Chapter IV: Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Languages

2. Introduction

In the last lesson, we just looked at the subdivision of phonetics, where we looked at the
sounds that are used in a language.

Many students find the initial learning of phonetics and phonology quite daunting and with
good reason. A review of language acquisition puts it in perspective: human children begin
learning the sounds of their native language in infancy, and now we are asking you to learn them
again in a conscious, scientific way.

In this lesson, we will continue to look at the sounds of language, but instead of just looking
at how they are produced in isolation in the vocal tract and learning the technical names of the
sounds, we will look at what happens when speakers combine sounds together. That is, we will
look at Phonology or the study of how speech sounds combine.

3. Learning Outcome

 Demonstrate familiarity with the different

phonological units and distinctive features
of phonology.
 Use basic concepts on the rules of phonology.
 Show understanding on theories of phonology
as discussed in prosodic phonology.
 Appreciate the importance of learning the sounds
of human speech and the variations of every phoneme in the language.

4. Learning Content

Topics for Module 1: The Pronunciation of Morphemes

Topic 1: The Pronunciation of Morphemes

All the languages in the world sound so different because the way the languages use
speech sounds to form patterns differs from language to language.

What is Phonology?
 The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology. Phonology tells us what
sounds are in a language, how they do and can combine into words, and explains why certain
phonetic features are important to identifying a word.

Phonology also refers to the sound structure of speech, and to the perception,
representation, and production of speech sounds.

Speech sounds can be classified as either consonant or vowels.

 Consonants – the air does not flow freely.

 Vowels – air flows freely to create different sounds

Let’s try this!

How about with these letter
combinations?
Put your fingers in front of your throat:
Say the letters “v” and “f” B/P D/T

What is the
difference? Z/S G/K

Phonology serves as the underlying design for all the variations in different physical
articulations of a sound type in different contexts.

We think of the [t] sound in the following words to be the same:

 Tar What we mean is that in the phonology of

 Star English, they are all represented in the same way,
 Writer but physically, they are all different.
 Eighth

Plurals
Sometimes certain morphemes are pronounced differently depending on their context.
For example, the English plural morpheme has three different pronunciations depending on
what noun you attach it to:
cab[z] cap[s]

It gets pronounced as a [z] bag[z] It gets pronounced as a [s] back[s]

bar[z] faith[s]

bus[əz]

It gets pronounced as a [əz] garage[əz]

match[əz]
e
 To help distinguish the phonological environment of the words that take the [-s], [-z], and [-
ez] allomorphs, minimal pairs can be used.

Minimal Two words with different meanings that are identical except
Pair for one sound that occurs in the same place in each word.

Minimal pairs whose members take different forms of the plural allomorph are particularly
helpful for our purposes.
For example: cab [kæb] and cap [kæp] differ only by their final sound, so since each word
take a different allomorph, we can assume that the allomorph is selected based on the final sound
of the noun. Therefore: cab – /kæbz/ cap – / kæps/
More examples: bead [bid] and beat [bit] …. /bidz/ and /bits/ laugh [læf] and love [lʌv] ….
/læfs/ and /lʌvz/

List of Minimal Pairs [S] And [Z] Sound Since we are looking only at the
Plural nouns ending in es / final sound of each noun, we
1. Log and lock --- log[z] and lock[s] [ez] can make our chart a little
sunccinct.
2. Wig and wick --- wig[z] and wick[s] 1. Mass + es = mass[ez]
Allomorph Environment
3. Snag and snack --- snag[z] and 2. Blouse + es = blous[ez]
snack[s] [z] after [b], [d], [g], [v], [ð],
3. Match + es= match[ez] [m],
4. Girl and curl --- girl[z] and curl[s]
4. Sash + es = sash[ez] [n], [ŋ], [l], [r], [a], [ɔɪ]
5. Stag and stack --- stag[z] and
stack[s] 5. Lash + es = lash[ez] [s] after [p], [t], [k], [f], [ɵ]
6. Guard and card --- guard[z] and [ǝᴢ] after [s], [∫], [z], [Ʒ], [tʃ], [dƷ
card[s]
Topic 2: Phonemes - The Phonological Units of Language

What is a Phoneme?
Phoneme is the smallest unit of sounds that distinguish one word from another in a
particular language.

A phoneme may have more than one variant, called allophones.

