been dropping, enabling consumers and enterprise customers to view SSDs as a viable alternative
to conventional storage. However, prices are increasing due to chip shortages and a general volatile market -- more recently in
2020 and 2021, due to COVID-19-related supply chain issues. Fluctuating demand for flash chips has kept pricing for SSDs
variable, but the price for an SSD remains higher than an HDD.

SSD vs. HDD

SSDs are considered much faster than the highest performing HDDs. Latency is also substantially reduced, and users typically
experience much faster boot times.
Several factors influence the lifespan of SSDs and HDDs, including heat, humidity and the effect of metals oxidizing inside the
drives. Data on both types of media will degrade over time, with HDDs generally supporting a higher number of drive writes per
day. Industry experts recommend storing unused or idle SSDs at low temperatures to extend their life.

The moving parts of HDDs increase the chance of failures. To compensate, HDD manufacturers have added shock sensors to
protect drives and other components inside PCs. This type of sensor detects if the machine is about to fall and takes steps to shut
down the HDD and related critical hardware.

Read performance of an HDD can suffer when data is split into different sectors on the disk. To repair the disk, a technique known
as defragmentation is used. SSDs do not store data magnetically, so the read performance remains steady, regardless of where
the data is stored on the drive.

SSDs have a set life expectancy, with a finite number of write cycles before performance becomes erratic. To compensate, SSDs
employ wear leveling, a process that extends the life of an SSD. Wear leveling is typically managed by the flash controller, which
uses an algorithm to arrange data so write/erase cycles are distributed evenly among all the blocks in the device. Another
technique, SSD overprovisioning, can help minimize the impact of garbage collection write amplification.

SSD vs. eMMC

An embedded MultiMediaCard (eMMC) provides the onboard flash storage in a computer. It is installed directly on the computer
motherboard. The architecture includes NAND flash memory and a controller designed as an integrated circuit. EMMC storage is
typically found in cellphones, less expensive laptops and IoT applications.

An eMMC device delivers performance roughly equivalent to that of an SSD. But they differ in capacity, as a standard eMMC
typically ranges from 1 GB to 512 GB, and SSD sizes can range from 128 GB to multiple terabytes. This makes eMMCs best suited
for handling smaller file sizes.

In portable devices, an eMMC serves as primary storage or as an adjunct to removable SD and microSD multimedia cards.
Although this is the historical use of eMMC devices, they are increasingly deployed in sensors inside connected internet of things
devices.

SSD vs. hybrid hard drive

Although not as widely used as a standard solid-state drive, an alternative is a hybrid hard drive (HHD). HHDs bridge the gap
between flash and fixed-disk magnetic storage and are used to upgrade laptops, both for capacity and performance.

HHDs have a conventional disk architecture that adds approximately 8 GB of NAND flash as a buffer for disk-based workloads.

As such, an HHD is best suited for computers with a limited number of applications. The cost of a hybrid hard drive is slightly less
than an HDD.

History and evolution of SSDs

The earliest solid-state drives generally were designed for consumer devices. This changed in 1991 when SanDisk released the
first commercial flash-based SSD. Commercially designed SSDs were made with enterprise multi-level cell flash technology, which
enhanced write cycles.

Other notable dates include:

The debut of the Apple iPod in 2005 marked the first notable flash-based device to broadly penetrate the consumer market.
Toshiba announced 3D V-NAND in 2007. 3D flash devices boost capacity and performance.

EMC -- now Dell EMC -- is credited with being the first vendor to include SSDs in enterprise storage hardware, adding the
technology to its Symmetrix disk arrays in 2008. This spawned the creation of hybrid flash arrays that combine flash drives and
HDDs.

Toshiba introduced triple-level cells in 2009. TLC flash is a type of NAND flash memory that stores three bits of data per cell.

IBM is considered the first major storage vendor to release a dedicated all-flash array platform, called FlashSystem, based on
technology from its acquisition of Texas Memory Systems in 2012. Around that time, Nimbus Data, Pure Storage, Texas Memory
Systems and Violin Memory began pioneering the adoption of all-flash arrays, relying on SSD storage to replace hard disks.

In 2012, EMC acquired XtremIO and now ships an all-flash system based on the XtremIO technology.

Difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection

What is the difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection?

