CHEMISTRY

10 - 12

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What is chemistry?

Chemistry is the study of matter and the properties of the forms of matter.

Branches of chemistry

1. Organic chemistry

It is the study of compounds of carbon and its components

2. Biochemistry

It is the study of chemical reactions or processses that occur in living things eg respiration and
photosynthesis

3. Geochemistry

It is the study of chemical composition and chemical reactions associated with the earth and other
planents

4. Inorganic chemistry

It is the study of compounds which do not contain carbon. It is the branch of chemistry relating to
inorganic compounds.

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The particulate nature of matter

Matter

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Basic units of matter

There are three basic units of matter. These are:

 Atoms
 Ions
 Molecules

State of matter

State of matter is the form in which matter exists. Matter exists in three forms. These are:

 Solids
 Liquids
 Gases

Examples of solids Examples of liquids Examples of gases

Stone Water Oxygen
Glass block Cooking oil Hydrogen
Wooden block Paraffin Carbon dioxide
Copper block Petrol Carbon monoxide

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 Characteristic properties of the three states of matter

Solids Liquids Gases

Shape Have fixed shape Have no fixed shape. They Have no fixed shape
take the shape of the
container in which they are
placed.
Volume Have fixed volume Have fixed volume Have no fixed volume.
Particles spread to fill the
space available.

Compressibility Can not be compressed Can not be compressed Can be compressed.

Arrangement of Particles are closely packed Particles are slightly further Particles are much further
particles and arranged in a regular apart than in solids. Paticles apart from each other. The
pattern. The particles are are held together by weak forces which hold the
held together by strong electrostatic forces of particles together are
electrostatic forces of attraction. negligible.
attraction called cohesive
forces.

Movement of Particles move by vibrating Particles move by vibrating Particles move at random
particles at fixed positions rapidly over short distances. at a very high speed.
Particles move from one
position to the other.

Solids and liquids can not be compressed because their particles are close together. However,
gases can be compressed because the gas particles are far apart from each other and can be forced
to move closer by exerting pressure.

Changes in state
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Changes in state are physical changes that occur when the particles of a substance absorb or lose
energy.

A substance can change from one state to another when it is either heated or cooled.

[A] Heating

Heating involves the addition or supply of heat to a substance.

As a substance is heated, it absorbs energy and changes from a solid to a liquid and finaly to a gas.
The kinetic energy possessed by its particles increases and they move vigorously.

Effects of heating substances

1. Melting

Melting is change of state from solid to liquid.

For example, ice changes to water when heated

Melting takes place when the particles of a solid absorb energy to overcome the forces holding
them in fixed positions and move. They rearrange themselves to form a liquid.

The temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid is called melting point.

Uses of melting

(a) It is used in welding

(b) It is used in cutting and shaping of metals in the industry

2. Evaporation

Evaporation is the change of state from liquid to gas.

For example, water changes to steam (water vapour) when heated.

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Uses of evaporation

(a) It is used in drying clothes

(b) It is used in obtaining crystals from solutions

Factors that affect rate of evaporation

 Surface area
 Wind current
 Humidity
 Temperature

Note

Evaporation and boiling are both physical processes that change a liquid into a gas.

The liquid absorbs heat energy during these physical changes in state.

Differences between evaporation and boiling

Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at any temperature below boiling Occurs at boiling point
Occurs only at the surface of the liquid Occurs throughout the liquid
No bubbles are observed Bubbles are observed
Occurs slowly Occurs rapidly

3. Sublimation

Sublimation is the direct change of state from solid to gas by heating or gas to solid by cooling
without passing through the liquid state.

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Examples of substances that can sublime

 Iodine
 Ammonium sulphate
 Ammonium chloride
 Carbon dioxide (upon cooling to form ice)

The heating curve

The heating curve is a graph showing changes in temperature with time for a substance being
heated

Section AB: The substance remains in solid state. The heat energy provided is absorbed by the
solid particles and they vibrate harder about their fixed positions.

Section BC: A mixture of solid and liquid will be observed at this temperature which is called the
melting point of the substance. At point C, the solid has turn completely into a liquid.

Section CD: Thesubstance remains in liquid state. The liquid particles continue to absorb heat
energy and their kinetic energy increases, causing the temperature of the liquid to rise.

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Section DE: A mixture of liquid and gas will be observed at this temperature which is called
boiling point of the substance. At point E, the liquid has turn completely into a gas.

Section EF: The gas particles will absorb energy and move further apart as they become more
energetic. The temperature of the gas will rise.

Summary

Slope sections of the heating curve: As a substance is heated, it absorbs heat energy and its
temperature rises, then it changes from solid to liquid and finally to gas.

Flat sections of the heating curve: The flat section shows the melting point and boiling point.
Here the temperature remains constant over a period of time as energy being absorbed is used to
change the state of a substance

Note

A pure substance has a fixed temperature. It has an exact boiling point and melting point.

Impurities raise the boiling point and lower the melting point.

Example

1. The diagram below shows an experiment on changes of state

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 (a) What is the reading on the thermometer?
(b) What must be done to the melting ice for it to completely change to the next state of
matter?
(c) Describe the change of state that the ice will undergo in question (b) above
(d) What term is used to describe the temperature at ice changes its state?
(e) Some substances can change from solid state into gaseous state without becoming a liquid.
What term is used to describe such a reaction?

Solution

(a) (Temperature for melting ice)

(b) It must be heated/warmed/put in sunlight
(c) Melting
(d) Melting point
(e) Sublimation
2. Consider the graph below

(a) What are the two possible states of matter at A and B?

(b) Name the change of state at A and B

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Solution

(a) At A: Solid and liquid

At B: Liquid and gas

(b) At A: Melting

At B: Evaporation

Exercise

1. The graph below shows the temperature of a sample of ethanol varied with time.

(a) What is the melting point of ethanol?

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 (b) What is the boiling point of ethanol?
(c) For how long did the sample of ethanol melt?
(d) How are you able to tell from the graph that the sample of ethanol is pure?

[B] Cooling

Cooling involves the removal of heat from a substance

Effects of cooling a substance

1. Condensation

Condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid

For example, steam changes to water when cooled

2. Freezing

Alternative term: Solidification

Freezing is the change of state from liquid to solid

For example, water changes to ice when cooled

The temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid is called freezing point.

Freezing point is also called the melting point for a pure substance.

The cooling curve

The cooling curve is a graph showing changes in temperature with time for a substance being
cooled.

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Section CD: The substance remains a liquid. As cooling takes place, the particles lose kinetic
energy and moves more slowly.

Section DE: A mixture of a liquid and solid is observed as the liquid particles rearrange
themselves to form a solid structure.

Section EF: The temperature of the solid drops as cooling continues.

Summary

Slope sections of the cooling curve: As a substance is cooled, it loses heat energy and its
temperature falls, then it changes from gas to liquid and finally to solid.

Flat sections of the cooling curve: The flat section shows the melting point and boiling point.
Here the temperature remains constant over a period of time as energy being lost is used to change
the state of a substance.

Exercise

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1. The graph below shows a cooling curve of a substance as its temperature falls from
to .

(a) At , is the substance a solid, liquid or gas?