Phonemes are based on spoken language and may be recorded with special symbols,
such as International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Vowel Nasalization in English as an Illustration of

Allophones
(Vowels become nasalized when it is followed by nasals)

Words Nonwords

Any of these words form a minimal pair: two different

words that differ in one sound. The two sounds that
cause the word difference belong to different phonemes.
From the minimal set of [b–t] words, we
can infer that English has at least twelve
vowel phonemes, namely, /i/ /ɪ/ /e/ /ɛ/ /æ/ Allophones of (t)
/u/ /ʊ/ /o/ /ɔ/ /a/ /ʌ/ and /aɪ/, /aʊ/, /ɔɪ/.

In English, each vowel phoneme

has both an oral and a nasalized
allophone.

For Allophones of (t) videos, you may visit these links:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xKk7xmiRFc

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b9lvGH8zUJs
Topic 3: Distinctive Features of Phonemes
Phonemes
Roman Jakobson proposed that there is one universal set of distinctive features for all
languages, which define classes of sounds relevant to phonology.

 All contrasts must be stated in terms of these features.

 All restrictions on distribution must be stated in terms of these features.

Definition
Distinctive features are the universal set of cognitive properties associated with the speech
sounds that are used in language. They determine the contrasts which may exist between speech
sounds, account for the ways in which these sounds may change, or alternate, and define the sets
of sounds.

Feature Systems
The formal development of distinctive feature theory is due primarily to Roman Jakobson.
a) Only binary oppositions are accepted [+/-]
b) Descriptions should be based on a minimum number of DFs (Distinctive Features).
c) These are selected from a limited set of universal DFs.
d) The DF values for the sounds of a language are arranged as a matrix with +, – and 0 (not
relevant) values.
An alternate way to analyze sounds makes use of the concept of binary or paired features
where there is an opposition between the presence or absence of a feature in a particular sound.

+ feature] and [- feature] to indicate the presence or

absence of that particular feature

A notation is used for features in which the name of the feature is capitalized and enclosed
in square brackets, the presence of the feature is indicated by a plus sign and its absence by a
minus sign.

1. Major Features
Feature Definition Examples
Sonorant -These have spontaneous voicing vowels, approximants, nasals
Non-sonorant -Also called obstruents. plosives, fricatives, affricates
-Spontaneous voicing not possible.
-They have both voiced and non-voiced elements

Vocalic -In producing them, no obstruction at any point vowels, semi-vowels /r, l/

Non-vocalic -There is obstruction in the production process nasals consonants, non-sonorants

Consonantal -There is obstruction at some points in the vocal as narrow as in fricatives and
tract approximants
Non-consonantal -No obstruction is possible in their production vowels
2. Cavity Features

Feature Definition Examples

Anterior These sounds are produced with obstructions labials, dentals, alveolars
in front of the palato- alveolar region
Non-anterior The sounds are made before the alveolar palato- alveolar, velar, glottal
region
Coronal Blade of the tongue is raised upwards from its dentals, alveolar, palato-alveolar
neutral position
Non-coronal The blade of the tongue is not raised above labials, palatal, velar, vowels.
the neutral position

3. Tongue Features

4. Lip Posture
Feature Definition Examples
Round When the lips get rounded back vowels, velar approximant /w/ as well as
and narrows the lip orifice labialised sounds
Non-round Such rounding does not all front, central and low (open) back vowels, coronals,
occur palatals, alveolars, and non-labialised velars.
5. Secondary Aperture Features

Feature Definition Examples

High When the tongue is raised above the neutral palatals, velars, high (close) vowels
position
Non-high When the tongue is not above the neutral labials, glottal, central and low (open)
position vowels
Low The tongue is below the neutral position. low (open) vowel /a:/, glottal /h/
Non-low When the tongue is not lowered below the Central and high vowels, labials,
neutral position alveolars, palatals, velars
Back Tongue is retracted backwards from the neutral velars, back vowels
position
Non-back When there is no retraction of the tongue. labials, dentals, alveolars, palatals,
Sounds in front of the velar central and front vowels
6. Manner Features
Feature Definition Examples
Nasal Velum is lowered to allow airstream pass through the nose.
Non-nasal Velum is not lowered for its production. Oral articulation of
sounds. All oral sounds are produced in this manner.

