Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Harvesting resilience: Tribal home-gardens as socio-ecological solutions for

climate change adaptation and sustainable development in a protected area
Manisha Mallick a, *, Pramod K Singh b, Rajiv Pandey c
a
Forest Research Institute, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun, 248007, Uttarakhand, India
b
Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA), Anand, 388001, Gujarat, India
c
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Pearson Road, P.O. New Forest, Dehradun, 248007, Uttarakhand, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Yuli Shan This study delves into the socio-ecological system (SES) of tribal home-gardens within India’s Similipal Biosphere
Reserve (SBR), unveiling their vital role in fostering biodiversity, resilience, and sustainability. Grounded in an
Keywords: SES framework, our research elucidates the deep interconnectivity between tribal communities and their home-
Climate change adaptation gardens, woven into the tapestry of broader environmental and social dynamics. These gardens, rich in crops,
Indigenous and local knowledge
forest species, and livestock, serve as dynamic reservoirs of indigenous and local knowledge (ILK), crucial for
Indigenous people
bolstering local economies and enhancing climate resilience. We analysed 36 focus group discussions across 36
Nature-based solution
Protected area villages and identified 15 indigenous nature-based practices that significantly contribute to 9 Sustainable
Socio-ecological system Development Goals (SDGs) and 22 Sustainable Development Targets (SDTs). Indigenous home-gardening prac­
tices underpin climate change adaptation strategies and highlight the importance of integrating biodiversity and
socio-economic objectives. Our findings underscore the criticality of diversification in enhancing resilience
within indigenous SES, showcasing the balance between human adaptability and ecological symbiosis. The tribal
home-gardens, driven by indigenous stewardship, provide essential ecosystem services and are instrumental in
ecosystem protection, conservation, and restoration. Additionally, they play a pivotal role in enabling climate
change adaptation, fostering gender empowerment, and upholding cultural significance, all sustained by dy­
namic feedback loops with their natural environment. This paper advocates for the greater recognition and
integration of such indigenous-led NbS and ILK in global climate initiatives, emphasising their indispensability in
enhancing climate resilience and promoting sustainable development within similar SES.

1. Introduction (Strassburg et al., 2020). Such productive landscapes also offer essential
ecosystem services to indigenous people and local community living in
Climate change is a global challenge with far-reaching consequences, or around them (Fischer et al., 2023). Thus, populations inhabiting
including ecosystem disruptions, biodiversity loss, water crises, food protected areas frequently raise complex issues relating to natural
insecurity, and economic losses (Abbass et al., 2022). However, its resource use, access, and management (Zeeshan et al., 2017). In India’s
impact is unevenly distributed, affecting countries and populations SBR, tribal communities face multiple stressors, such as land displace­
distinctly (Tan-Soo et al., 2023). Among the most vulnerable are ment, deforestation, wildlife conflicts, and population expansion, posing
indigenous and tribal communities, whose SES are characterised by high continuous threats to the environment and local economies (Dash and
dependence on natural resources, poverty, challenging geographies, Behera, 2012; Saha and Agarwalla, 2021). The livelihood risks for
inequality, and low literacy levels, rendering them highly susceptible to indigenous populations are further exacerbated by climate change,
climate change impacts (IPCC, 2022; IPCC, 2023). variability, and extreme events (Johnson et al., 2021; Guodaar et al.,
In response to the urgent need to conserve natural ecosystems, there 2023). SBR’s host district, Mayurbhanj, has experienced more frequent
has been a surge in expanding protected and conservation areas and severe droughts and floods in recent decades, causing disruptions in
worldwide, particularly in developing countries due to their high agriculture and forest-based tribal livelihoods (Steinbach et al., 2017).
biodiversity, climate change adaptation, and mitigation potential Globally, indigenous people rank among the most economically

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Mallick), [email protected] (P.K. Singh), [email protected] (R. Pandey).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.141174
Received 22 August 2023; Received in revised form 17 January 2024; Accepted 7 February 2024
Available online 7 February 2024
0959-6526/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

disadvantaged and marginalised communities (Ramos-Castillo et al., climate-development challenges. Despite the potential, there is a notable
2017). Despite being ‘vulnerable,’ many examples worldwide demon­ research gap in thoroughly analysing home-gardens’ ILK practices
strate their resilience through NbS (Townsend et al., 2020). Indigenous concerning climate change adaptation and their potential in achieving
people naturally possess knowledge of local ecosystem dynamics SDGs and SDTs.
through their histories of daily and prolonged engagements with eco­ The core realisation from the sustainable development goals is that
systems for subsistence and livelihoods (Jessen et al., 2022). Thus, human welfare is contingent upon environmental conditions, and
indigenous-led NbS are rooted in the ILK of ecosystems, offering ap­ therefore, good environmental management could, in principle, also
proaches to climate change adaptation that are both environmentally deliver benefits for people, resulting in increased win-win and reduced
compatible and culturally acceptable (IPCC, 2022; Chaudhary et al., risks (Uitto, 2019). Thus, addressing complex sustainability challenges
2022). in the Anthropocene necessitates comprehending the interactions be­
Among the NbS, ‘home-gardens’ are a significant indigenous adap­ tween people and nature (Kim et al., 2023). Examining these in­
tation strategy in SBR. Home-gardens in SBR comprise diverse plant teractions using the social-ecological systems (SES) approach is
species cultivated and conserved around households, providing a wide promising to foster a closer understanding of people-nature relations
array of commodities and services (Fig. 1). The role of home-gardens is (Liu et al., 2023). Further, the climate-human-environment interaction
well-acknowledged in the context of local food systems, especially in space is a complex SES (Singh and Chudasama, 2021b), wherein
developing countries across Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Ivanova vulnerability, adaptive capacity, and resilience can cut both ways in
et al., 2021; Maredia et al., 2023). Despite their importance for food and determining the impacts of climate change (Young et al., 2006).
nutrition security, home-gardens received limited attention in the This paper seeks to comprehensively explore and shed light on the
United Nations Decade on Nutrition (2016–2025), reflecting a discon­ significance of tribal home-gardens within the SBR, positing them as
nect between research findings and multilateral perspectives on their vital socio-ecological instruments for climate change adaptation and
significance in achieving the linked SDGs (Mulia et al., 2022). sustainable development in a protected area. We contend that
The benefits of tribal home-gardens extend beyond food production indigenous-maintained home-gardens, often overlooked in scholarly
to meet subsistence, livelihoods, biodiversity protection, and cultural discourse, represent productive and resilient land patches. They hold
dissemination, all informed by ILK (Mendez et al., 2001; Calvet-Mir immense potential in harmonising social and environmental benefits,
et al., 2016) in SBR. Rooted in the worldviews of indigenous and local thereby addressing the critical challenge of balancing human needs with
people, ILK provides effective solutions that are context-appropriate and the objectives of protection, conservation, and restoration in ecosystem-
location-specific (Singh and Chudasama, 2021a). Unlike conventional centric areas. Specifically, this study aims to address the following
developmental trajectories, the positive outcomes generated by pivotal research questions:
tribal-led home-gardening practices harmoniously align with sustain­
ability principles, making them a promising NbS for integrating climate • How do tribal home-gardens, informed by indigenous knowledge
change adaptation and SDGs (Palestina-González et al., 2021). and practices, contribute to climate resilience and sustainable live­
Recent policymakers recognise the potential for maximising devel­ lihoods in protected area geographies?
opment benefits and minimising negative trade-offs by integrating • In what manners do tribal home-gardening practices align with and
climate interventions into the SDGs, including mitigation and adapta­ contribute to global frameworks such as the SDGs and SDTs?
tion (Mayrhofer and Gupta, 2016). Focusing on ‘livelihoods’ is necessary • What socio-ecological dynamics underpin the effectiveness of tribal
to achieve this objective, as they remain the central foundation of sus­ home-gardens as models for sustainable development within pro­
tainable development and are intertwined with all 17 SDGs (Biggs et al., tected areas?
2015). A livelihood is sustainable when it can withstand and rebound
from stresses and shocks, while preserving and enhancing its capabilities In this paper, we delve into the intricate dynamics of tribal home-
and assets for current and future needs, without depleting natural re­ gardens to unveil how indigenous governance, community involve­
sources (DFID, 1999). Sustainable livelihoods are pivotal in reducing ment, and strategic implementation of NbS can substantially elevate
poverty and climate vulnerability (Pandey et al., 2017; Singh and human welfare and ensure planetary health. Our research rigorously
Chudasama, 2021b), underscoring the importance of tribal analyses these gardens not merely as agricultural entities but as resilient
home-gardening practices in SBR for addressing linked socio-ecological systems pivotal for climate adaptation and sustainable