(b) What was the boiling point of the substance?
(c) What was the melting point of the substance?
(d) Why does the temperature stay constant over the section BC and DE despite the fact that
the substance is losing energy to the surrounding?

Summary of the changes in state

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Example

1. Choose from the following terms to answer this question

Sublimation, diffusion, matter, liquefaction, ion

Which of the terms above describes:
(a) The physical material of the universe
(b) A basic unit of matter
(c) Carbon dioxide gas changing to dry ice
(d) The spreading movement of particles
(e) A gas changing to a liquid

Solution

(a) Matter
(b) Ion
(c) Sublimation
(d) Diffusion
(e) Liquefaction

Exercise

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1. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow

(a) Name the processes D, E and F

(b) Describe what you would do to convert a liquid into a solid
(c) State one of the basic units of matter

2. Matter is classified as solid, liquid or gas. State two physical properties of each of the
following:

(a) Solid
(b) Liquid
(c) Gas

3. The diagram represents the arrangement of the particles ia a solid

(a) Descibe the movement of particles in the solid

(b) How does this movement alter as the temperature of the solid is increased
(c) How does this movement alter as the solid melts
(d) Samples of the gases carbon dioxide, = 44, and hydrogen, = 2, are at same
temperature.

(I) Compare the speeds of the molecules in these two gases

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 (II) Equal masses of steam and water contain the same number of molecules. Explain
why the volume of the steam is much greater than that of water

Physical changes and chemical changes

Physical changes

A physical change is change in which no new substance is formed.

Chemical changes

A chemical change is a change in which a new substance is formed

Differences between physical and chemical changes

Physical change Chemical change

No new substance is formed e.g. melting a solid A new substance is formed e.g. burning
substances
Usually the change is easily reversible e.g. Usually the change is not easily reversible e.g.
boiling a liquid precipitation of a solid by the reactions of two
solutions
Usually no energy is given out or taken in e.g. Usually energy is given out or taken in e.g.
heating a wire by electricity decomposition of substances by electricity
The mass of the substance remains the same e.g. The mass of the new substance is different from
magnetizing iron that of the starting substance e.g. rusting of iron

The kinetic theory of matter

The theory states that: Matter is made up of tiny particles which are in a continuous random
motion.

Experimental evidence of the kinetic theory of matter

1. Brownian motion

Brownian motion is the term used to for the continuous random of particles, particularly of gases
and liquids

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This phenomenon was first observed by Robert Brown in 1827 who, while studying pollen grains
under water, he observed that the pollen grains were moving about in a random way. This same
phenomenon can be observed by studying smoke particles in air.

Experiment

Aim: To study the random motion of smoke particles or to observe Brownian motion in a smoke
cell.

Apparatus

 Glass cell
 Source of light
 Microscope
 Converging lens
 Source of smoke

Method

A small glass cell (smoke cell) in which smoke has been trapped is viewed through a microscope.
A microscope is used because the smoke particles are too tiny to be seen using the naked eye. A
converging lens is used to focus light from the lamp into the smoke cell. The experimental
arrangement is shown below

Observation

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When light strikes the smoke particles, they appear as bright points of light under the microscope
moving randomly in a zig – zag path. The smoke particles appear as spots of light because they
reflect some of the light from the source of light towards the microscope.

Explanation

The zig – zag movement is due to the collision of the smoke particles with invisible air molecules
that move about randomly in the smoke cell. This is called Brownian motion.

Conclusion

The air molecules are in a continuous random motion colliding with the smoke particles and the
walls of the smoke cell

Exercise

1. The figure below shows one of the forms of an apparatus used to observe Brownian motion
of smoke particles in air. Mr Naosa D. K looking through the microscope sees tiny bright
specks which he describes as „dancing about‟.

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 (a) What are bright specks?
(b) Why are the specks „dancing about‟?
(c) State the conclusion that can be drawn from the Brownian motion?

Diffusion

Definition: Diffusion is the movement of particles from the region of high concentration to the
region of low concentration.

Definition is very strong evidence for the mobility of particles

Rate of diffusion

Rate of diffusion is the amount of gas or liquid diffusion in a unit of time.

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion

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Temperature: Rate of diffusion is faster is if the temperature is high and slower if the temperature
is low.

Concentration: Rate of diffusion is faster if there is a large difference in the concentration of

particles between two points.

Size of particles: Rate of diffusion is faster if size of particles is small and slower if the size of
particles is large.

Note: The states of matter in which diffusion takes place are liquids and gases.

Diffusion in liquids

Experiment

Aim: To demonstrate diffusion in liquids

Apparatus

Potassium permanganate (VII)

Water

Glass tube

Method

Using a glass tube, place a crystal of potassium per manganate (VII) in the middle of the beaker
filled with water. The glass tube is used to ensure that the mixing with water does not occur before
the crystal is in place.

Leave the beaker undisturbed and observe carefully.

Observation

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The crystal of potassium permanganate (VII) dissolves and the purple colour slowly spread to the
bottom of the beaker and eventually the colour distributes itself throughout the liquid.

Conclusion

Diffusion has taken place and water turns purple because the particles of potassium permanganate
(VII) have diffused to all parts of the water.

Diffusion in gases

Diffusion in gases is faster than in liquids. The gas molecules move randomly at a very high speed.

Experiment

Aim: To demonstrate diffusion of oxygen gas and nitrogen dioxide gas

Apparatus

Oxygen gas

Nitrogen dioxide gas

Two gas jars

Method

Invert a gas jar containing oxygen and place it on top of a gas jar containing nitrogen dioxide gas.

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Observation

The brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas diffuses slowly into a gas jar containing oxygen gas and
spread out and mix evenly.

Conclusion

Diffusion has taken place since the nitrogen dioxide molecules have moved randomly and mix
evenly with the oxygen molecules.

Other examples of diffusion

When a stopper is taken out of the perfume bottle, the smell is noticed because the particles move
from a region of high concentration to region of low concentration.

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Exercise

1. Matter is made up of tiny particles as it can be evidenced from the process by diffusion

(a) Explain what is meant by diffusion

(b) In which state(s) of matter does diffusion occur?
(c) A gas jar of oxygen gas was inverted and placed on top of a gas jar containing nitrogen
dioxide as shown below.

Draw a similar diagram to show the arrangement of the molecules of the two gases after being in
contact for 30 minutes.

(d) When the stopper is taken out of a bottle of perfume, the smell can soon be noticed.
Explain from your knowledge of particles why this happens.

Various apparatus used in chemistry

1. Stop watch

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Use: It is used for measuring time.

SI unit for time: Second, s.

2. Laboratory thermometer

Use: It is used for measuring temperature.

SI unit for temperature: Kelvin, K.

3. Beam balance

Use: It is used to measure mass

SI unit for mass: Kilogram, Kg

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4. Measuring cylinder

Use: It is used for making approximate measurements of volumes of liquids

Measuring cylinders are in different sizes

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5. Burette

Use: It is used for accurate measurements of different volumes of liquids

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It can measure small amounts of volume. For example, a burette can be used to measure
exactly of the liquid. It has an accuracy of 0.1cm3.

