UNIT –IV

Introduction to controller Design

Performance Evaluation parameters
•Stability
•Steady state accuracy
•Transient Accuracy
•Disturbance rejection
•Insensitivity and robustness
Stability
• A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be
unstable.
• Absolutely Stable System: If the system is stable for all the range of system component
values, then it is known as the absolutely stable system.
• The open loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the open loop
transfer function present in left half of ‘s’ plane.
• Similarly, the closed loop control system is absolutely stable if all the poles of the closed
loop transfer function present in the left half of the ‘s’ plane.
• Marginally Stable System If the system is stable by producing an output signal with
constant amplitude and constant frequency of oscillations for bounded input, then it is
known as marginally stable system.
• The open loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the open loop
transfer function is present on the imaginary axis.
• Similarly, the closed loop control system is marginally stable if any two poles of the
closed loop transfer function is present on the imaginary axis
Steady-state accuracy:
The deviation of the output of control system from desired response
during steady state is known as steady state error from which we get
steady state accuracy. It is represented as ess.
 Disturbance Rejection
• One of the important effect of feedback in a control system is the control and
partial elimination of the effects of disturbance signals
• N(s) is the plant transfer function from the disturbance input w(t) to the output
y(t).
To accomplish disturbance rejection is to make N(s) must be small. Since N(s)
is a function of the plant parameters, it cannot be modified.

so, we may increase the loop gain by increasing the gain of D(s). Note that
increasing the plant gain (if possible) will also increase the loop gain, but
increasing the plant gain may also increase the gain of N(s). Hence, in this
case, disturbance rejection may not be improved.

So To reject disturbances, the loop gain must be increased in such a manner

that the gain from the disturbance input to the system output is not increased.
Insensitivity and robustness:

Robustness is the ability of the closed loop system to be insensitive to component

variations.
It is one of the most useful properties of feedback.
Robustness is also what makes it possible to design feedback system based on
strongly simplified models. The system said to be robust if it works well under
high-gain feedback to reject the disturbance gained by the system and eliminate
the effect the system parameter uncertainty.
Robustness is characterized in terms of the sensitivity of the closed-loop transfer
function T(s) to variation in one or more of thy plant parameters.
System Sensitivity Function:
The system sensitivity function is defined as the ratio of percentage change in the
closed-loop transfer function to percentage change in the plant transfer function,
i.e., assuming unity feedback (H(s) = 1),
Controller and Types of controllers
• A controller is a mechanism that seeks to minimize the difference between the
actual value of a system (ie. the process variable) and the desired value of the
system (i.e. the setpoint).
The important uses of the controllers include:
● Controllers improve the steady-state accuracy by decreasing the steady state
error.
● As the steady-state accuracy improves, the stability also improves.
● Controllers also help in reducing the unwanted offsets produced by the system.
● Controllers can control the maximum overshoot of the system.
● Controllers can help in reducing the noise signals produced by the system.
● Controllers can help to speed up the slow response of an overdamped system
 Types of controllers
• Two position / on-off controller
• Proportional controllers
• Integral controllers
• Proportional plus Integral controllers(PI controllers)
• Proportional plus Derivative controllers(PD controllers)
• Proportional plus Integral plus derivative controllers(PID controllers)
Proportional controllers
Kp is the gain of the controller

• It amplifies error signal and increases gain of the system.

• So steady state accuracy , disturbance rejection and relative
stability is increased.
• It produces constant steady state error.
Proportional Integral (PI)controller:
Kp is the gain of the controller

Effects:
1.Increases the order by one. So
stability reduces.
2. Introduces a zero to the system.
3. Type increases by one.so steady
state error reduces.
Proportional Derivative controllers
Kp is the gain of the controller

Effects:
1.Increases the order by one. So stability
reduces.
2. Introduces a zero to the system.
3.Increases damping ratio. Mp reduces.
4. Type remains unchanged.
5. Steady state error unchanged.
Compensators
Compensator is an additional component or circuit that is inserted into a
control system to equalize or compensate for a deficient performance.
Necessities of compensation
In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating
networks.
Compensating networks are applied to the system in the form of feed forward
path gain adjustment.
Compensate a unstable system to make it stable. A compensating network is used
to minimize overshoot.
These compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the system.
Compensating networks also introduces poles and zeros in the system thereby
causes changes in the transfer function of the system. Due to this, performance
specifications of the system change.
Types of Compensator. 2. Parallel or feedback compensation

1. Series or Cascade compensation

3. Series parallel compensator

 compensating networks:
● A compensating network is one which makes some adjustments in order to
make up for deficiencies in the system.
● Compensating devices are may be in the form of electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic etc.
● Most electrical compensator is RC filter.