Fig. 1. Integrated perspectives of SBR home-gardens (1-Tribal women cultivating vegetables in home-gardens, 2-Roof-top crop cultivation of gourds, 3-Trees in
home-gardens, 4-Desiccated greens from home-gardens, 5-Sun-drying of harvests, 6-A mix of crops harvested from farm, forest, and home-gardens for sale in
local market).

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

Fig. 2. Location of sampled villages in Similipal Biosphere Reserve, India.

development in protected areas. This study, therefore, stands as a crucial Local-level interactions within SES form a network of interacting
addition to the literature, bridging indigenous wisdom with modern actors capable of autonomous action, self-organisation, and adaptation
ecological practices and underscoring the invaluable role of local based on their internal dynamics or responses to external stimuli,
knowledge in fortifying communities against environmental un­ contributing to learning and adapting over time, space, and changing
certainties. It is a testament to the power of integrating traditional ap­ contexts (Petrosillo et al., 2015). Thus, SES are perceived as complex
proaches into contemporary environmental frameworks, offering a path adaptive systems wherein ’resilience’ encapsulates the system’s capacity
forward for resilient, sustainable living in harmony with nature. to withstand disturbances while maintaining its core stability (Preiser
et al., 2018).
2. Theoretical and analytical frameworks SES resilience entails navigating ‘diverse’ pathways to uphold its
fundamental identity and function, favouring diversification over static
The study is anchored in the social-ecological systems (SES) theory, equilibrium (Widlok et al., 2012). ‘Adaptability’ implies incremental
highlighting the symbiotic relationship between human societies and adjustments within critical thresholds of the system aimed at sustaining
natural ecosystems. The SES theory evolved from empirical research SES dynamics along stable trajectories (ibid.). When existing structures
focusing on resource commons, institutions, and collective action become untenable due to unexpected shifts in social, economic, or
(Ostrom, 1990; Berkes et al., 2000; Poteete et al., 2010). This founda­ ecological conditions, the SES may undergo significant reconfigurations,
tional work helped to elucidate how individuals autonomously adapt to a process termed ‘transformability,’ which equips the system to embrace
challenges in natural resource governance (Partelow, 2018). novelty for adapting to evolving circumstances (Walker et al., 2004).
The evolution of this theory underscores the necessity of viewing The loss of resilience in SES heightens vulnerability to impacts, risks,
systems as integrations of humans within nature. This integrated or changes. Hence, resilience emerges as a cornerstone in the discourse
perspective, diverging from traditional reductionist methods, reveals of sustainability and climate change adaptation, serving as a conceptual
complex patterns and interactions (Schoon and Van Der Leeuw, 2015). bridge (Rana, 2020). Considering social, economic, and ecological di­
The SES theory underscores a co-evolutionary relationship where mensions are interrelated, sustainable development is clearly under­
humans simultaneously modify and rely upon ecosystems for essential pinned by a socio-ecological rationale (Holling, 2001). Resilience,
services (Folke, 2006; Bodin et al., 2019). adaptability, and transformability form the backbone of our under­
The study incorporates principles from complexity theories to standing regarding sustainable development within complex SES. These
encapsulate the dynamics of SES. This approach recognises the inter­ attributes offer adaptive strategies for sustainability, emphasising flex­
dependence of system components and advocates for a holistic view of ible pathways over rigid outcomes (ibid.).
the system rather than isolating its elements (Petrosillo et al., 2015). Our study leverages the SES framework to examine the intricate role
SES’s complex, adaptive nature is characterised by dynamic interplays of home-garden-based NbS. This approach is particularly apt for un­
between its social and ecological subsystems, leading to emergent be­ derstanding the resilience of tribal home-gardens in protected areas,
haviours (Schoon and Van Der Leeuw, 2015). given their inherent socio-cultural mutualism with natural ecosystems
Non-linearity is a core characteristic of SES, implying that changes in (Li et al., 2022). Here, the interaction between household dynamics
one segment of the system can induce non-proportional and unfore­ (social subsystem) and the natural ecosystem of home-gardens
seeable effects on other components. This attribute characterises recip­ (ecological subsystem) plays a crucial role. These subsystems, while
rocal feedback loops within the SES, where localised alterations distinct, are deeply integrated within broader socio-ecological contexts,
reverberate throughout, affecting both social and ecological dimensions thus extending and receiving influences across diverse spatial and
(Colding and Barthel, 2019). Feedback loops aggregate positive and temporal scales.
negative impacts of change, manifesting not only at local levels but also In exploring socio-ecological resilience, our study gives prominence
cascading across multiple scales, resulting in a hierarchy of interlinked to livelihood security (Carr, 2020). We employ the sustainable liveli­
events (Gunderson and Holling, 2002; Fischer et al., 2015). hood framework (SLF) developed by DFID (1999) to analyse how