It has a scale which starts from at the top up to at the bottom

The scale is more sensitive than the measuring cylinder

A burette has a long narrow shape which ensures a „long movement‟ for a small volume of liquid
delivered out of the jet.

6. Pipette

Use: It is used for delivering accurately a fixed volume of liquid

A pipette has to be filled carefully by sucking up the liquid or by using a special adaptor.

The volume of the liquid delivered is marked on the bulb and it is usually . It is
accurate to one decimal place. Most of the liquid is held in the bulb.

7. Flasks

There are three main types of flasks; each type is usually used for holding liquids.

(a) Flat bottomed flask

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The flat bottomed flask can stand on the table.

Use: It is used in carrying out reactions involving a solid and a liquid.

(b) Round bottomed flask

Its shape enables uniform heating of the liquid it contains

Use: It is used for heating liquids for longer periods

(c) Conical flask

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Use: It is used for mixing liquids while shaking.

8. Beakers

Beakers are in different sizes

Use: They are used on tripod stand and gauzes for heating liquids

They are used for mixing liquids while using volumes which are too big for the test tube.

9. Test tube

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Use: It is used for heating and mixing liquids or solids

10. Evaporating dish

Use: It is used for drying substances or keeping them free from moisture.

11. Funnel

Use: It is used in pouring liquids.

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 It is used to guide liquids and other substances into containers.

12. Spatula

It is a flexible metal, plastic or rubber utensil

Use: It is used to scoop, lift, spread, or mix substances

13. The Bunsen burner

The Bunsen burner is the most common tool for heating.

It is connected to the cylinder or gas tap and lighted.

Use: It is used as a source of heat.

Component parts of a Bunsen burner

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Flames produced by the Bunsen burner

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Zone A

It is a blue flame

It produces the greatest amount of heat because methane gas is completely burnt. It is the hottest
part of the flame and it used for heating.

Zone B

It is a blue green flame

It contains unburnt hydrocarbons

It appears blue green because of the incomplete combustion of methane.

It has the lowest temperature and it is called non luminous.

Zone C

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It is a yellow flame

It is luminous because it gives out light

The yellow flame is called a „dirty flame‟ because it coats things held inside it with a black
deposit. This black substance is carbon.

The cause of the colour in zone C is carbon charring due to incomplete combustion of methane

Exercise

1. The diagram below represent the flames on a burner using methane as the fuel

The equation for the complete combustion of methane in zone A is:

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 (a) What colour would you expect the flame to be in

(I) Zone B
(II) Zone C

(b) Explain what causes the colour in zone C

(c) Give an equation for the combustion of methane in zone C.
2. The table below shows some apparatus used in the laboratory.

Separating funnel Beaker Gas jar

Burette Spatula Laboratory thermometer
Desiccator Bunsen burner Bee-hive shelf
Evaporating dish Pipette Tripod stand
State the apparatus used…

(a) as a source of heat

(b) for measuring a fixed volume of liquid
(c) for drying substances or keeping them free from moisture
(d) for measuring temperature
(e) for separating immiscible liquids

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Collection of gases

Density of the gas and the solubility of the gas in water are the two factors used to determine the
method used to collect a gas:

Method of collection Type of gases to be collected

Displacement of water Gases that are insoluble in
water e.g. hydrogen and oxygen

Displacement of air – upward delivery Gases that are less dense than
air e.g. hydrogen and ammonia

Displacement of air – down ward delivery Gases that are denser than air
e.g. hydrogen chloride and
carbon dioxide.

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Criteria of purity

Definition: This refers to all those physical properties which are characteristic of a pure substance.

The purity of a substance can be tested by determining:

(a) the boiling point

(b) the freezing point
(c) the melting point
(d) the density

Impure substances show variations in physical properties

Importance of purity of substances

Purity of substances like food, drugs and water is important because very small amounts of
impurities may cause serious illness or death.

The companies processing food and manufacturing drugs check regularly to ensure that their
products are pure.

Separation techniques

Separation techniques are methods used to obtain pure substances from their mixtures.

Substances usually exist as mixtures and special ways are used to separate them.

Terms used in separation techniques

Mixture: It is a substance which consists of two or elements which are physically combined but
not chemically combined.

Solution: It is a mixture made up of a solvent and a solute.

Solvent: It is a liquid in which a solute dissolves.

Solute: It is a substance that dissolves in a solvent. A solute can either be a solid, liquid or gas.

Miscible liquids: They are liquids that can mix completely.

Immiscible liquids: They are liquids that do not mix completely.

Residue: It is a solid that is trapped on the filter paper during filtration.

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Filtrate: It is a clear liquid collected after filtration.

Methods of purification

1. Filtration

This is a method of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid using a filter.

Experiment

Aim: To separate a mixture of an insoluble solid a and soluble solid e.g. a mixture of sand and salt

Apparatus

 Filter paper
 Filter funnel
 Conical flask
 Beaker
 Mixture of sand and salt

Method

Place a mixture of sand and salt in a beaker. Add water and stir. The salt which is soluble dissolves
in water to form a salt solution

Pour the mixture of sand and salt solution into a filter funnel containing a filter paper as shown
below

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Put a little amount of the filtrate into the evaporating dish. Heat the filtrate until all the water is
driven off.

Observation

The salt solution passes through the filter paper and is collected in the conical flask as a filtrate
while sand remains on the filter paper as a residue. When the filtrate (salt solution) is heated in the
evaporating dish, salt which is a solute will remain in the evaporating dish while water which is a
solvent will go away as steam.

Conclusion

A mixture of two solids, one soluble and the other insoluble can be separated by dissolving,
filtration and evaporation.

Application of filtration

(a) It is used in the purification of drinking water at the water works.

(b) It is used in car engines to remove impurities from oil, petrol etc.

2. Distillation

It is a process of vapourizing a liquid and then condensing the vapour.

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(a) Simple distillation

It is a process used to separate a pure liquid from a solution containing dissolved solids. For
example, simple distillation can be used to separate pure water from sea water

(b) Fractional distillation

It is process of separating a mixture of two or more miscible liquids which have different boiling
points. For example, fractional distillation can be used to separate ethanol from a mixture of
ethanol and water. As a rough guide, the boiling points of the liquids to be separated should be at
least apart.Ethanol and water have different boiling points. Ethanol boils at and water
boils at . When temperature reaches ethanol, which is more volatile than water, boils
off first. As the vapour passes through the glass beads in the fractionating column, water vapour
condenses and returns back to the flask. Only ethanol vapour reaches the fractionating column and
enters the liebig condenser where it condenses. The liquid ethanol finally collects in the conical
flask.

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 Properties upon which the mixture (liquids) depends to allow separation
1. The liquids must be miscible
2. The liquids must have difference boiling points

Note

 The fractionating column is long tube filled with glass beads. The glass beads provide a
large surface area for condensation and allow efficient separation of the components in the
mixture.
 The liebig condenser is kept in the slanting position to avoid the distillate formed by
condensation from running back into the fractionating column; and also to ensure that cold
water completely surrounds the inner glass tube where the vapour passes in order to
provide maximum cooling and avoid loss of vapour.
 Cold water enters the condenser from the bottom to ensure that the region is the coldest so
that all the vapour entering the condenser will turn into a liquid.
 The condenser cools the vapour causing it to condense into liquid
 The thermometer is placed at the top of the fractionating column so that it registers the
temperature of the vapour.