Feature Definition Examples

Continuant There is no total blockage of air at the point of articulation fricatives, approximants
Non-continuant There is blockage of airflow at some point in the constriction plosives and affricates
of the articulatory organs
Delayed release The air is gradually released after its obstruction affricates /t∫, dʒ/
Non-delayed Obstructed air is released instantaneously plosives.
release
7. Phonation Features

Feature Definition Examples

Voiced There is the vibration of the vocal cords in its all English vowels, voiced
production consonants in English
Non-voiced There is free passage of air through the glottis voiceless consonants, devoiced
vowels and consonants

Note: remember that DFs are phonological features. So, such devoiced consonants and vowels
can occur due to environmental conditioning.
Distinctive Features and Definitions
Features Definitions

A normally voiced sound characterized by relatively free air flow through the vocal tract;
Sonorant sonorants include vowels, semivowels, liquids, and nasals. The opposite of sonorants are
obstruents, which constrict the flow of air more severely.

Sounds characterized by a partial or complete obstruction of the flow of air through the
Consonantal
speech organs.
[+consonantal]: stops, affricates, fricatives (excluding [h]), nasals, liquids
[- consonantal]: vowels, semivowels, [h]
Each syllable in a word requires a syllabic sound; put another way, every word has just as
Syllabic
many syllabics as there are syllables. Vowels are always syllabic; nasals and liquids may or may
not be (hence they are marked that way on the chart); and the other consonants are never
syllabic.
The flow of air in continuants is not blocked at any point in the articulation of the sound.
Continuant They include all the sounds other than stops and affricates.
When the velum is relaxed the air flows through nasal cavity to produce nasal sounds.
Nasal English has three [+ nasal] consonants.
Labial sounds are articulated by an obstruction at the lips. (This does not include rounding,
Labial which also takes place at the lips.)
[+ labial]: p, b, f, v, m
Sounds formed by touching or nearly touching the tip of the tongue to the hard ridge
Alveolar immediately behind the upper front teeth.
[+ alveolar]: t, d, s, z, n, l, r
Sounds produced by moving the front part of the tongue to or near the hard palate at the
Palatal roof of the mouth.
[+ palatal]: [cv], [jv], [sv], [zv], y (where the “v” indicates a hacek above the first letter)
Sounds produced by moving the back of the tongue to or near the velum (soft palate).
Velar [+ velar]: k, g, [eng]
Anterior sounds are produced by an obstruction in the front part of the oral cavity, from the
Anterior alveolar ridge forward. They include labials, interdentals, and alveolars (but not
alveolopalatals).
Sounds made by raising the front (or blade) of the tongue from a neutral position.
Coronal [+ coronal]: interdentals, alveolars, alveolopalatals
As the name suggests, sibilant sounds produce a “hissing” effect by forcing the air through a
Sibilant narrow opening formed using the middle of the tongue.
[+ sibilant]: [cv, jv, s, z, sv, zv] (where “v” indicates a hacek)
Voiced sounds are produced with vibrating vocal cords. They include all sounds that are [+
Voiced sonorant], and with the exception of [h] all obstruents come in voiced/voiceless pairs.
 A sound produced in vowels and semivowels with the tongue drawn back or retracted from a
Back neutral position. [+ back]: back vowels and [w]
Sounds produced with a rounding of the lips to give a narrow opening. Rounded sounds
Rounded include open o, close o, tense u, lax u, and [w].
The body of the tongue is raised in producing high sounds. This feature applies only to four
High vowels in English: tense and lax u and i. Note that vowels that are neither high nor low (i.e.,
[- high], [- low]) are mid vowels, which are otherwise not categorized here.
Low sounds are produced with the jaw slightly open to allow the body of the tongue to draw
Low lower. American English has three low vowels. Note that vowels that are neither high nor low
(i.e., [- high], [- low]) are mid vowels, which are otherwise not categorized here.
Tense sounds are produced with a contraction of muscles at the base of the tongue. In
Tense American English the feature applies only to vowels that are not low (that is, [- low]). There
are four [+ tense] vowels [i, e, u, o]

See the feature grid for English consonants below.