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indigenous home-gardening practices contribute to livelihood assets. Agarwalla, 2021). However, these forest-dependent livelihoods are
This framework links these practices to livelihood assets, offering a frequently challenged by restrictive conservation policies and, at times,
multi-faceted lens to examine how system components interact, forti­ violations of forest rights. Notably, the forest fires of 2021, exacerbated
fying adaptive capacity and resilience in the face of climate change (Ye by prolonged heat waves and scarce rainfall, severely impacted the peak
et al., 2022; Natarajan et al., 2022). The SLF offers a vital epistemo­ season of resource collection, reducing access to forests and adversely
logical perspective for our analysis, emphasising local knowledge and affecting the income of these communities. Additionally, recurring
community participation as central to development processes. droughts and inconsistent rainfall patterns have led to water scarcity
Recognising the potential impracticality of addressing climate- and crop losses (Steinbach et al., 2017), while the area’s susceptibility to
adaptive actions as standalone measures, we recalibrated our lightning strikes has resulted in significant human casualties (Srivastava,
approach to analyse ILK-based home-gardening practices within a 2022). The tribal communities also face the impacts of cyclones
broader, contemporary context, taking into account the global impli­ (Mohapatra et al., 2012) and floods (Kaur et al., 2019), affecting both
cations of sustainable livelihoods and climate action. By complementing their forest-based and frugal farming livelihoods.
the SLF and SES frameworks, our analysis probed the cross-scale syn­ The socio-economic well-being of the tribal inhabitants in SBR is
ergies between livelihoods, adaptation, and development in home- closely tied to the fluctuating state of the natural resources within the
gardens. This exploration was guided by the SDG framework (United biosphere reserve. Issues such as illegal deforestation, poaching, human-
Nations, 2017), addressing a wide array of global challenges, such as wildlife conflicts, and commercial exploitation pose continuous threats
poverty, inequality, and environmental degradation. The SDG frame­ to ecosystem conservation. These challenges often lead to a precarious
work further advocates for local interventions as catalysts for global balance between human development and ecosystem preservation
sustainability (Salvia et al., 2019), aligning seamlessly with our focus on objectives.
home-gardens as microcosmic representations of broader SES. Our study focuses on the tribal-led home-gardens in SBR, recognising
By intertwining SES, SLF, and the SDG framework, the study pro­ these as unique, small-scale ecosystems that play a vital role in adaptive
vides a comprehensive understanding of the resilience, adaptability, and management strategies. These gardens not only sustain the livelihoods
transformability of tribal home-gardens within protected areas. This of tribal communities but also demonstrate their resilience and adapt­
tripartite approach enhances our insight into NbS in the context of ability to environmental and socio-economic adversities. By scrutinising
climate change adaptation and sustainable development. these home-gardens, our research aims to underscore their importance
in the broader narrative of sustainable development and conservation
3. Methods within the complex socio-ecological milieu of the SBR.

3.1. Study area 3.2. Study design and approach

The Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR) is located between 21◦ 10′ to This research adopts a qualitative method deeply anchored in our
22◦ 12′ N latitude and 85◦ 58′ to 86◦ 42′ E longitude in the eastern Indian overarching research questions’ explorative and interpretative nature.
state of Odisha (see Fig. 2). The Odisha government initially established Qualitative methodologies are paramount when seeking a comprehen­
it as a wildlife sanctuary in 1979, encompassing 2200 sq. km. Subse­ sive, holistic understanding of complex, real-world phenomena (Cres­
quently, in 2009, recognising its exceptional biodiversity and cultural well and Poth, 2016). We meticulously immersed ourselves in the
significance, UNESCO designated Similipal as a biosphere reserve, unique local contexts of vulnerability within the SBR and explored the
expanding its area to 5569 sq. km (Saranya and Reddy, 2016). The diverse assets and adaptation practices within the tribal home-gardens.
reserve is integral to India’s flagship conservation programmes, ‘Project This study is anchored in an SDG vision, conceptualising adaptations as
Tiger’ and ‘Project Elephant.’ Representing a major biodiversity hotspot, mechanisms to mitigate vulnerability while concurrently recognising
it currently represents various protected areas, including the Similipal co-benefits as integral to sustainable development pathways (Abramo­
Tiger Reserve, Hadgarh, and Kuldiha Wildlife Sanctuaries (Mahapatra vitz et al., 2002). In acknowledging the rich cultural tapestry of SBR, our
et al., 2015). study employs the terms’ indigenous’ and ‘tribals’ interchangeably to
The topography of the reserve is remarkably diverse, with elevations reflect the distinct cultural identities present.
ranging from 200 m to 1165 m above sea level, comprising mountains,
forests, grasslands, and wetlands. This varied landscape sustains over 3.3. Data collection approach
1000 plant species and a multitude of agroecosystems (Mohanta et al.,
2020). Central to the reserve are hills that give rise to several streams, A meticulously designed data collection strategy was implemented to
which, upon converging, form rivers that flow through a narrow strip of explore the intricate interplay between indigenous communities, their
coastal plains within SBR before draining into the Bay of Bengal. Known home-gardens, and the broader socio-ecological context within SBR.
as the "Himalayas of Odisha," SBR plays a pivotal role in regulating the This encompassed 36 focus group discussions (FGDs) conducted across
climatic conditions in parts of Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal in 36 villages segmented into nine administrative blocks of the SBR. The
Eastern India (Kumar et al., 2017). villages were selected using a snowball sampling procedure, where local
The reserve is home to various scheduled tribes, including the Kol­ staff from the forest and agriculture departments played a pivotal role.
has, Bhumija, Santhal, Munda, Bathudi, Mahali, Saunti, Gonda, This method was particularly effective in addressing logistical chal­
Bhuiyan, Khadias, and Mankadias. These communities, coexisting lenges, facilitating the engagement of tribal collaborators who assisted
harmoniously with the native biodiversity, form a unique socio- in sensitively approaching the often hard-to-reach tribal communities.
ecological network (Misra et al., 2013). SBR includes a buffer zone The FGDs were conducted in open environments, strategically chosen
encompassing 61 villages and a transitional zone with 1200 villages, for their proximity to tribal households. This setting was practical and
collectively housing a population of about 4.5 lakh individuals, of which crucial, as it allowed researchers and participants to make direct, real-
73.44% are tribals (Kumar et al., 2017). The tribal communities, in time observations of the home-gardens, households, and biosphere
conjunction with forest management efforts, significantly influence the surroundings, thereby significantly enriching the qualitative data elici­
reserve’s ecosystem through practices like grazing, lopping, surface tation process.
burning, and litter removal (Mishra et al., 2008).
The tribal populations engage in the seasonal harvest of resources 3.4. Participants and informed consent
like wild foods, medicinal plants, gum, resins, and honey, which are vital
for their sustenance and contribute to the local economy (Saha and The composition of the FGDs was carefully curated to include 6–8