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 Distillate

It is a pure and condensed liquid obtained by distillation.

Industrial application of fractional distillation

(a) Separation of various components of crude oil (petroleum)

(b) Used in the manufacture of spirits such as whisky, rum, gin etc.
(c) Separation of liquid air into nitrogen and oxygen (nitrogen boils at while oxygen
boils at )

Example

1. The diagram below shows the experiment on separation of a mixture

(a) What is the name of the separation process shown in the diagram?
(b) State two properties of the mixture that allows the separation to take place
(c) What is the function of the apparatus labeled U?
(d) Name the first part of the mixture that will be collected in the conical flask
(e) Suggest one industrial use of the separation technique shown in the diagram

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Solution

(a) Fractional distillation

(b) Liquids must be miscible / mix completely (but not react)

Liquids must have different boiling points

(c) Cools the vapour causing it to condense into liquid

(d) Ethanol
(e) Separation of crude oil (at oil refinery plant)

Exercise

1. Two miscible liquids with boiling points and were mixed accidentally.

(a) Name the process which can be used to separate the mixture
(b) Draw a labeled diagram showing the arrangement of the apparatus used to separate the
mixture.

3. Separating funnel

The separating funnel is used to separate two or more immiscible liquids e.g. a mixture of water
and oil

The method depends on the differences in densities of liquids to be separated.

The less dense liquid floats on the surface while the denser liquid sinks to the bottom.

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Exercise

1. Water and oil are immiscible. How would you separate a mixture of the two?

4. Magnetism

It is used to separate a mixture when one component is magnetic and other one is non-magnetic.

For example magnetism can be used to separate a mixture of saw dust and iron fillings. The
magnet attracts iron fillings, only leaving particles of saw dust in the petri dish.

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5. Decantation

Decantation is the process of separating by carefully pouring a solution from a container in order
to leave the precipitate (solid particles) at the bottom. Solid impurities are allowed to settle down
and the liquid is poured out leaving the solid at the bottom of the container. For example it can be
used to separate a mixture of sand and water

6.Crystallization

This is a process of separating pure solid from an impure solution.

For example crystallization can used to obtain copper (II) sulphate crystals from an impure copper
(II) sulphate solution.

Experiment

Aim: To obtain copper (II) sulphate crystals from an impure copper (II) sulphate solution.

Apparatus

 Copper (II) sulphate solution

 Beaker
 Stirring rod
 Filter paper
 Evaporating dish
 Tripod stand

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  Bunsen burner

Method

Dissolve an impure solid in a solvent

Filter off the solution into an evaporating dish

Heat the solution to evaporate most of the solvent

Cool the concentrated solution. Some solids appear as pure crystals

Pour off the solution to obtain the crystals. Dry the crystals on the filter paper

Observation

Some solids appear as pure crystals

Conclusion

Copper (II) sulphate crystals from an impure copper (II) sulphate solution can be obtained by
dissolving, filtration and evaporation, cooling and drying.

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 1. Dissolve 2. Filter

The solution is filtered into an evaporating

The impure solid is dissolved in a solvent dish

3. Evaporate
4. Cool

The hot solution is allowed to cool. The

The solution is heated to evaporate most of the solid appears as pure crystals.
solvent

5. Dry

The cold solution is poured off to obtain the crystals.

The crystals may be dried by pressing them between
sheets of filter paper

Differences between crystallization and evaporation

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Crystallization must be differentiated from evaporation to dryness

(a) In crystallization, the solvent is only partially evaporated, leaving a small amount of
solution in which the crystals form. Impurities may be left behind in the solution when the
crystals are filtered off.
(b) In evaporation to dryness, all the solvent is removed. The crystals formed may be impure.

7. Chromatography

Chromatography is a technique for separating mixtures of solutes using a solvent and a separating
medium.

In the case of paper chromatography, the separating medium is paper and the solvent is ethanol.

Substances in a mixture are separated according to their solubilities in the same solvent.

The more soluble component will tend to remain in the solution and travel further up the
chromatogram while the less soluble component will separate out on to paper.

Experiment

Aim: To separate out components of black ink by paper chromatography.

Procedure

Use a pencil to draw the start line because ink contains dyes which contaminates the solvents

Use the black ink sample to make a small dot on the start line, together with other coloured ink to
use as reference. The dots should be small to prevent the spreading of dyes sideways and thereby
getting mixed up with other spots next to them.

Fold the paper into a cylinder and place it into a beaker containing the solvent, ensuring that the
start line is above the solvent level.

Cover the beaker while the chromatogram develops.

Remove the chromatogram from the beaker just as the solvent reaches the top of the paper.

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Note

 If the start line is below the solvent level, the sample dots will dissolve into the solvent
instead of moving up the paper.
 In descending paper chromatography, a longer sheet of paper can be used because the
solvent moves faster and longer distance
 Descending paper chromatography has an advantage because as the solvent flows down the
paper by capillary action, it is aided by gravity.
 The tank should be kept closed to keep the air saturated with solvent vapour to reduce
evaporation of the moving solvent.
 One advantage of using a locating agent in the experiment is that it reacts with the spots
and gives the latter colours for easy location

49
Interpretation of results

Dots that have travelled the same distance from the start line in the same solvent belong to same
substance.

Conclusion

Black ink contains four coloured components; red, blue, green and orange.

Retardation factor

Alternative term: Reference factor

Symbol:

Definition: Retardation factor, is the ratio of the distance travelled by the spot, compared with
the distance travelled by the solvent front, both measured from the start line

Formula: =

50
Application of chromatography

1. Separating pigments from plants

2. Identifying flavouring components in food stuffs
3. Separating amino acids from proteins
4. Separating antibiotic drugs from their growing media

Example

1. The diagram below shows a chromatogram obtained using solutions of three single dyes
(blue, green and red) and four other solutions (A, B, C and D).

(a) Which of the solutions A, B, C and D contain the following:

(I) One dye only

(II) Three of the dyes
(III) Green and red only

51
 (IV) A dye rather than blue, green and red

(b) In preparing the chromatogram, the following instructions were given. Suggest a reason for
each instruction;

(I) The start line should be drawn with pencil rather than ink
(II) At the end of the experiment, the solvent front should be near the top of the paper
(III) The spots of solutions and dyes on the starting line should be small.

Solution

(a) (I) Solution B

(II) Solution A
(III)Solution D
(IV)Solution C

(b) (I) Ink contains dyes, it thus contaminates the solvent and gives a wrong result

(II) This is to ensure that the separation of the dyes is complete

(III) To prevent spreading of the dyes sideways thereby getting mixed up with other .
. spots next to them.

52
2. In order to compare the impurities present in the electrodes from two lead –acid batteries,
samples from the electrodes were dissolved in a suitable acid and the resulting solutions
were chromatographed, together with solutions containing five known metal ions. After
treating with a locating agent, the chromatograms were shown below

(a) What is the advantage of using a locating agent in the experiment?