The simplest networks used for electrical compensator are

➢ Lead compensator – (to speed up transient response, margin of stability and

improve error constant in a limited way).
➢ Lag compensator – (to improve error constant or steady-state behavior while
retaining transient response)
➢ Lead – Lag compensator – (A combination of the above two i.e. to improve
steady state as well as transient)
 Phase Lead Compensation:
• A system which has one pole and one dominating zero (the zero which is
closer to the origin than all over zeros is known as dominating zero.) is
known as lead network.
• If we want to add a dominating zero for compensation in control system then
we have to select lead compensation network.
• The basic requirement of the phase lead network is that all poles and zeros of
the transfer function of the network must lie on (-)ve real axis interlacing
each other with a zero located at the origin of nearest origin.
 Zero is closer to origin so phase lead component is zero dominant.
The sinusoidal transfer function of the lead network is obtained by
substituting S=jω in equation 1

• the output voltage always lead the input voltage in above network. Hence the
above network is called lead network.

• Taking tan on both sides of eqn 2.

BODE PLOT OF LEAD COMPENSATOR:
Consider a sinusoidal transfer function of the lead network

When ω=0, the network has a gain of α<1 or attenuation of 1/α in

frequency domain compensation techniques
it is convenient to cancel the DC attenuation of the network with
an amplification A=1/α.
Effect of Phase Lead Compensation:
1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that
relative stability improves and error decrease due to error is directly proportional to the
slope.
3. Phase margin increases.
4. Response becomes faster.

Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation

1. Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because it
shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system
decreases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation
1. Steady state error is not improved.
Phase Lag Compensation:
A system which has one zero and one dominating pole ( the pole
which is closer to origin that all other poles is known as dominating
pole) is known as lag network. If we want to add a dominating pole for
compensation in control system then, we have to select a lag
compensation network.
The basic requirement of the phase lag network is that all poles and
zeros of the transfer function of the network must lie in (-)ve real axis
interlacing each other with a pole located or on the nearest to the
origin. Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag
compensation network
Phase Lag Compensating Network
To find the frequency at which
maximum value of phase lag
occurs is obtained using
differentiating angle.
Polar plot of lead and lag compensators

Lag compensator
Lead compensator
Effect of Phase Lag Compensation
1. Gain crossover frequency increases.
2. Bandwidth decreases.
3. Phase margin will be increase.
4. Response will be slower before due to decreasing bandwidth, the rise time and
the settling time become larger.
Advantages of Phase Lag Compensation
1. Phase lag network allows low frequencies and high frequencies are attenuated.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the steady state accuracy
increases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lag Compensation
1. Due to the presence of phase lag compensation the speed of the system
decreases.
Phase Lag Lead compensation :
With single lag or lead
compensation may not satisfied
design specifications.
For an unstable uncompensated
system, lead compensation
provides fast response but does not
provide enough phase margin
whereas lag compensation stabilize
the system but does not provide
enough bandwidth. So we need
multiple compensators in cascade.
Polar plot of lead lag compensator
Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation
1. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the
system increases because it shifts gain crossover frequency to a
higher value.
2. Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is
improved
Comparison between Lead Compensator and Lag Compensator
Procedure for the design of LEAD Compensator using bode plot :
The following steps may be followed to design a lead compensator.
1. The open loop gain K of the given system is determined to satisfy the
requirement of the error constant.
2.sketch the bode plot of uncompensated system.
3. Determine the phase margin of the uncompensated system from the bode plot.
4. Determine the amount of phase angle to be contributed by the lead network by
using the formula given.
Procedure for the design of Lag Compensator using bode plot