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

participants from the tribal communities, ensuring representation of their significance in customary rituals (such as marriage, death, and
both genders in each session. Participation was predicated on informed harvests) as well as in food cultures. Significantly, Mahua and other trees
consent, with each individual being thoroughly briefed about the study’s in home-gardens also facilitate a balancing shift in purpose from sub­
objectives, the nature of the information required, and its intended use sistence to livelihoods in the face of external stressors such as climate
for academic publication. change and variability in SBR.
The FGD participants unanimously recognised the economic effi­
3.5. Thematic exploration ciency of home-garden-based NbS, noting a significant reduction in
expenditures on seeds, nutrients, and water. Diverse sources for seeds
A thematic approach was adopted during the FGDs to facilitate the and saplings include conserved stocks within the gardens, neighbouring
collection of nuanced yet comprehensible insights into various di­ forests, local farms, and community exchanges. The limited access and
mensions of tribal home-gardens. The discussion was bifurcated into two high costs of irrigation necessitate the use of rainfall and repurposed
distinct phases: the initial phase focused on general attributes of home- domestic water as primary irrigation methods, underscoring the
gardens and indigenous practices (Theme 1), probing into aspects such resourcefulness of tribal communities in SBR.
as garden composition, species utilisation, daily and seasonal activities, Diversification is the hallmark of SBR tribal home-gardening. Home-
and socio-cultural nuances. The subsequent phase delved deeper into gardens’ attributes are strategically diversified to align with and adapt
subsistence, household welfare, and livelihoods, particularly in climate to the local contexts that vary circumstantially (Fig. 3). A notable dy­
change adaptation, resilience (Theme 2), and sustainable development namic is observed when indigenous men migrate for work and women
(Theme 3). The thematic boundaries were kept fluid to accommodate seamlessly step in to manage garden labour, ensuring continuity and
the naturally evolving conversations, allowing for a dynamic and thor­ avoiding extra costs. This adaptability is a key feature of the gardens’
ough exploration of tribal home-gardens. This iterative questioning ability to respond to various stressors. For instance, the 2021 forest fires
process, guided by the researchers’ insights, participant inputs, and on- in SBR prompted a shift in resource collection from forests to home-
site observations, fostered an interactive and comprehensive exploration gardens, significantly benefiting tribal households.
of the thematic domains. Each FGD lasted approximately 90 min. Many participants in the FGDs reported a positive shift in conser­
vation motives within their home gardens, attributed to the declining
3.6. Data analysis and saturation forest tree species, the demarcation of protected area boundaries, and
the forest department’s fines for trespassing. Contrastingly, some FGD
We employed documentation and thematic data categorisation for participants circumstantially reduce the trees in their home-gardens to
analysing qualitative data. This process aimed to identify consistent earn incomes or reconfigure spaces for vegetable cultivation or livestock
patterns and themes related to home-gardening practices, climate shelter construction. A smaller but noticeable pattern among the FGD
change adaptation, and sustainable development. The analysis included discussions highlights the home-gardens’ proximity to tribal dwellings,
a detailed cross-referencing of repetitive information across FGDs to offering significant convenience and time-saving advantages. This is
enhance the findings’ precision and rigour. The point of data saturation particularly valued by women, who find them a viable alternative to
was achieved after the completion of 28 FGDs. However, the study forest excursions. Thus, aggregated feedback from interactions between
extended to 36 FGDs to ensure an exhaustive comprehension of the ILK, culture, and resource needs within the tribal social subsystem
subject, in line with our sampling plan. continually shapes the biophysical environment of these gardens. The
FGDs echoed a pattern of diversification in home-gardening practices,
4. Results reflecting both a response to environmental changes and a proactive
approach to addressing external stressors.
4.1. Diversification as the unifying characteristic of tribal home-gardens
4.2. Climate change adaptation benefits of tribal home-gardens
In SBR, home-gardens are diverse, small-scale ecosystems adjacent to
tribal dwellings, showcasing a blend of conventional and unconven­ The vulnerability of tribal communities to secure livelihoods is
tional elements. These gardens integrate native forest species, crop accentuated by the unequal distribution, access, and control of vital
cultivation patches, and domesticated livestock, forming unique agro­ resources such as land, water, and forests, particularly in the context of
forestry systems. As revealed during the FGDs, the engagement of climate challenges. In the SBR region, the intricate interplay between
household members, spanning all age groups except infants, fluctuates forests, agriculture, and socio-economic activities among these vulner­
from part-time to full-time involvement, self-organising and adapting to able tribal communities underscores the need for effective adaptation
the continuously adjusted goals of the tribal home-gardens. This fluidity strategies. FGDs conducted with these communities revealed that their
in participation is exemplified during early summer, when intensified home-gardens play a vital role in mitigating these vulnerabilities. Ben­
activities for the time-sensitive collection and local processing of sea­ nett et al. (2016) highlight that various contextual factors shape these
sonal produce occur. Such periods highlight the critical role of home- strategies beyond climate change. Notably, tribal home-gardens in the
gardens in the oral transmission of ILK, reinforced through practical, SBR embody various techniques (Table 1), empowering communities to
hands-on engagement (Buechler, 2016). generate essential livelihood assets despite adversities and addressing
While home-gardens exhibit some degree of variability in floristic climatic challenges.
composition, a detailed examination of the gardens guided by the FGD A key observation from the FGDs was employing multi-layered
participants, revealed a pattern of frequently occurring plant species. cultivation methods in home gardens, including underground, on-
Key indigenous tree species, native to SBR’s forests, are purposefully ground, and canopy-level cultivation. This strategic utilisation of
conserved within the tribal home-gardens. Species such as Sal (Shorea space maximises the productivity of land, a limited natural asset.
robusta), Sissoo (Dalbergia latifolia), Mahua (Madhuca indica), Khajuri Notably, roof-top cultivation of Cucurbit crops, exploiting seasonal and
(Phoenix sylvestris), Kusum (Schleichera oleosa), Neem (Azadirachta ind­ unexpected rains, emerged as an innovative adaptation practice. Some
ica), and various bamboo species are conserved for their cultural, me­ tribal female participants shared their experience of successful roof-top
dicinal, fodder, and livelihood values. In particular, the conservation of gardening, gesturing towards their surplus produce, expressing their
Mahua trees underscores the deep entwinement of social and ecological intention to sell it. This practice not only aims to reduce household ex­
subsystems within the tribal communities, resonating in their customary penses but also creates opportunities for income generation, thereby
rituals and food culture. The phrase ‘Nobody kills a Mahua’ is a statement contributing to the enhancement of financial assets and buffering
that resonated widely during our discussions with tribals, emphasising against potential climate-induced economic losses, aligning with