(b) Were the two electrodes from the same manufacturer? Give a reason for your answer
(c) In a chromatogram, the value of an ion is defined as:

value =

In this chromatogram, value for is = 0.25

(I) What is the value for

(II) Find the distance travelled by the spot of which has an value of 0.75

Solution
(a) It reacts with the spots and gives the latter colours for easy location

53
 (b) No, there chromatograms show that they have different ions
(c) (I) value for =

= 0.5

(II) value =

Distance travelled by spot of iron = x distance travelled by solvent

= 0.75 x 12
= 9cm

Exercise

1. Naosa Jane wants to find out which coloured dyes have been mixed together to make dye
X. She separates a sample of dye X and samples of coloured dyes using paper
chromatography. Her results are shown below.

54
(a) Explain why the line is drawn in pencil and not in ink?
(b) Which colours are present in dye X?
(c) Which coloured dye contains a substance not present in any of the other coloured dyes?
2. The diagram below shows the apparatus that could be used to separate and identify
components of an unknown mixture of sugars (U). Study the diagram and answer the
questions that follow.

After development, the paper looks like this.

55
 (a) What disadvantage has this technique over the one with the solvent moving upwards
(b) Identify the sugars in the unknown sample using the letters in the diagram
(c) By what process does the solvent move in the experiment above?
(d) Why should the tank be kept closed in the experiment?

Summary of separation techniques

Separation technique Substances to be separated Example

Filtration Insoluble solid and liquid Muddy water
Crystallization / Evaporation Solute (soluble solid) from its Salt solution
solution
Distillation Solvent from its solution Salt solution
Fractional distillation Miscible liquids with different Ethanol and water
boiling points Crude oil
Liquid air
Decantation / Sedimentation Insoluble suspension settles to Mealie – meal and water
form sediment
Separating funnel Immiscible liquids Oil and water
Floatation Less dense solid and liquid Charcoal dust and water
Magnetism Magnetic materials Iron fillings and sulphur
powder
Paper chromatography Dissolved substances Dyes and pigments of ink

56
Example

1. Complete the following statement

(a) A ____________is the substance left on a filter paper

(b) The ___________is the liquid that passes through a filter paper
(c) _____________is the process of separating a liquid from solid sediment by
pouring
(d) ______________is used to separate vinegar from dressing
(e) The process of _______a liquid and then _______the vapour is known as_______

2. Name the chemical technique, which could usefully be used to separate water from a
solution of sodium chloride in water.
3. Sugar cannot be separated from sugar solution by filtering. Explain why.

Solution

1. (a) Residue (b) Filtrate (c) Decantation (d) Centrifugation

(e) Evaporation, condensation, distillation
2. Distillation
3. Because it is spread all through the solvent in tiny particles

Elements, mixtures and compounds

1. Elements

Definition: An element is a pure substance which cannot be split into two or more other simpler
substances by chemical means.

Examples of elements

 Iron
 Sulphur
 Magnesium

57
  Oxygen

Diagrammatical representation of elements

2. Mixture

Definition: A mixture is a substance which consists of two or more elements not chemically
combined.

Examples of mixtures

 Air: Air is a mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and other gases.
 Sugar solution: Sugar solution is a mixture of sugar and water.
 Brass: Brass is a mixture of zinc and copper.

Diagrammatical representation of a mixture

58
3. Compound

Definition: A compound is a substance which consists of two or more elements chemically

combined.

.Examples of compounds

 Water: Water consists of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.

 Common salt: Common salt consists of the elements sodium and chlorine.
 Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide consists of the elements carbon and oxygen.
 Sugar: Sugar consists of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 Iron sulphide: Iron sulphide consists of the elements iron and sulphur.

Diagrammatical representation of a compound

59
Differences between mixtures and compounds

Mixture Compound
The substances in a mixture can be separated The elements in a compound cannot be
by physical means. It is easy to separate a separated by physical means.
mixture into its components because each The particles of elements are combined
component keeps its own properties. chemically in a fixed ratio. It is difficult to
separate a compound into its constituent
elements
Energy is not usually given out or absorbed Energy (heat, light or sound) is usually given
when mixing occurs out when a compound is formed
The properties of a mixture (density, colour) The properties of a compound are quite
are an average of those of the substances in it different from those of the elements in it. This
is because a chemical change has taken place.
The composition of a mixture is variable. The The composition a compound is fixed. The
substances can be present in any proportions elements are combined in definite proportions
by mass. In a mixture, the particles of each by mass
substance remain separate and the number of
each can vary

Exercise

1. Consider the following list of common substances

Air, salt, brass, sugar, glass, water, limestone

Choose from the list a substance which:
(a) is a mixture containing both elements and compounds
(b) is a mixture of compounds
(c) is a mixture of elements
(d) is a compound containing only two elements
(e) is a compound which contains carbon

60
Structure of an atom

Definition: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical reaction.

Atoms are electrically neutral. They have no overall charge. This is because the number of protons
is equal to the number of electrons

Fundamental particles of an atom

1. Electron

It is a negatively charged particle.

It has a charge of −1

It is found in shells of around the nucleus of an atom. A shell is a concentric ring around the
nucleus

It has a mass of atomic mass units (a.m.u)

61
2. Proton

It is a positively charged particle

It has a charge of +1

It is found in the nucleus of an atom

It has a mass of 1atomic mass units (a.m.u)

3. Neutron

It is a neutral particle

It has no charge

It is found in the nucleus of an atom

It has a mass of 1atomic mass units (a.m.u)

Example

1. The diagram below represents an atom of lithium.

What do the symbols represents?

62
Solution

Exercise

1. Complete the table below

Particle Relative charge Position in the atom Relative mass

−1 Shells around the nucleus
Proton Nucleus
1

Proton number

Alternative term: Atomic number

Symbol: Z

Definition: It is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass number

Alternative term: Nucleon number

Symbol: A

Definition: It the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

Formula: A = Z + N

A = mass number

Z = proton (atomic number)

N = number of neutrons

63
Example

1. An atom of sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons. Calculate its mass number.

Data Solution
A =? A=Z+N
Z = 11 A = 11 + 12
N = 12 A = 23

2. An atom has the notation . State the number of protons (p), electrons (e) and neutrons
(n) in one atom of Y.

Solution

p = 19

e = 19

n = 39 – 19

= 20

Exercise

1. An atom of aluminium has a mass number of 27 and has 13 protons. Work out the
number of neutrons.
2. An atom has the notation . State the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in
one atom of X.

Atomic numbers and mass numbers for the first 20 elements

Element Symbol Atomic number Mass number

Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 4

64
Lithium Li 3 7
Beryllium Be 4 9
Boron B 5 11
Carbon C 6 12
Nitrogen N 7 14
Oxygen O 8 16
Fluorine F 9 19
Neon Ne 10 20
Sodium Na 11 23
Magnesium Mg 12 24
Aluminium Al 13 27
Silicon Si 14 28
Phosphorous P 15 31
Sulphur S 16 32
Chlorine Cl 17 35.5
Argon Ar 18 40
Potassium K 19 39
Calcium Ca 20 40

Nuclides

A nuclide consists of a symbol with the atomic number in front of the symbol and just below it and
the mass number also in front and just above the symbol.