P b m t d n k g ŋ f v s z θ ð ʃ ʒ t d l r y w h ʔ
ʃ ʒ
[SYLLABIC] – – ± – – ± – – ± – – – – – – – – – – ± ± – – – –
[CONSONANTAL] + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + – – – –
[SONORANT] – – + – – + – – + – – – – – – – – – – + + + + – –
[NASAL] – – + – – + – – + – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
[ANTERIOR] + + + + + + – – – + + + + + + – – – – + + – – – –
[CORONAL] – – – + + + – – – – – + + + + + + + + + + – – – –
[HIGH] – – – – – – + + + – – – – – – – – – – – – + + – –
[BACK] – – – – – – + + + – – – – – – – – – – – – – + – –
[CONTINUANT] – – – – – – – – – + + + + + + + + – – + + + + + –
[DELAYED
RELEASE]
– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + + – – – – – –

[SIBILANT] – – – – – – – – – – – + + – – + + + + – – – – – –
[VOICE] – + + – + + – + + – + – + – + – + – + + + + + – –
[LATERAL] – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – + – – – – –

Note that all consonants except the glides and /h/ are [+CONSONANTAL]. Nasals, liquids,
and approximants are [+SONORANT], while fricatives, liquids, and approximants are
[+CONTINUANT].
See the feature grid for the basic English vowels below:

i ɪ e ɛ æ ə ʌ u ʊ o ɔ ɑ
[HIGH] + + – – – – – + + – – –
[LOW] – – – – + – – – – – – +
[BACK] – – – – – + + + + + + +
[ROUND] – – – – – – – + + + + +
[TENSE] + – + – – – – + – + ± +
[REDUCED] – – – – – + – – – – – –

Note that vowels are all [+VOCALIC] (an open oral cavity with voicing) as well as
[–CONSONANTAL, +SONORANT, +VOICE, +CONTINUANT]. The diphthongs /eɪ, ɪu, aɪ, aʊ, oʊ,
ɔɪ/ cannot be distinguished by these features but must be treated as a combination of vowel +
glide.

Now try to do the following

exercises:
1. What distinctive feature(s) do the sounds in each set have in common?
a. /k/, /u/, /ɑ/, /ŋ/ - ___________ d. /l/, /ʒ/, /t/, /n/- ___________
b. /b/, /ŋ/, /ɛ/, /ʊ/- ___________ e. /j/, /k/, /i/, /w/- ___________
c. /f/, /ʃ/, /ə/, /j/- ___________ f. /r/, /ŋ/, /ɔ/, /æ/- ___________

2. What feature or features distinguish each of the following sets of sounds?

a. /v/, /ə/- ___________ f. /i/, /j/- ___________
b. /f/, /v/- ___________ g. /u/, /ʊ/- ___________
c. /r/, /j/- ___________ h. /z/, /ð/- ___________
d. /f/, /θ/- ___________ i. /g/, /ŋ/- ___________
e. /e/, /o/- ___________ j. /t/, /s/- ___________
3. Give a list of distinctive features for each of the following sounds.
a. /w/- ___________
b. /dʒ/- ___________
c. /l/- ___________
d. /ɑ/- ___________
4. What sound or sounds do the following sets of distinctive features have?
a. [+CONSONANTAL, +HIGH, +SONORANT, +BACK] - ___________
b. [–CONSONANTAL, +HIGH, –BACK, –VOCALIC] - ___________
c. [–ROUND, +LOW, –BACK] - ___________
d. [+ANTERIOR, –SIBILANT, +CORONAL, –VOICE] - ___________
5. It could be argued that [±NASAL] is a redundant feature since it is not required to distinguish /m,
n, ŋ/ from other sounds. Explain.
Topic 4: The Rules of Phonology
Phonological rules are part of communication through language, whether spoken or
written, and knowing what they are and why they exist can help us better understand our
world. Understanding phonological rules is considered an important aspect in teaching English or
working with people who have speech problems
In order to understand the purpose of phonological rules, we need to understand what a
phoneme is. According to the traditional phonological theories, a phoneme is the minimal unit in
the sound system of a language (Crystal,1997:287). Phonological rules are the rules whether
written or spoken that control how sounds change during vocal communication. Phonological rules
describe how phonemes are realized as their allophones in a given environment. Environment in
phonology typically refers to neighboring phonemes. John Golden Smith (1995) defines
phonological rules as mappings between two different levels of sound representation in this
case, the abstract or underlying level and the surface level. Bruce Hayes (2009) describes
them as "generalizations" about the different ways a sound can be pronounced in different
environments. That is to say, phonological rules describe how a speaker goes from the abstract
representation stored in their brain, to the actual sound they articulate when they speak. In
general, phonological rules start with the underlying representation of a sound (the phoneme that
is stored in the speaker's mind) and yield the final surface form, or what the speaker actually
pronounces. For example, the English plural -s may be pronounced as[s] (in "cats"),[z] (in "cabs"),
or as [ iz] (in "buses"); these forms are all stored mentally as the same -s, but the surface
pronunciations which are derived through a phonological rule are different.