A WiFi connection enables users to access a network and the Internet through a wireless connection to a WiFi router – no cables
are needed.
Ethernet connection uses ethernet cable to connect devices to the network or the Internet.
What is the difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection in terms of speed?
While a number of variables determine actual speed of a WiFi connection and an Ethernet connection,
Ethernet is almost always faster than WiFi. The fastest Ethernet speeds today top out at 10Gbps or higher,
while the fastest WiFi speeds theoretically max out at 6.9Gbps, though actual speeds are much slower – usually less than 1Gbps.
What is the difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection for security?
An Ethernet connection is much more secure than a WiFi connection. Data on an Ethernet network can only be accessed by
physically attaching a device to the network,
while data on a WiFi network travels through the air and can be more easily intercepted.
What is the difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection when it comes to reliability?
A WiFi connection is more susceptible to interference from electrical devices or physical objects that can block the signal. An
Ethernet connection is consequently more reliable, as it is insulated from interference and crosstalk and unaffected by the presence
of physical objects.
What is the difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection for large files?
When uploading large files, streaming video or working with bandwidth-hungry applications, the faster speed of an Ethernet
connection will provide a better experience with lower latency and faster data transfer.
What is the difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection for convenience?
WiFi is undoubtedly more convenient than an Ethernet connection. With WiFi, users can move freely throughout a property,
untethered to a desk or workstation by an Ethernet cable.
What is the difference between a WiFi and Ethernet connection with Spectrum Enterprise?
As a leading provider of fiber solutions for America’s largest businesses, Spectrum Enterprise provides both WiFi and Internet
services. Our Managed WiFi services provides a fully managed solution that provides seamless access anywhere on a property,
with support for both 2.4GHz and 5GHz connections. Our Ethernet services enable seamless collaboration across multiple
locations, with bandwidth that can scale from 10Mbps to over 10Gbps
OS Virtualization
With the help of OS virtualization nothing is pre-installed or permanently loaded on the local device and no-hard disk is
needed. Everything runs from the network using a kind of virtual disk. This virtual disk is actually a disk image file
stored on a remote server, SAN (Storage Area Network) or NAS (Non-volatile Attached Storage). The client will be
connected by the network to this virtual disk and will boot with the Operating System installed on the virtual disk.

How does OS Virtualization works?

Components needed for using OS Virtualization in the infrastructure are given below:

The first component is the OS Virtualization server. This server is the center point in the OS Virtualization
infrastructure. The server manages the streaming of the information on the virtual disks for the client and also
determines which client will be connected to which virtual disk (using a database, this information is stored). Also the
server can host the storage for the virtual disk locally or the server is connected to the virtual disks via a SAN (Storage
Area Network). In high availability environments there can be more OS Virtualization servers to create no redundancy
and load balancing. The server also ensures that the client will be unique within the infrastructure.

Secondly, there is a client which will contact the server to get connected to the virtual disk and asks for components
stored on the virtual disk for running the operating system.

The available supporting components are database for storing the configuration and settings for the server, a
streaming service for the virtual disk content, a (optional) TFTP service and a (also optional) PXE boot service for
connecting the client to the OS Virtualization servers.

As it is already mentioned that the virtual disk contains an image of a physical disk from the system that will reflect to
the configuration and the settings of those systems which will be using the virtual disk. When the virtual disk is created
then that disk needs to be assigned to the client that will be using this disk for starting. The connection between the
client and the disk is made through the administrative tool and saved within the database. When a client has a
assigned disk, the machine can be started with the virtual disk using the following process as displayed in the given

below Figure:

1) Connecting to the OS Virtualization server:

First we start the machine and set up the connection with the OS Virtualization server. Most of the products offer
several possible methods to connect with the server. One of the most popular and used methods is using a PXE
service, but also a boot strap is used a lot (because of the disadvantages of the PXE service). Although each method
initializes the network interface card (NIC), receiving a (DHCP-based) IP address and a connection to the server.

2) Connecting the Virtual Disk:

When the connection is established between the client and the server, the server will look into its database for
checking the client is known or unknown and which virtual disk is assigned to the client. When more than one virtual
disk are connected then a boot menu will be displayed on the client side. If only one disk is assigned, that disk will be
connected to the client which is mentioned in step number 3.