Nuclide notation:

A = mass number

X = symbol of an atom

Z = proton (atomic number)

Isotopes

Definition: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons (and mass numbers)

Carbon has three isotopes.

65
 p=6
Carbon −12, n = 12 – 6
=6
p=6
Carbon − 13, n = 13 – 6
=7
p=6
Carbon − 14, n = 14 – 6
=8

Hydrogen has three isotopes

p=1
Hydrogen − 1, n=1–1
(Ordinary hydrogen, H) =0
p=1
Hydrogen − 2, n=2–1
(Deuterium, D) =1
p=1
Hydrogen − 3, n=3–1
(Tritium, T) =2

Chlorine has two isotopes

p = 17
Chlorine − 35, n = 35 – 17
= 18
p = 17
Chlorine − 37, n = 37 – 17

66
 = 20

Some uses of isotopes

1. Hydrogen isotopes are used in the study of nuclear energy

2. Radioisotopes e.g. radio cobalt, are used in the treatment of cancer.
3. Isotopes e.g. Uranium −235 isotopes, are used in the manufacture of nuclear weapons
4. Carbon −14 isotope is used in radio carbon dating machine to determine the age of fossils.

Mass spectrometer

The mass spectrometer is used for the separation of isotopes of an element and determination of
their respective masses.

Relative atomic mass

Symbol:

Definition: Definition: Relative atomic mass of an element is the mass of one atom of an element
compared to .

Formula: = +

Example

1. Chlorine has two main isotopes, and with abundances of 75% and 25%
respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass for chlorine.

(Cl) = +
= +

67
 = +
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5

Note

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 (not a whole number) because it is the average of two
isotopes i.e. chlorine − 35 and chlorine − 37.

Exercise

1. Chlorine has two isotopes, and

(a) Define the term isotopes

(b) State the number of neutrons in each of the following isotopes of chlorine

(I) Chlorine – 35
(II) Chlorine – 37

(c) Explain why the relative atomic mass of chlorine on the periodic table is not a whole
number?
(d) What is the difference in the nuclei of the isotope with nucleon number 7 and its
isotope whose nucleon number is 6?
(e) Define relative atomic mass

2. Natural Neon occurs as a mixture of three isotopes, 90.92% , 0.257% and .

(a) What is the relative percentage abundance ?

(b) Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon giving your answer to the nearest
whole number

3. The table below shows the three isotopes of the element hydrogen and their nucleon (mass)
numbers.

68
 (a) Complete the table to show the number of particles in the three nuclides.

Symbol Name Nucleon (mass) number Protons Neutrons

H Hydrogen 1
D Deuterium 2
T Tritium 3

(b) The boiling point of is but that of is . Suggest a reason for

this difference

Electron shells

Alternative term: Energy levels.

Definition: Electron shells are concentric rings around the nucleus

The nucleus is also called the core of an atom.

The shells, in order of their increasing distance from the nucleus, are assigned by letters K, L, M,
N etc.

Electron configuration

Alternative term: Electronic structure

Definition: Electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons in shells of atoms

69
The maximum number of electrons each shell can accommodate is given by the formula: 2n2,
where n is the number of shells.

= 2n2
K shell, n = 1 = 2 x 12
= 2 x 1 x1
= 2 electrons
= 2n2
L shell, n = 2 = 2 x 22
= 2 x 2 x2
= 8 electrons
= 2n2
M shell, n = 3 = 2 x 32
= 2 x 3 x3
= 18 electrons
= 2n2
= 2 x 42
N shell, n = 4 = 2 x 4 x4
= 32 electrons
Metals have 1 or 2 or 3 electrons in the outer most shells

Non-metals have 4 or 5 or 6 or 7 electrons in the outer most shell

The outer most shell is the last shell

Ways of showing the electron configuration

[A] By writing

The symbol of an element is written first followed by the number of electrons in each shell
separated by a dot.

Example

1. Show by writing the electron configuration in each of the following nuclides:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Solution

70
 (a) Na 2. 8. 1
(b) C 2.4
(c) Ne 2.8
(d) Li 2.1
(e) Cl 2.8.7
(f) K 2.8.8.1

Exercise

1. Show by writing the electron configuration for each of the following nuclides:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

[B] By drawing

First show the electron configuration by writing, then draw the shells in form of rings or circles
and indicate the number of electrons in each shell as crosses (x) or dots (∙)

Examples

1. Show by drawing the electron configuration for each of the following nuclides:

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Solution

71
Electron configuration for the first 20 elements

Element Symbol Atomic number Electrons in shells

K .L.M. N
Hydrogen H 1 1
Helium He 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2.1
Beryllium Be 4 2.2
Boron B 5 2.3
Carbon C 6 2.4

72
Nitrogen N 7 2.5
Oxygen O 8 2.6
Fluorine F 9 2.7
Neon Ne 10 2.8
Sodium Na 11 2 .8 . 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 .8 . 2
Aluminium Al 13 2 .8 . 3
Silicon Si 14 2 .8 . 4
Phosphorous P 15 2 .8 . 5
Sulphur S 16 2 .8 . 6
Chlorine Cl 17 2 .8 . 7
Argon Ar 18 2 .8 . 8
Potassium K 19 2 .8 .8 . 1
Calcium Ca 20 2 .8 .8 . 2

Ions

Definition: An ion is a charged particle

Types of ions

There are two types of ions; cations and anions

A. Cations

A cation is a positively charged particle

A cation has more protons than electrons

Formation of cations

Metals lose their outer most shell electrons to form cations

Cations can be divided into three categories

1. Monovalent cations

These are formed when a metal loses a single electron

Na 2. 8. 1 (neutral sodium atom)

73
 Protons 11
Electrons 11
Neutrons 12

Sodium atom loses a single electron to form sodium ion

Na – e →

2 . 8 (sodium ion)

Protons 11
Electrons 10
Neutrons 12

2. Divalent cations

These are formed when a metal loses two electrons

Mg 2. 8. 2 (neutral magnesium atom)

Protons 12
Electrons 12
Neutrons 12

Magnesium atom loses two electrons to form magnesium ion

Mg – 2e → Mg2+

Mg2+ 2. 8 (magnesium ion)

Protons 12
Electrons 10
Neutrons 12

74
3. Trivalent cations

These are formed when a metal loses three electrons

Al 2. 8. 3 (neutral aluminium atom)

Protons 13
Electrons 13
Neutrons 14

Aluminium loses three electrons to form aluminium ion

Al – 3e → Al3+

Al3+2 . 8 (aluminium ion)

Protons 13
Electrons 10
Neutrons 14

B. Anions

An anion is a negatively charged particle

An anion has more electrons than protons

Formation of anions

Non-metals gain electrons to form anions

Anions can be divided into three categories

1. Monovalent anions

These are formed when a non-metal gains a single electron

F 2.7 (neutral fluorine atom)

75
 Protons 9
Electrons 9
Neutrons 10

Fluorine gains a single electron to form fluoride ion

F+e →

2. 8 (fluoride ion)

Protons 9
Electrons 9
Neutrons 10

2. Divalent anions

These are formed when a non-metal gains two electrons

O 2 . 6 (neutral oxygen atom)

Protons 8
Electrons 8
Neutrons 8

Oxygen atom gains two electrons to form oxide ion

O + 2e →

2 . 8 (oxide ion)

Protons 8
Electrons 10
Neutrons 8

76
3. Trivalent anions

These are formed when a non-metal gain three electrons

N 2 . 5 (neutral nitrogen atom)

Protons 7
Electrons 7
Neutrons 7

Nitrogen atom gains three electrons to form nitride ion

N + 3e →

2. 8 (nitride ion)

Protons 7
Electrons 10
Neutrons 7

Example

1. Work out the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in each of the following:

(a)
(b)
(c)

Solution

Protons Electrons Neutrons

19 19 20
15 18 16

77
 20 18 20

Exercise

1. A lithium atom has a mass number of 7 and has 3 protons

(a) Write the formula for the ion formed by lithium.