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

Fig. 3. Diverse characteristics of tribal home-gardens (The figure depicts the diversification of tribal home-gardens in SBR. It highlights how social diversity un­
derpins operational adaptability, crucial for garden maintenance and productivity. Tribal practices enrich these gardens’ ecological complexity, fostering resilience
and enhancing livelihoods through diverse income-generating avenues).

insights from Kuang et al. (2019). mobilise available natural resources into financial assets but also loop
Participants in the FGDs identified a range of socio-economic bene­ back to reinforce and enhance their overall welfare actively.
fits derived from home-garden trees, including timber, fruits, medicinal Robust social network patterns within tribal communities are
resources, and seeds for sustenance and trade. These resources offer evident in participants’ shared knowledge about conserved species, crop
multiple avenues for generating financial assets. Home-gardens in SBR, production, damages, and trees felled in neighbours’ home-gardens. The
characterised by the co-cultivation of a variety of vegetables and trees, occasional sharing of harvests among neighbours and kin rejuvenates
starkly contrast the prevalent paddy monocultures in the region. The social capital. This is particularly evidenced in our real-time observa­
resilience of trees to water scarcity, as they access deeper soil layers for tions of free labour contributions by neighbours in home-gardens,
nutrients and water — a trait unavailable to crops in the rhizosphere compensating for the lack of physical, human, and financial assets.
(Gifawesen et al., 2020) — was collectively affirmed by the FGD par­ Such collaborative ethos, especially in response to adverse weather
ticipants. When prompted reiteratively regarding the environmental conditions, fosters cooperation and collaborative efforts to adapt to
benefits of tree conservation, participants of several FGDs emphasised climate change, as highlighted by Paul et al. (2016). Thus, the adapta­
soil enrichment through leaf fall. tion strategies in home-gardens reorient interactions within and be­
Tribal participants acknowledged timber-producing trees and tween indigenous communities and their environment. This exemplifies
bamboo within their home-gardens as strategic assets. These resources the ability of the SES to learn, evolve, adapt, and stabilise climate risks
are crucial for generating income during crises, helping to restore and for tribals.
improve physical assets such as household infrastructure and livestock A preference for utilising readily available organic wastes as re­
shelters, mitigating vulnerabilities to infrastructure damage, and sources in home-gardens was a common theme among tribal partici­
reducing post-disaster construction costs. FGD participants recalled in­ pants. They employ wood ash, plant-derived, food, and livestock waste
stances of climate-induced events like forest fires and heavy rainfall, as natural fertilisers. Additionally, the strategy of repurposing water
during which the flora of the home-gardens served as vital insurance, from cooking or processing forest and agricultural products for irriga­
reducing dependency on inaccessible forest resources. tion effectively curbs nutrient and water input costs, improves soil
The home-gardens play a crucial role in meeting the dietary needs of fertility, and enhances crop production, thereby establishing circular
tribal households, offering a wide array of nutrients and minerals. The resource systems that contribute to the sustainability of their home-
cultivation and consumption of diverse wild foods and underground gardening practices.
tubers are strategic responses to ensure nutritional security, even in
unpredictable climate conditions. Sun-drying is a predominant practice 4.3. Co-benefits of home-gardening practices in sustainable development
observed at multiple FGD sites. Upon inquiry, the FGD participants
linked sun-drying with creating alternative food supplies with extended The FGDs conducted in the SBR with tribal communities unveiled a
shelf-life in anticipation of droughts or excessive precipitation. rich array of NbS. These solutions, deeply embedded in the socio-
Leveraging their widely-recognised ethnobotanical knowledge (Panda economic fabric of tribal life, are a testament to their resilience and
et al., 2011), tribal communities reported the use of diverse flora for adaptability. Home-gardening practices, a cornerstone of these NbS,
healthcare benefits and trade. This exemplifies how human assets, reflect a strategic alignment of resource-efficient, low-cost decisions
embodied in ILK, not only mediate the ability of tribal communities to with the economic realities of the tribal SES. These practices are not

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

Table 1 Table 1 (continued )