3) VDisk connected to the client:

After the desired virtual disk is selected by the client, that virtual disk is connected through the OS Virtualization server
. At the back-end, the OS Virtualization server makes sure that the client will be unique (for example computer name
and identifier) within the infrastructure.

4) OS is "streamed" to the client:

As soon the disk is connected the server starts streaming the content of the virtual disk. The software knows which
parts are necessary for starting the operating system smoothly, so that these parts are streamed first. The information
streamed in the system should be stored somewhere (i.e. cached). Most products offer several ways to cache that
information. For examples on the client hard disk or on the disk of the OS Virtualization server.

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5) Additional Streaming:

After that the first part is streamed then the operating system will start to run as expected. Additional virtual disk data
will be streamed when required for running or starting a function called by the user (for example starting an application
available within the virtual disk).

Virtualization in Cloud Computing

Virtualization is the "creation of a virtual (rather than actual) version of something, such as a server, a desktop, a storage device,
an operating system or network resources".

In other words, Virtualization is a technique, which allows to share a single physical instance of a resource or an application among
multiple customers and organizations. It does by assigning a logical name to a physical storage and providing a pointer to that
physical resource when demanded.

What is the concept behind the Virtualization?

Creation of a virtual machine over existing operating system and hardware is known as Hardware Virtualization. A Virtual machine
provides an environment that is logically separated from the underlying hardware.

The machine on which the virtual machine is going to create is known as Host Machine and that virtual machine is referred as
a Guest Machine

Types of Virtualization:

1. Hardware Virtualization.
2. Operating system Virtualization.
3. Server Virtualization.
4. Storage Virtualization.

1) Hardware Virtualization:
When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is directly installed on the hardware system is known as
hardware virtualization.

The main job of hypervisor is to control and monitoring the processor, memory and other hardware resources.

After virtualization of hardware system we can install different operating system on it and run different applications on those OS.

Usage:

Hardware virtualization is mainly done for the server platforms, because controlling virtual machines is much easier than controlling
a physical server.

2) Operating System Virtualization:

When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is installed on the Host operating system instead of directly
on the hardware system is known as operating system virtualization.

Usage:

Operating System Virtualization is mainly used for testing the applications on different platforms of OS.

3) Server Virtualization:
When the virtual machine software or virtual machine manager (VMM) is directly installed on the Server system is known as server
virtualization.

Usage:

Server virtualization is done because a single physical server can be divided into multiple servers on the demand basis and for
balancing the load.
4) Storage Virtualization:
Storage virtualization is the process of grouping the physical storage from multiple network storage devices so that it looks like a
single storage device.

Storage virtualization is also implemented by using software applications.

Usage:

Storage virtualization is mainly done for back-up and recovery purposes.

How does virtualization work in cloud computing?

Virtualization plays a very important role in the cloud computing technology, normally in the cloud computing, users share the data
present in the clouds like application etc, but actually with the help of virtualization users shares the Infrastructure.

The main usage of Virtualization Technology is to provide the applications with the standard versions to their cloud users,
suppose if the next version of that application is released, then cloud provider has to provide the latest version to their cloud users
and practically it is possible because it is more expensive.

To overcome this problem we use basically virtualization technology, By using virtualization, all severs and the software application
which are required by other cloud providers are maintained by the third party people, and the cloud providers has to pay the money
on monthly or annual basis.

Conclusion

Mainly Virtualization means, running multiple operating systems on a single machine but sharing all the hardware resources. And it
helps us to provide the pool of IT resources so that we can share these IT resources in order get benefits in the business.

What is Device Manager?

Device Manager is a component of the Microsoft Windows operating system. It allows users to view and control the hardware
attached to the computer. When a piece of hardware is not working, the offending hardware is highlighted for the user to deal with.
The list of hardware can be sorted by various criteria.[1]

For each device, users can:

 Supply device drivers in accordance with the Windows Driver Model

 Enable or disable devices
 Tell Windows to ignore malfunctioning devices
 View other technical properties
Device Manager was introduced with Windows 95 and later added to Windows 2000. On Windows 9x, Device Manager is part of
the System applet in Control Panel. On Windows 2000 and all other Windows NT-based versions of Windows, it is a snap-in
for Microsoft Management Console.

The executable program behind the Device Manager is devmgmt.msc.