(b) Explain how the lithium ion is formed.
(c) Selecting from the following ions:

, , , ,
Choose the ion that;
(I) has the same arrangement of electrons as
(II) has only two electrons
(III) has the same arrangement of electrons as neon

2. Complete the table below

Ion Number of protons Number of electrons

9
11 10
10

3. The table below shows the structure of several particles

Particle Electrons Protons Neutrons

A 12 12 12
B 12 12 14
C 10 12 12
D 10 8 8

78
 E 9 9 10

(a) Which three particles are neutral atoms?

(b) Which particle is a negative ion? What is the charge on this ion?
(c) Which particle is a positive ion? What is the charge on this ion?
(d) Which two particles are isotopes

Bonding of atoms

Definition: Bonding is chemical combination of two or more atoms.

Compounds and molecules result from chemical bonding

Only outer most shell electrons take part in bonding.

Atoms are held together by the forces of attraction or bonds.

A bond is a force of attraction between atoms

Why do atoms form bonds?

Atoms form bonds in order to be stable

Atoms react with one another in order to acquire full outer most shells like those of noble gases

Structure of noble gases

Noble gases are atoms that have eight electrons in the outer most shells except helium which has
only two electrons.

Helium which has only two electrons obeys a duplex rule.

Other noble gases which have eight electrons in their outer most shells obey an octet rule.

Examples of noble gases

Noble gas Symbol Electron configuration

Helium He 2
Neon Ne 2. 8
Argon Ar 2. 8. 8

79
Types of bonding

There are three types bonding

 Ionic bonding
 Covalent bonding
 Metallic bonding

Ionic bonding

Alternative term: Electrovalent bonding.

Ionic bonding involves the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal

A metal loses electrons while a non-metal gains electrons.

Electrovalency

Electrovalency is the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom.

Ionic bond

Alternative term: Electrovalent bond

An ionic bond is the force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic compounds

Ionic compounds consist of cations and anions.

Examples of ionic compounds

 Sodium chloride, NaCl

 Magnesium oxide, MgO
 Calcium chloride, CaCl2

Formation of an ionic bond

80
Formation of sodium chloride

Electron configuration for sodium atom: Na 2.8.1 Electron configuration for chlorine atom: Cl 2.8.7
Sodium atom loses a single outer most shell Chlorine atom gains a single electron lost by
electron to form sodium ion with a positive sodium to form chloride ion with a negative charge.
charge. Cl + e →
Na – e → 2.8.8
2.8
The sodium and chloride ions attract each other to form a neutral compound called sodium chloride and
the ionic bond is formed between the oppositely charged ions.
+ → NaCl

81
82
 Formation of magnesium oxide

Electron configuration for magnesium atom: Mg 2.8.2 Electron configuration for oxygen atom: O 2.6

Magnesium atom loses its two outer most shell Oxygen atom gains two electron lost by
electrons to form magnesium ion with a charge of +2. magnesium to form oxide ion with a charge of
Mg – 2e → −2.
2.8 O + 2e →
2.8
The magnesium and oxide ions attract each other to form a neutral compound called magnesium oxide and
the ionic bond is formed between the oppositely charged ions.
+ → MgO

83
84
 Formation of calcium chloride

Electron configuration for calcium atom: Ca 2.8.8.2 Electron configuration for chlorine atom: Cl 2.8.7
Calcium atom loses its two outer most shell The two electrons lost by calcium atom are
electrons to form calcium ion with a charge of +2. gained by two atoms chlorine atom. Each
chlorine atom gains only one electron to form a
Ca – 2e → chloride ion.
2.8.8 Cl + e →
2.8.8
2Cl + 2e →
The calcium and chloride ions attract each other to form a neutral compound called calcium chloride and
the ionic bond is formed between the oppositely charged ions.
+ →

Characteristics of ionic compounds

1. They are made up of positively and negatively charged ions.

2. They have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between ions.
3. They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and petrol.
4. In aqueous solution or molten state, they conduct electricity because the ions are free to
move.
5. They are non-volatile and generally solids at room temperature.

85
Example

1. Sodium chloride is an ionic solid.

(a) Show by writing the electronic structure of both a sodium ion and a chloride ion.
(b) Sodium chloride has a melting point of about 800 °C.
(I) Explain why sodium chloride has a high melting point.
(II) Magnesium oxide, MgO, has a similar structure to sodium chloride. Suggest why
the melting point of magnesium oxide is higher than that of sodium chloride.
(c) Explain why solid sodium chloride will not conduct electricity but molten sodium chloride
will.
Solution
(a) 2.8
2.8.8
(b) (I) Because of the strong attraction between oppositely charged ions
(II) Because of the higher charges on the ions hence stronger attraction

(c) Ions cannot move in the solid but can move in the melt

Exercise

1. A metal X (atomic number 11) reacts with chlorine to form a white solid chloride Y.

(a) Write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction

(b) Show by drawing, the arrangement of electrons in X:

(I) before the reaction

(II) after the reaction

(c) State three characteristics of Y.

86
 2. The figure below shows the structure of a compound

(a) Name the compound shown

(b) Write down the chemical formula of the compound shown
(c) What type of bonding is present in the compound?
(d) State any two properties you would expect the compound to have

3. Draw a dot and cross diagram to show the bonding lithium fluoride, LiF

Covalent bonding

Alternative term: Molecular bonding

Covalent bonding involves the sharing of the outer most electrons between non-metal atoms.

Covalency

Covalency is the number of electrons an atom shares with another atom.

Covalent bond

Alternative term: Molecular bond

A covalent bond consists of a shared pair of electrons and it is formed between non-metals which
share one or pairs of electrons.

Atoms are held by the attraction between their positive nuclei and the shared electrons.

87
Covalent compounds

Alternative term: Molecular compounds

Covalent compounds are usually molecules. A molecule the smallest particle of an element or
compound which exists independently, that is in a free state.

They are formed when non-metals combine by sharing electrons.

As a result of sharing electrons, each non-metal acquires a completely filled outer most shell.

Examples of covalent compounds

 Hydrogen molecule,
 Water,
 Carbon dioxide,
 Ammonia,

Formation of hydrogen molecule

Formula:

H–H

Each hydrogen atom has one electron.

When the two hydrogen atoms combine, they share electrons.

Note: only outer most shell electrons are shown.