Types of Phonological Rules

Phonological rules can be best understood through the following phonological processes:
1. Assimilation

Hyman (1952:221-3) states that assimilation refers to all adaptive modifications of a

segment in a chain of segments by a neighboring segment. According to Driven (2004:119),
assimilation is a process whereby one sound causes an adjacent sound to be “more similar” to
itself. Sounds become more like the neighboring sounds.
 Types of Assimilation

Distinctiveness and stability

of change

Phonetic Morphologic
(Free variation) (Morphophonemic)

(Contextual) (Historical)

Phonemic

(Neutralization)
(Syncretism)

From the point of view of distinctiveness and stability of change, assimilation patterns
manifest three sub- types:

a. Phonetic - free variation or contextual assimilation. The change affects a certain

segment by selecting a certain variant of that segment.

For example:
[ɱ] (labiodental
triump nasal)
h
/m/ instead of bilabial
nymp
[m]
h

(/m/ in triumph and nymph is rendered [ɱ] (labiodental nasal) instead of bilabial [m].)

Also, /l/ is devoiced after /f/ and /k/ in flight and clean and lips are rounded in the
articulation of /p/, /k/, and /l/ in pool, cool, loom, respectively due to the occurrence of
rounded vowel /u:/ immediately after these consonant segments.

b. Phonemic assimilation is often referred to as "neutralisation'' or ''syncretism''. This is

more systematized, i.e., not subject to free variation. It also results in the neutralization of two
phonemes.

For example: /n/ and /ƞ/ are neutralized in think /Ɵiƞk/, /v/ and /f/ in have to / haft tu/, /z/ and /s/ in
newspaper /'nju:speipə/, and so on. Dirven (2004:119) states that some assimilations such as in
newspaper are obligatory within word boundaries, however, they are optional, and tend to be
more frequent in the informal and relaxed the speaking style.
 c. Morphological or Morphophonemic Assimilation is one which affects a whole
morpheme. It usually decides the morpheme variant (allomorph) according to morphophonemic
rule.
For example: The distribution of suffix - s (plural, 3rd person singular, possessive,
contracted forms is and has) show three allomorphs:
/- s / after voiceless consonants: stops, roots, Philip's, it's

/- z/ after voiced segments: goes, boys, Tom's, he's.

/- iz/ after sibilant consonants: reaches, bridges, James's, George's

Katamba (1989:82) points out that the alternation in the shape of a morpheme is not
arbitrary. Rather, it is phonologically conditioned. This means that the allomorph of a
morpheme that occurs in a given context is partly or wholly determined by the sounds found
in the allomorphs of adjacent morphemes. It is not merely coincidence that is responsible for the
allomorphs of the plural morpheme and the third person plural being [-z -s -iz]. The suffix agrees
in voicing with the preceding sound.

The distribution of suffix –ed (past and past participle) shows three allomorphs:

/- d/ voiced segments: killed, named

/- t/ after voiceless consonants: looked, stopped, reached

/- id/ after /t/ and /d/: wanted, added.

- The distribution of the presufix shows the following allomorphs:

/ il-/ before /l/: illegal , illegitimate.

/ir-/ before /r/ " irregular.

/im/ before labial : immoral , impersonal, immortal.

From the point of view of the distribution of change, assimilation can be progressive
or regressive. When the change involves the following sound, it is called "regressive assimilation"
and when it involves a preceding sound it is called "progressive assimilation".

2. Dissimilation
 When a sound changes one of its features to become less similar to an adjacent
sound , usually to make the two sounds more distinguishable. This type of rule is often seen
among people speaking a language that is not their native language where the sound contrasts
may be difficult so the rule is applied for ease of production and perception.

In other words, dissimilation is a phonological process that changes feature values of

segments to make them less similar.
Examples:

annual annular

sexual secular

cultural cellular(cell)

penal perpendicular

3. Deletion

When a sound, such as a stressless syllable or a weak consonant, is not

pronounced; for example, most American English speakers do not pronounce the [d] in "handbag",
[n] in "condemn", [k] in " know".

So, it is a process by which a sound present in the phonemic form is removed from the
phonetic form in certain environments forease of production.