Home-gardening practices of tribals in SBR and their benefits expressed in the Home-gardening practices (code) Climate change adaptation benefits
forms of sustainable livelihood assets. (Livelihood asset) NA-Natural asset, HA-
Home-gardening practices (code) Climate change adaptation benefits Human asset, FA-Financial asset, SA-Social
(Livelihood asset) NA-Natural asset, HA- Asset, PA-Physical asset
Human asset, FA-Financial asset, SA-Social Cultivation of plant saplings (L) Assists in reducing expenditure on plant
Asset, PA-Physical asset raw material inputs (FA)
On-ground cultivation of vegetables Sustains food and nutritional security Provides income opportunities through the
and wild greens (A) (HA) sale of saplings for additional income (FA)
Provides income opportunities through Provides an additional source of raw
sale of food produced and supports in material inputs for afforestation (NA)
reducing food-related expenditure (FA)
Provides an additional source of livestock Exchange of crop gifts with neighbours Fosters social and cultural cohesion among
feed (NA) (M) indigenous people (SA)
Reduces dependency on agriculture and Supports in reducing food-related
forests for food, income, and livestock expenditure (FA)
grazing (NA)
Collection and storage of seeds (N) Provides income opportunities through the
Cultivation/Conservation of forest Sustains food and nutritional security sale of seeds and supports in reducing seed
plant species (B) (HA) input expenditure (FA)
Supports traditional medicine practices for Provides additional source of seed inputs
health and welfare (HA) for opportunistic cultivation during
Provides income opportunities through favourable climate/season (NA)
sale of forest products produced and
supports in reducing household Solar desiccation of food (O) Supports the availability of food and
expenditure (FA) nutrition during dry periods or extreme
Provides an additional source of livestock events like cyclones, floods, and heavy
feed (NA) rainfall (HA).
Reduces dependency on forests to collect Reinforces the utilisation of renewable
NTFPs for food, fuelwood, medicine, energy sources (NA)
cultural goods, and services (NA) Supports in reducing food-related
expenditure (FA)
Cultivation/Conservation of fruit tree Sustains food and nutritional security
species (C) (HA)
Provides income opportunities through mere acts of cultivation but are imbued with layers of traditional
sale of garden fruits and supports in knowledge, environmental stewardship, and a profound understanding
reducing food-related expenditure (FA) of the local ecology.
Reduces dependency on forests and farms
for the collection of fruits (NA)
Owing to the diversity of practices observed and discussed during
several FGDs, the home-gardens can consistently adjust and mobilise
Cultivation/Conservation of trees Supports construction and maintenance of resources to adapt to fluctuating local dynamics (section 4.1). This
providing timber (D) physical infrastructure such as house, adaptability is not just a response to climatic changes but also a proac­
Cultivation/Conservation of bamboo fence, and livestock-sheds (PA)
tive approach to disaster risk reduction, enhancing the climate and
species (E) Helps reduce people’s dependency on
forests for construction materials (NA) disaster resilience of tribal communities in alignment with SDT 13.1.
Supports financial asset creation for the These gardens serve as living examples of climate change adaptation
household to be sold during financial crisis integrated into household welfare through the synergistic interactions of
(FA) livelihood assets, effectively reducing vulnerability to climate impacts
Supports in reducing expenditure on
household construction (FA)
and other socio-economic shocks (section 4.2), thus resonating with SDT
1.4.
Under-ground cultivation of tubers and Aids in optimally utilising home-garden The indigenous home-gardening mechanisms are observed to be a
root crops (F) space (PA) mosaic of practices, including the conservation of heirloom trees, seed
Roof-top cultivation of vegetables (G) Aids in minimising water and chemical
collection, exchange, and the cultivation of wild forest species alongside
inputs (NA)
Provides income opportunities through the traditional food crops. We illustrate the co-benefits of these home-
sale of food produced and supports in gardening practices in achieving SDGs and SDTs in Fig. 4. Tribal
reducing food-related expenditure (FA) home-gardening practices are not merely about food production; they
Sustains food and nutritional security are acts of conservation providing refuge to many plant species, main­
(HA)
Provides an additional source of livestock
taining species and genetic diversity, and aligning with SDT 2.5. The
feed (NA) spotting of the Ashoka tree (Saraca asoca), a species declared vulnerable,
Reduces dependency on agriculture and in many home-gardens, is a poignant reminder of the conservation facets
forests for food, livelihoods, and livestock of these spaces. The tribal narratives during the FGDs often include
feed (NA)
anecdotes of wildlife — bees, butterflies, bats, birds — thriving in these
Circular use of organic, livestock- Aids in reducing food, water, and gardens, thereby bolstering the gardens’ role in mitigating biodiversity
derived waste as organic fertiliser biological waste (NA) loss, and averting species extinction, in line with SDT 15.5.
input (H) Facilitates the efficient use of resources The tribal communities’ deep-rooted ethnobotanical knowledge
Circular use of fuelwood-derived waste (including water resources) (NA) exhibited in several FGDs is also evident in their comprehensive un­
as organic fertiliser input (wood ash) Supports in reducing expenditure on
(I) nutrient inputs and sell of organic
derstanding of the local flora, uses, and diverse cultivation practices.
Circular use of plant-derived waste as nutrients (FA) Cultivating and consuming native vegetables, fruits, tubers, andmush­
organic fertiliser input (J) Aids in nature-based maintenance of soil rooms is about food security and preserving cultural heritage and ILK.
Circular use of household water (K) fertility using organic inputs (NA) The narrative of a tribal woman who participated in the FGD highlighted
how home-garden-grown foods insulate her family from fluctuating food
prices, serving as a testament to these gardens’ socio-economic buffer.
Unique crops like Roselle (Hibiscus sp.) and Sankha saag (Pachyrrhizus

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

Fig. 4. Co-benefits of home-gardening practices in achieving SDGs and SDTs. Numbers within the bracket. (Home-gardening practice codes A to O can be referred to
in Table 1).

sp.) were emphasised by FGD participants as nutritious tribal foods not domestic water in home-gardening systems supports broader objectives
easily found in local markets, underscoring the role of home-gardens in such as reducing chemical dependency, optimising water efficiency,
delivering accessible and diverse nutrition, directly addressing issues of reducing food waste, and incorporating recycling to minimise overall
hunger and malnutrition (SDTs 2.1 and 2.2). waste generation (refer to SDTs 6.3, 6.4, 12.3, and 12.5, respectively,
The innovative use of solar energy for food preservation and surplus Fig. 4). Upon probing, various perspectives emerged. While some par­
processing, including the solar desiccation of garden produce observed ticipants cited financial constraints as a hindrance to affording chemical
at the FGD sites, exemplifies how traditional practices can be harmon­ inputs and irrigation, others described their preferences as intentional,
ised with contemporary sustainability initiatives. The perspectives of influenced by the observed soil degradation resulting from chemical use.
FGD participants highlight that solar desiccation practices reduce food Additionally, some participants emphasised the potency of indigenous
waste (SDT 12.3) and ensure food and nutrition availability during lean nutrient systems or revealed their preparation of organic fertilisers and
periods (SDTs 2.1 and 2.2). Overall, the tribal communities’ integration pesticides as a means to supplement their frugal incomes.
of renewable energy sources within the local energy matrix (SDT 7.2) The heightened productive uses achieved through multiple-
showcases a sustainable approach to energy consumption and capacity cropping, surplus sustainability, species conservation, organic nutrient
for climate mitigation (13.3). management, domestic water reuse, and individual crop care transform
In contrast to conventional agricultural practices, the tribal prefer­ home-gardens into versatile avenues for generating multiple livelihood
ence for recycling organic wastes (food, plants, livestock) and reusing options. These practices empower tribals to offset their reliance on land