Types of icons

Disabled device
A disabled device has either been manually disabled by a user or by some way of error. In Windows 95 through XP, this is denoted
by a red X. In Windows Vista and Windows 7, this was replaced by a grey downward pointing arrow in the lower right-hand corner
of the device's icon.

Hardware not working properly

There are many reasons why hardware may not work properly. If Windows recognizes a problem with a device, it is denoted by a
black exclamation point (!) on a yellow triangle in the lower right-hand corner of the device's icon.
Hardware not recognized
Hardware may not be recognized if it is not installed properly or not compatible with the system. This is denoted by a yellow
question mark in place of the device's icon.

Device manually selected

A blue "i" on a white field in the lower right-hand corner of a Device's icon indicates that the Use automatic settings feature is not
selected for the device and that the resource was manually selected. Note that this does not indicate a problem or disabled state.

Error Codes

Cod
Meaning
e

1 This device has not been configured correctly.

3 The driver for this device may be corrupted, or the system may be running low on memory.

10 This device cannot start.

12 Not enough resources for the device.

14 The computer must be restarted for the device to work properly.

16 Windows can't identify all the resources this device requires.

18 Drivers for this device must be reinstalled.

19 Configuration information in Windows registry is damaged or corrupted for this device.

21 Windows is removing this device.

22 This device is disabled.

24 This device is not present, does not have all its drivers installed, or is not working properly.

28 The drivers for this device are not installed.

29 The firmware of the device did not give it the required resources.

31 Windows cannot load the drivers required for this device.

32 A driver for this device has been disabled.

33 Windows cannot determine which resources are required for this device.

34 Windows cannot determine the settings for this device.

35 The computer's firmware does not include enough information to properly configure and use this device.

36 This device is requesting a PCI interrupt but is configured for an ISA interrupt (or vice versa).

37 Windows failed to initialize the device driver for this hardware.

38 Windows cannot run the driver for this device because a previous instance of the driver exists.

39 Windows cannot load the driver for this device. The driver may be corrupted or missing.

40 Windows cannot access this hardware because its service key information in the registry is missing or corrupted.

41 Windows successfully loaded the device driver for this hardware but cannot find the hardware device.

42 Windows cannot run the driver for this device because there is a duplicate device already running in the system.

43 Windows has stopped this device because it has reported problems.

44 An application or service has shut down this hardware device.

45 This hardware device is not connected to the computer.

46 Windows cannot gain access to this hardware device because the operating system is in the process of shutting down.

Windows cannot use this device because it has been prepared for safe removal, but it has not been removed from the
47
computer.

48 The driver for this device has been blocked from starting because it is known to have problems with Windows.

49 Windows cannot start new hardware devices because the system hive is too large and exceeds the Registry Size Limit.

Windows cannot verify the digital signature for the drivers required for this device. A recent hardware or software change
52
might have installed a file that is signed incorrectly or damaged.