Lass (1984:186) suggests that there are three types of deletion:

a. Aphaeresis which is initial deletion as in (I am --- I'm, I have ----I 've) or the initial loss of /k/
before /n/ as in know, knight.

b. Syncope is formative internal deletion: the term is most frequently used with vowel loss, but
some writers extend it to consonants as well. This can be seen in American and British forms of
certain words: /sɛkrɪtɛri/ vs. /sɛkrɪtrɪ/ 'secretary', internet to inernet.

c. Apocope is the loss of a final element as /t/ before a word beginning with another consonant,
'last time, also low stress words may lose their finals as in 'and', begging to beggin’, etc.

4. Insertion
 Nathan (2008:82) asserts that not only can segments be deleted, sometimes they can
be inserted instead.

There seem to be two basic reasons for insertion:

1. preventing clusters of
2. and easing transitions
consonants that violate
between segments that have
syllable structure constraints
multiple incompatibilities
in the language

Again, there are Greek-based terms for insertions at the beginning, middle and end.
Insertion at the beginning is observed in Spanish, where the language does not permit onset
clusters.

Words that are inherited from Latin with such clusters changed to have an initial /e/
inserted: especial [espesial] ➝ special estudiante [estudiante] ➝ student escuela
[eskwela] ➝ school

Particularly strange, but well-known kind of insertion is the famous ‘intrusive/linking r’ of

British and some dialects of [American English]. In these dialects a historical /r/ has been deleted
in word-final coda position, but when the word is followed by vowel initial words under complex and
not-completely-understood circumstances, the /r/ reappears, an example of ‘intrusive r’ is: idea [aI
ˈdiə] idea is [aIdiərIz]. All of the examples we have seen so far involve insertion of vowels to break
up sequences of consonants that violate syllable structure constraints. In other cases the /r/
reappears even when there was never an /r/ there in the first place (this is known as ‘intrusive r’).
Typical examples of ‘linking r’ are rear [riə] rear, end [rirεnd].

Two types of insertion:

1. Prothesis - refers to the insertion of a segment at the beginning

Snoopy + /e/ ➝ /esnupi/

2. Epenthesis - refers to the insertion inside a word

glass + plural /s/ ➝ /glæsəz

5. Metathesis

Phonological process that changes the order of phonemes (Old English vs. Contemporary
English)
Examples:

Revelant - relevant relator - realtor

asterix(ks) - asterisk intregal - integral

 comfterble - comfortable

Lass (1984: 188) states that in old English there are interchanges of /p/ and /s/ , as shown in
spelling variants: /ps/ --- /sp/ in waspe 'wasp' , /sp/---/ps/ in apse aspe 'aspen' , cosp cops
'cope' , wlips 'lisping'. He adds that the metathesized forms wasp, copse are now standard.
Another metathesis involves nasal sequences, specially /m/ and /n/: emnity for enmity, anemone
for amenone.

Topic 5. Prosodic Phonology

WHAT IS PROSODY?

This refers to the study of the tune and rhythm of speech and how
these features contribute to meaning. It is also consists of distinctive
variations of stress, tone, and timing in spoken language.

PROSODIC
PHONOLOGY

It is a theory of the way in which the flow of speech is organized into a finite
set of phonological units. It is also, however, a theory of interactions between
phonology and the components of the grammar.

4 PROSODIC FEATURES:
1. SYLLABLE STRUCTURE
2. WORD STRESS
3. SENTENCE AND PHRASE STRESS
4. INTONATION

1. Syllabic Structure
 WHAT IS A SYLLABLE? It is commonly known to be a speech unit that is larger than a
segment.
Two Types of Syllable
1. Open syllable – usually ends in a vowel (go, we, she, he)
2. Closed syllable – usually ends in one or more consonants (eat, ball, mould, rest)
Classification (according to NUMBER of syllables)
1. Monosyllabic – one syllable
2. DISYLLABIC – two syllables
3. POLYSYLLABLIC – two or more syllables
2. Word Stress
WHAT IS STRESS? It is the rhythm of a language. In pronunciation, stress can refer to
words, part of a word, or even one word in a group of words that receives the most emphasis.
Stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words
in a phrase or certain. Stressed syllables are louder than non- stressed syllables. Also, they are
longer and have a higher pitch. It also helps us distinguish words from noun to verb.