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

and forest resources within the biosphere reserve, supporting economic disturbances, or changes, and to persist, adapt, recover, and reorganise,
diversification (SDT 8.2), poverty reduction (SDT 1.1), and fostering maintaining its essential functions, structures, and feedback mecha­
resource efficiency (SDT 8.4) while reinforcing the objective of sus­ nisms (Walker et al., 2004; Folke et al., 2005). Resilience is thus an
tainable use, management, and conservation of ecosystems (SDTs 12.2 amalgam of endurance, recovery, and a capacity for transformation
and 15.1). when necessary.
Home gardens, grounded in localised food production and supply, Protected area obligations and environmental stressors such as
eliminate the need for long-distance food transport and alleviate asso­ climate change frequently challenge the equilibrium of indigenous SES.
ciated food spoilage, meaningfully contributing to reducing the carbon These disturbances can disrupt resource availability and usage patterns,
footprint. The adoption of agroforestry systems within home-gardens, eliciting feedback from indigenous communities that might inadver­
characterised by their multi-species tree-crop approach and resource tently undermine the goals of protected area conservation (Dash and
integration, holds significant potential for carbon sequestration (Bezner Behera, 2016). In the face of stressors, resilience in socio-ecological
Kerr et al., 2023), thus enhancing the human capacity for climate systems (SES) offers a lens to view complexity as a harbinger of posi­
mitigation (SDG 13.3) and the formation of tive adaptations. This perspective underscores the capacity of SES to
environmentally-compatible, resilient food systems (SDT 2.4). navigate challenges and respond constructively to adversity (Bohensky
As follows from the FGDs, tribal women emerge as the custodians of et al., 2013; Sanson and Masten, 2023).
home-gardening practices. Their leadership spans the entire spectrum – A salient feature of tribal home-gardens in the SBR is their inherent
from sowing, cultivation, tending, harvesting, to the sale of produce. diversification, encompassing a rich mix of crops, forest species, and
Participants attribute the significant role of women in decision-making livestock nurtured by the collective efforts of men, women, and children.
within the home-garden-based economy to the primaeval re­ This agroforestry system transcends mere subsistence, emerging as a
sponsibility of tribal women in ensuring household subsistence and strategic adaptation to environmental changes. It epitomises the SES
earning supplementary incomes, thereby establishing women’s eco­ framework’s emphasis on the intricate web of interactions and feedback
nomic leadership (SDT 5.5). The inclusion of bamboo and forest tree loops between human societies and their environments (Folke, 2006).
species in these gardens creates opportunities for collecting and selling Diversification serves as a resilience mechanism, providing adaptability
seasonal forest products, safeguarding women and marginalised in­ and flexibility against external stressors (Tyler and Moench, 2012;
dividuals against the impacts of climate change and economic shocks Meerow and Stults, 2016).
(IPBES, 2020), consistent with the objectives of SDT 2.3. Decentralising diversity catalyses complex interactions, enhancing
Tribal home-gardens are not just plots of land; they are intricate the range of response pathways to navigate external shocks and
models of human-modified ecosystems that delicately balance subsis­ contributing to the overall resilience of the SES (Calderón-Contreras and
tence, culture, and livelihood needs while manifesting harmony with White, 2020; Dakey et al., 2023). This phenomenon is well-exhibited in
nature. This ensures resource availability for both immediate needs and the multi-dimensional diversification encompassing diverse structural
future generations, encapsulating sustainable ways of living (SDT 12.8). components (trees, crops), operational components (labour, seed sour­
While each SDG addresses a distinct focus, the interconnectedness ces), and resultant benefits in SBR. The forest tree species and wild
within the SDG framework as well as the components of SES enables the plants in SBR facilitate harvesting non-timber forest products, ensuring
cascading of benefits across multiple goals, thereby enhancing effective subsistence and livelihood support, especially following environmental
outcomes. The tribal home-gardens in the SBR are living examples of challenges like the 2021 forest fires in SBR. These practices exemplify
how local practices can embody global sustainability goals. They offer how the biophysical architecture of tribal home-gardens are deeply
invaluable insights for climate change adaptation and policy initiatives, rooted in reciprocal feedback loops from indigenous communities’
localising global goals through contextually derived welfare dimensions co-evolving knowledge, culture, and welfare needs.
and indigenous knowledge. The adaptive strategies employed by these In the face of climate challenges, home-gardens, straddling the
indigenous communities offer invaluable insights into the intricate in­ realms of forests and agriculture, hold paramount importance for tribal
teractions between humans and their environment. Moreover, these communities whose livelihoods hinge on natural resources. Tribal
practices have the potential to inform broader climate change adapta­ home-gardens facilitate adaptation by mobilising available and
tion and policy initiatives by effectively integrating indigenous wisdom exchangeable livelihood assets to compensate for resource scarcity (Ye
with global efforts. The sustainability outcomes of tribal home-gardens et al., 2022). ILK-based cultivation techniques covering underground,
are augmented by their year-round perennial production, which ulti­ on-ground, and canopy-top cultivation enhance productivity amidst
mately hinges on factors such as garden size, cultivation extent, net limited natural assets — land and water. Social and human assets, driven
production outlay, family size, livestock count, income requirements, by indigenous knowledge and community cohesion, compensate for the
and climate-triggered distress events. lack of physical and financial assets, preserving home-gardens’ multi­
functionality. By overlapping household expenditure reduction with
5. Discussion: understanding resilience through the SES income generation, home gardening practices buffer against economic
approach risks induced by climate change. This dynamic process of asset exchange
and accumulation minimises SES redundancy, predicting stabilising
Our research explored the complex dynamics of tribal home-gardens outcomes (Antoni et al., 2019).
in the SBR, examining them through the SES framework. Importantly, In SBR, bamboo and timber-producing trees emerge as resilient
our findings position home-gardens as pivotal in climate change adap­ natural assets, especially in the face of water scarcity. Yet, home-gar­
tation and sustainable development, aligning with the foundational dens’ composition is subject to drastic changes, such as the felling of
principles of the SES approach. timber-yielding trees and bamboo for generating financial resources, or
The symbiosis between human welfare and the uninterrupted pro­ renewing household infrastructure, or allocating space for alternative
visioning of ecosystem services is integral to the SES perspective (Das uses, in response to extreme climate events or socio-economic shocks,
et al., 2021). Indigenous communities, often insulated from modern demonstrating the SES framework’s concept of transformability (Fedele
industrial influences, have fostered a rich tapestry of interactions with et al., 2019).
nature. This has led to the co-evolution of knowledge, beliefs, and The feedback mechanisms from home gardens provide a compre­
practices that embody NbS to adapt to and influence changing envi­ hensive view of the co-benefits of tribal home-gardening practices,
ronmental conditions (Cassin and Ochoa-Tocachi, 2021; Singh and extending beyond climate change adaptation. The Congruence of tribal
Chudasama, 2021b). The resilience of any system — natural, social, or home-gardening practices with the global SDGs and their associated
socio-ecological— is defined by its ability to absorb shocks, targets is remarkable, underlining the integrated nature of these