Structure and Types of IP Address

An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address that identifies the device over the network. It is almost
like a set of rules governing the structure of data sent over the Internet or through a local network. An IP address helps the Internet
to distinguish between different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific machine identifier in a specific network
and helps to improve visual communication between source and destination.
IP address structure: IP addresses are displayed as a set of four digits- the default address may be 192.158.1.38. Each number
on the set may range from 0 to 255. Therefore, the total IP address range ranges from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.
IP address is basically divided into two parts: X1. X2. X3. X4
1. [X1. X2. X3] is the Network ID
2. [X4] is the Host ID
1. Network ID–
It is the part of the left-hand IP address that identifies the specific network where the device is located. In the normal
home network, where the device has an IP address 192.168.1.32, the 192.168.1 part of the address will be the network
ID. It is customary to fill in the last part that is not zero, so we can say that the device’s network ID is 192.168.1.0.
2. Hosting ID–
The host ID is part of the IP address that was not taken by the network ID. Identifies a specific device (in the TCP / IP
world, we call devices “host”) in that network. Continuing with our example of the IP address 192.168.1.32, the host ID
will be 32- the unique host ID on the 192.168.1.0 network.
Version of IP address:
Currently there are 2 versions of IP addresses are in use i.e IPV4 and IPV6
1. IPV4 (Internet Protocol Version 4): It is the first version of Internet Protocol address. The address size of IPV4 is 32 bit
number. In this Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) with respect to network security is optional. It is having 4,294,967,296
number of address still we are seeing a shortage in network addresses as the use of network & virtual devices are
increasing rapidly.
2. IPV6 (Internet Protocol Version 6): It is the recent version of Internet Protocol address. The address size of IPV6 is 128
bit number. In this Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) with respect to network security is mandatory. It allows 3.4 x 10^38
unique IP addresses which seems to be more than sufficient to support trillions of internet devices present now or coming
in future.
IP Address Types:
There are 4 types of IP Addresses- Public, Private, Fixed, and Dynamic. Among them, public and private addresses are derived
from their local network location, which should be used within the network while public IP is used offline.
1. Public IP address–
A public IP address is an Internet Protocol address, encrypted by various servers/devices. That’s when you connect
these devices with your internet connection. This is the same IP address we show on our homepage. So why the second
page? Well, not all people speak the IP language. We want to make it as easy as possible for everyone to get the
information they need. Some even call this their external IP address. A public Internet Protocol address is an Internet
Protocol address accessed over the Internet. Like the postal address used to deliver mail to your home, the public
Internet Protocol address is a different international Internet Protocol address assigned to a computer device. The web
server, email server, and any server device that has direct access to the Internet are those who will enter the public
Internet Protocol address. Internet Address Protocol is unique worldwide and is only supplied with a unique device.
2. Private IP address–
Everything that connects to your Internet network has a private IP address. This includes computers, smartphones, and
tablets but also any Bluetooth-enabled devices such as speakers, printers, or smart TVs. With the growing internet of
things, the number of private IP addresses you have at home is likely to increase. Your router needs a way to identify
these things separately, and most things need a way to get to know each other. Therefore, your router generates private
IP addresses that are unique identifiers for each device that separates the network.
3. Static IP Address–
A static IP address is an invalid IP address. Conversely, a dynamic IP address will be provided by the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which can change. The Static IP address does not change but can be changed as
part of normal network management.
Static IP addresses are incompatible, given once, remain the same over the years. This type of IP also helps you get
more information about the device.
 4. Dynamic IP address–
It means constant change. A dynamic IP address changes from time to time and is not always the same. If you have a
live cable or DSL service, you may have a strong IP address. Internet Service Providers provide customers with dynamic
IP addresses because they are too expensive. Instead of one permanent IP address, your IP address is taken out of the
address pool and assigned to you. After a few days, weeks, or sometimes even months, that number is returned to the
lake and given a new number. Most ISPs will not provide a static IP address to customers who live there and when they
do, they are usually more expensive. Dynamic IP addresses are annoying, but with the right software, you can navigate
easily and for free.
Types of Website IP address:
Website IP address is of two types- Dedicated IP Address and Shared IP Address. Let us discuss the two.
1. Dedicated IP address–
A dedicated IP address is one that is unique for each website. This address is not used by any other domain. A dedicated
IP address is beneficial in many ways. It provides increased speed when the traffic load is high and brings in increased
security. But dedicated IPs are costly as compared to shared IPs.
2. Shared IP address–
A shared IP address is one that is not unique. It is shared between multiple domains. A shared IP address is enough for
most users because common configurations don’t require a dedicated IP.
IP Address Classification Based on Operational Characteristics:
According to operational characteristics, IP address is classified as follows:
1. Broadcast addressing–
The term ‘Broadcast’ means to transmit audio or video over a network. A broadcast packet is sent to all users of a local
network at once. They do not have to be explicitly named as recipients. The users of a network can open the data
packets and then interpret the information, carry out the instructions or discard it. This service is available in IPv4. The IP
address commonly used for broadcasting is 255.255.255.255
2. Unicast addressing–
This address identifies a unique node on the network. Unicast is nothing but one-to-one data transmission from one point
in the network to another. It is the most common form of IP addressing. This method can be used for both sending and
receiving data. It is available in IPv4 and IPv6.
3. Multicast IP addresses–
These IP addresses mainly help to establish one-to-many communication. Multicast IP routing protocols are used to
distribute data to multiple recipients. The class D addresses (224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255) define the multicast group.
4. Anycast addressing–
In anycast addressing the data, a packet is not transmitted to all the receivers on the network. When a data packet is
allocated to an anycast address, it is delivered to the closest interface that has this anycast address.