Nouns VS Verbs

***Nouns have stress on first syllable of the words. Verbs have stress on the second
syllable of the words.

NOUNS (1ST Syllable) VERBS (2nd Syllable) NOUNS (1ST Syllable) VERBS (2nd Syllable)
CONduct conDUCT OBject obJECT
CONflict conFLICT PERmit perMIT
CONvict conVICT PREsent preSENT
Defect deFECT PROject proJECT
Digest diGEST PROtest proTEST
Export exPORT REcord reCORD
EXtract exTRACT SUBject subJECT
Insult inSULT SUSpect susPECT

3. INTONATION
ACTIVITY: A friend you
haven’t seen
for a long
A friend you time A neighbor
meet you don’t like
regularly
 Someone
SAY “HELLO” TO A 6 month old
doing what he
baby
shouldn’t

.. To know if someone is listening.

Do the same but on the phone.
WHAT IS INTONATION?
In phonetics, intonation is the melodic pattern of an utterance. Intonation helps to recognize
the language that you hear in the same way as the melody of a song helps you recognize the song
that you are listening. It also conveys differences of expressive meaning (e.g., surprise, anger,
happiness).
According to David Crystal, intonation is not a single system of contours and levels, but the
product of the interaction of features from
Two Types of Intonation
1. Rising Intonation - it can express a number of various emotions, such as non-finality,
surprise, doubt, interest, politeness, lack of confidence.
Ex. “Your name is John?”
2. Falling Intonation - used for asking and giving information in normal, quiet, unemphatic
style.
Ex. “Your name is John.”
*Other main types of intonation include: High fall, low fall, fall-rise, high rise, midlevel rise, low
rise
Key Components of Intonation
a. Pitch – degree of height of our voice in speech

b. Sentence Stress – makes the utterance understandable to the listener by making the
important words in the sentence stressed, clear, and higher in pitch, and by the shortening and
obscuring the unstressed words.

c. Rhythm – sense of movement in speech, marked by stress, timing, quantity of syllables

Function of Intonation
 a. Attitudinal Functions - Allows us to express emotions such as confidence, interest,
doubt, joy, pain, irony.

b. Accentual Functions - Implies the placement of stress is determined by intonation.

c. Grammatical Functions - The listener is better able to recognize the grammar and
syntax structure of what is being said by using information contained in the intonation such
as:

 The placement of boundaries between phrases, clauses and sentences.

 The difference between questions and statements.

Discourse Intonation - It can indicate when the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link
with material in another tone unit. In conversation, it can convey to the listener what kind of
response is being expected from him.

7 Cases Where Intonation Matters

1. Asking questions
2. Making statements
3. Listing things
4. Expressing feelings
5. Stressing the importance of something
6. Contrasting between things
7. Using tag questions

Topic 6. Sequential Constraints of Phonemes

No matter what language you speak, you know about a wide variety of completely
unwritten rules that apply specifically both to your language and your particular dialect. Many of
these rules deal with grammatical structures that require you to form your sentences with certain
word orders to be meaningful, others refer to how you pronounce certain words, when to voice a
sound and when to leave it voiceless. Sequential constraints in phonology refer specifically to
the clusters of sounds that you are allowed to use when making words happen.
 In English, consider if you are given the sounds /b/ /l/ /ɪ/ and /k/. These four sounds can be
arranged in a variety of ways that can form words that sound English: /blɪk/, /klɪb/, /bɪlk/, and /kɪlb/.
Of these, only "bilk" is a real word, but they all sound like they are real, and, since we're dealing
with word-formation from phonetics point of view, this is all we care about. Your mental phonetic
constraint is what tells your brain that /kbɪl/ and /lbɪk/ just aren't words that could possibly exist in
English. English phonology tells our brains that words cannot start with /kb/ or /lb/ sounds.
Specifically, your brain knows that a word that starts with a stop consonant cannot be followed by
another stop consonant (/kbɪl/), and if a word starts with a /l/ or /r/ sound, the next sound must be a
vowel, not a stop (/lbɪl/).

In English, you are limited to three-sound consonant clusters at the beginning of words or
syllables:

First Sound Second Sound Third

Cluster Example Word Transcription
Sound
------- ------------ -------------
----------- ------------ ----------- spl Split /splɪt/
s p l spr Spring /spriŋ/
t r spw *
k w spy Spew /spju/
j stl *
str Strength /strɛŋkθ/
stw *
sty *
skl Sclaff /sklæf/
skr Screed /skrid/
skw Square /skwɛr/
sky Skua /'skjuə/

* An exception to these rules, these clusters are not permissible in English initial formations.