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

systems. In this context, the positive feedback loops in the SES are driven including resource efficiency, minimising chemicals, and renewable
by the rich diversity of home gardens, a result of the conservation of energy that work to prevent negative feedback in the pathways to ach­
native forest species, and traditional crops together to deliver ecosystem ieve sustainability. The utilisation of indigenous knowledge highlights
goods and services to the tribal households. The emergent positive the symbiosis between indigenous cultures and natural heritage,
outcomes of this people-ecosystem coupling at micro-scales cumula­ contributing to sustainable lifestyles and preserving ecosystem services
tively contribute to sustainable development priorities such as poverty (Berkes, 2017). Tribal home-gardens exemplify the imperative of
and hunger alleviation, nutrition, health, income enhancement, climate localising sustainability goals, highlighting the significance of contex­
change mitigation, and adaptation in the region. Tribal women actively tual analysis in understanding human-climate-environment interactions
participating in the entire lifecycle of home-garden produce, from pro­ (Singh and Nair, 2014; Jönsson and Bexell, 2021). This approach
duction to sale, align with sustainable development goals for their counters potential oversights inherent in macro-scale methodologies
economic empowerment and equality. (Tan et al., 2019), emphasising feedback between social and ecological
Further, the operational processes in home gardens often rely on components in the SES framework (Fischer et al., 2015).
environment-friendly inputs utilising solar energy and incorporating SES interactions in SBR align with the broader discourse on NbS in
reuse, reduction, and recycling mechanisms. This aligns with a cluster of climate change adaptation and resilience (Turner et al., 2022), show­
SDTs, including resource efficiency, minimising chemicals, and renew­ casing tribal home-gardens as practical embodiments of NbS. The di­
able energy, that prevent negative feedback in the pathways to achieve versity of species and cultivation techniques within these gardens
sustainability. For example, the use of solar energy has the capacity for reflects the integration of natural processes with human systems, a core
mitigating climate change while enhancing food security by reducing element of NbS. This rootedness in indigenous knowledge underscores
the carbon emissions associated with food processing, preserving, and the efficacy of these solutions in tackling complex environmental
preventing waste. challenges.
Moreover, the operational processes in tribal home-gardens leverage As uncovered in our study, the adaptability and transformative po­
environment-friendly use of resources aligned with a cluster of SDTs, tential of home-gardens align with the SES framework’s focus on

Fig. 5. SES interactions in home-gardens of SBR (The diagram exemplifies a tribal home-garden in SBR, portraying the social and ecological subsystem synergies
making SES resilient. Straight arrows from the central nexus indicate the resilience of the unit. The beneficial outcomes of systemic interactions are emphasised.
Encompassing the central depiction, graphic elements discreetly portray the advantages of sustainability. Scattered across the illustration are looped arrows,
illustrating the intricate feedback mechanisms within SES. Interspersed icons are emblematic of facets within the tapestry of SES interactions, depicting the ecological
subsystem at the top and social subsystem at the bottom.).

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M. Mallick et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 445 (2024) 141174

resilience and system dynamics (Schlüter et al., 2019). With their indigenous communities as passive victims of climate change, reposi­
multi-faceted contributions, these indigenous-led home-gardens under­ tioning them as proactive agents employing nature-based solutions.
score the need for socio-ecological approaches to address the challenges Our findings advocate recognising and integrating these indigenous-
posed by climate change and sustainable development. Our findings led practices within academic and policy frameworks. These home-
resonate with the concept of harmonious coexistence with nature, gardens, vibrant biodiversity and cultural heritage repositories show­
fostering a resilient and sustainable future for tribal and global com­ case a model where human prosperity and planetary health are inter­
munities. However, there is a critical need to address the erosion of ILK, dependent and mutually reinforcing.
threatened by globalisation, policy shifts, and rapid socio-ecological In a global context marked by escalating climate challenges, the SBR
changes. Such erosion can compromise the resilience of indigenous home-gardens stand as beacons of climate change adaptation, demon­
SES, highlighting the urgency for policy interventions that support the strating how traditional practices can be vital solutions for a resilient
preservation and enhancement of indigenous knowledge systems, future. While celebrating the resilience and resourcefulness of the SBR
including home-gardens. tribal communities, this study calls for integrating these enduring
The tribal home-gardens in the SBR demonstrate a socio-ecological practices into contemporary sustainability strategies. It underscores the
system enriched with biodiversity, resilience, and sustainability, potential of blending traditional ecological knowledge with modern
rooted in indigenous knowledge and socio-economic integration, as challenges, forging a path towards a future that is sustainable, resilient,
illustrated in Fig. 5. Offering critical ecosystem services, they enhance and reflective of the intricate tapestry of human and ecological
climate resilience and embody gender empowerment and cultural depth interdependence.
while maintaining vital feedback loops with the environment. These
gardens are illustrative models of socio-ecological harmony, combining Funding
ecological practices with community-driven strategies for sustainable
development. The financial support provided for the research, available to Manisha
Mallick through the UGC- NET Research Fellowship (award letter no-
6. Implications for policy and practice 190510088175) by the government of India, is duly acknowledged.

The research on tribal home-gardens in SBR underscores the vital CRediT authorship contribution statement
role of indigenous knowledge systems in climate resilience and sus­
tainable development, advocating for their formal integration into Manisha Mallick: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
climate change adaptation policies. This could be institutionalised draft, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data
through legislative measures, ensuring respect and promotion within curation, Conceptualization. Pramod K Singh: Writing – review &
global climate agendas. Capacity-building collaborations between tribal editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Investiga­
communities and scientific practitioners are crucial, enabling the ex­ tion, Formal analysis. Rajiv Pandey: Writing – review & editing,
change of traditional wisdom and modern scientific methods. Encour­ Writing – original draft, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation,
aging research initiatives to document and analyse indigenous practices Formal analysis.
in home-gardening can uncover their broader applicability. Financial
incentives for communities adopting similar sustainable practices can
Declaration of competing interest
accelerate the adoption of biodiversity-friendly techniques. Integrating
indigenous practices into educational curricula at various levels will
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
enhance future generations’ awareness of the importance of traditional
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
knowledge. Equitable access to natural resources for indigenous com­
the work reported in this paper.
munities, including land rights and resource management, is imperative.
Public-private partnerships can significantly contribute to developing
Data availability
and disseminating nature-based solutions, offering necessary resources
for scaling successful practices. Lastly, establishing robust monitoring
The data that has been used is confidential.
and evaluation mechanisms will ensure the effectiveness of these ap­
proaches in contributing to climate resilience and sustainable
Acknowledgements
development.

We sincerely thank Editor-in-Chief for organising a review. Our

7. Conclusions
special thanks to both the anonymous reviewers for providing us with
insightful comments. We sincerely thank the dedicated staff of the State
This research profoundly elucidates the multifunctional nature of the
Forest Department and the State Agriculture Department of Mayurbhanj
SBR tribal home-gardens, transcending traditional agricultural roles to
district, Odisha, for their invaluable logistical support during our field­
embody a resilient socio-ecological system. These gardens represent an
work. Our heartfelt appreciation goes to the tribal men and women who
exemplary fusion of human ingenuity and ecological wisdom, where
graciously facilitated or actively participated in the focus group
diverse agricultural methods, conservation of native species, and live­
discussions.
stock integration coalesce, epitomising a symbiotic relationship between
community development and ecological stewardship.
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