Imagine you're given the /kspl/ sound cluster. It is obviously not a permissible cluster to
begin a word with, but can exist inside of words just fine, as in "explicit" /ɛksplɪsɪt/. In multisyllabic
words, larger clusters are permissible because of syllable boundaries: /ɛk $ splɪ $ sɪt/. Note that
the /kspl/ is broken by syllables into a syllable-final /k/ followed by a syllable-initial /spl/ as in our
chart above. In the same way that syllable boundaries make "explicit" a permissible /kspl/ cluster,
we know that "condstluct" /kandstləkt/ is not a permissible word in English, because it either has
an /stl/ or /tl/ syllable-initial sound cluster.
 Advertising in English often makes use of these sequential constraints to create new words
in English that do not have meaning. Consider Bic, which was not in the lexicon when it was
initially introduced, but because it follows the restraints placed on English words, it sounds like real
English words. This is also why we're likely never to have a company come out named Zhpleet
/ʒplit/ because it breaks our cluster rules. For more information on this concept, see lexical gap.

Topic 7. Phonological Analysis

 How to solve phonology problems
1) Look for patterns in the data: Are there minimal pairs? Near-minimal pairs? Complementary
distribution? (never at the same place in the same time)

2) Describe the environments and what happens: Use features and natural classes to talk
about sounds and changes. Can you describe a consistent environment for one of the sounds
that are in complementary distribution?

3) Write down the rules: What it starts out as → what features change/in what environment
In English, the velar nasal [η] can't occur at the beginning of a word. Ex. map, nap, *ngap

Basic way in which languages differ is their inventory of phonemes. For example:

German has the voiceless velar fricative [x], as in bach (creek).

English has voiceless fricatives - [s], voiceless velars - [k], but not both properties.

German also has the high front rounded vowel [y], as in kühn (clever).

English: high front [i], high rounded [u], but these properties are not combined.

English [θ] sets it apart from many languages, including German and French. They have
several voiceless fricatives, but not the interdental. Learning a new (or a first) language includes
learning the "list" or inventory of sounds.

What does phonology do for us?

Phonology of human language is an ingenious solution to a serious problem. Apparent

design features of human spoken language:

1. Large vocabulary: 10,000-100,000 items

2. Open vocabulary: new items are added easily

 3. Variation in space and time: different languages and "local accents"

4. Messages are typically structured sequences of vocabulary items

Compare the "referential" part of the vocal signaling system of other primates:

1. Small vocabulary: ~10 items

2. Closed vocabulary: new "names" or similar items are not added

3. System is fixed across space and time: widely separated populations use the same
signals

4. Messages are usually single items, perhaps with repetition

Some general characteristics of other primate vocalizations that are shared by human
speech:

1. Vocalizations communicate individual identity

2. Vocalizations communicate attitude and emotional state

Some potential advantages of the human innovations:

1. Easy naming of new people, groups, places, etc.

2. Signs for arbitrarily large inventory of abstract concepts

3. Language learning is a large investment in social identity.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

 Online/Face-to-face discussion
 Guided written and oral activities

6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

 Online (synchronous): Google classroom/google meet

 Remote (asynchronous): Modular

8. Assessment Tasks

A. Real Word Identification

Direction: In two columns, list down brand/product names. Identify if these words are real English
words or they just follow the sequential constraints of English words.
Real English Words Not real English words that follow sequential
constraints

B. Appreciating Human Speech Sounds

Direction: In not less than 150 words, write your analysis, thoughts, or appreciation regarding what
you have learned about phonology.

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9. References

Bale, Alan; Reiss, Charles (2018). Phonology: A formal introduction. MIT Press
Davenport, M., & Hannahs, S. J. (2005). Introducing Phonetics and Phonology. London: Hodder
Education
Fromklin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2011). Phonemes: A Phonological Units of Language.
An Introduction to Language (9th ed., International Edition). Canada: Wadsworth Cengage
Learning
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., and Hyams, N. (2014). An Introduction to Language. Boston: Wadsworth
Cengage Learning
Ladefoged, P. (2006). A Course in Phonetics (5th ed.). Boston: Thomson Wadsworth
Nespor, Marina and Irene Vogel. Prosodic Phonology. 1986. Dordrecht: Foris

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Revision: 02
Effectivity: August 1, 2020