H + H →

88
Formation of water molecule

Formula:

H–O–H

H + O + H →

Formation of carbon dioxide

Formula:

O = C = O or O:: C:: O

The two pairs of electrons are shared between a carbon atom and each oxygen atom and a double
covalent bond is formed.

89
Formation of ammonia

Formula:

Ammonia is formed from bonding between one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms.

Characteristics of covalent compounds

1. They are made up of molecules

2. They have low melting and boiling points because of the weak forces of attraction which
hold the molecules.
3. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and petrol.
4. They do not conduct electricity in solid or solution form because they are made up of
molecules.
5. They are generally volatile

90
Example

1. The diagram below shows the dot and cross structure of compound R showing all the shells
and electrons

(a) Use the periodic table to deduce the chemical and structural formulae of compound R
(b) Compare the bonding in compound R to that in calcium chloride
(c) Explain the difference in electrical conductivity between compared R and calcium chloride
in liquid form

Solution

(a) Chemical formula:

Structural formula: S = C = S

(b) The bonding in R involves the sharing of electrons between non – metals and in calcium
chloride the bonding involves the transfer of electrons between a metal and a non- metal.
(c) Compound R will not conduct electricity in liquid form because it does not contain ions, so
it is a non – electrolyte while calcium chloride will conduct electricity because it is made
up of positively and negatively charged ions.

91
Exercise

2. With the aid of diagrams, show how covalent bonds are formed in the following molecules:

(a) Oxygen,
(b) Ethane,
(c) Hydrogen chloride, HCl
(d) Chlorine,

Metallic bonding

Metallic bonding is the attraction between the positively charged metal ions and the free electrons
in a metallic lattice.

It involves the sea of electrons around positively charged particles inside a metal structure.

The electrons are free to move anywhere in the metallic lattice. The electrons are said to be
delocalized.

Sodium atoms, for example, lose a single electron from the outer most shell. When a large number
of sodium atoms lose these electrons, the result is many free electrons.

Sodium metal lattice

92
Valency

Alternative term: Combining power

Definition: Valency is the number of electrons lost or gained or shared by an atom of the element
to attain a stable structure.

Valencies of some elements

Metals Non metals

Valency Name Symbol Name Symbol
Potassium K Chlorine Cl
1 Silver Ag Hydrogen H
Sodium Na
Copper (I) Cu
Barium Ba Oxygen O
Calcium Ca Sulphur S
Copper (II) Cu
2 Iron (II) Fe
Lead (II) Pb
Magnesium Mg
Mercury Hg
Zinc Zn
3 Aluminium Al Nitrogen N
Iron (III) Fe Phosphorus (III) P
4 Lead (IV) Pb
5 Phosphorus (V) P

93
Radical
A radical is a group of atoms which is present in several compounds but incapable of independent
existence.
Radicals and their Valencies
Radical Formula Valency
Ammonium NH4
Chlorate ClO3
Chloride Cl
Hydrogen carbonate HCO3 1
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4
Hydroxide OH
Nitrate NO3
Nitrite NO2
Carbonate CO3
Oxide O
Sulphate SO4 2
Sulphide S
Sulphite SO3
Phosphate PO4 3
Chemical formula
A chemical formula consist of a symbol or symbols showing the number of atoms in one molecule
of an element or a compound
Writing chemical formula
Steps to consider when writing the chemical formula
1. Write the symbol for the combining elements and radicals
2. Write the Valency of each element or radical at the top at its top right hand side
3. Exchange the Valencies of the combining elements and radicals by writing them at the
bottom right hand side of the element or radical. If the number is 1, do not write it.
In some formulae, radicals are written in brackets followed by a small sub script digit.

94
Examples
1. Write the formula for each of the following compounds
(a) Sodium chloride
(b) Potassium carbonate
(c) Ammonium carbonate
(d) Aluminium phosphate
(e) Calcium hydrogen carbonate
Solution
(a) Na Cl

NaCl
(b) K

(c)

(d) Al PO4

(e) Ca

2. Write the Valency for the elements and radical for each of the following:
(a) CaCO3
(b) Fe2O3
(c)

95
Solution
Element /radical Valency
(a) Ca 2
CO3 2
(b) Fe 3
O 2
(c) N 3
H 1

Exercise
1. Write the Valency for the elements and radicals in each of the following:
(a) Al2(SO4)2
(b) (NH4)2CO3
(c) NaHSO4
2. Calcium nitrate has the ions . Write the formula of the compound formed
when the two ions combine.
State symbols
State symbols are letters that are used to show the physical state of substances in the equation
State symbols are placed in brackets after the name or formula of each substance in the equation
Examples
Physical state State symbol
Gas or vapour (g)
Liquid or molten (l)
Solid or precipitate (s)
Aqueous solution (aq)

96
Equations
An equation is a chemical sentence which describes what is happening in a chemical reaction
An equation can be represented in the form:
A + B → C + D
(Reactants) (Products)
Interpretation: A reacts with B to form C and D.
A→ B + C
Interpretation: A decomposes into B and C.
The plus (+) sign on the left hand side means “react with”
The plus (+) sign on the right hand side means “and”
The arrow (→) between the reactants and products means “to form”
Reactants are substances that take part in a chemical reaction. They are normally written at the left
hand side of a chemical equation
Products are new substances that are formed from the reaction. They are normally written at the
right hand side of a chemical equation
[A] Word equations
Word equations are chemical equations written in words
Examples
1. Write down the word equation for each of the following reactions including state symbols
(a) Magnesium metal reacts with oxygen gas to form magnesium oxide
(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form sulphur and water
(c) Iron (II) chloride solution and hydrogen gas are produced when iron reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid
(d) Iron reacts with chlorine gas to form iron (II) chloride
Solution
(a) Magnesium(s) + Oxygen(g) → Magnesium oxide(s)
(b) Hydrogen sulphide(s) + Oxygen(g) → Sulphur(s) + Water(l)
(c) Iron(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) → Iron (II) chloride(aq) + Hydrogen(g)
(d) Iron(s) + Chlorine(g) → Iron (II) chloride(s)

97
Exercise
1. Write down word equations including state symbols for each of the reactions:
(a) Mercury oxide decomposes into mercury and oxygen
(b) Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to form water
(c) Sodium metal reacts with water to produce a solution of sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas
(d) Calcium oxide dissolves in water to produce calcium hydroxide solution.
[B] Equations with symbols
Writing balanced chemical equations
Balancing the equation is the process of making the number of each type of atom equal on both
sides of the equation
Never change the chemical formula of compounds when balancing the chemical equations. You
can only add numbers in front of the chemical formula.
Examples
1. Write down balanced chemical equations including state symbols for each of the following
word equations
(a) Mercury oxide(s) → Mercury(l) + Oxygen(g)
(b) Hydrogen(g) + Oxygen(g) → Water(l)
(c) Magnesium(s) + Oxygen(g) → Magnesium oxide(s)
(d) Sodium(s) + Water(l) → Sodium hydroxide(aq) + Hydrogen(g)
(e) Calcium oxide(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) → Calcium chloride(aq) + Water(l)

Solution
(a) 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
(b) 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
(c) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
(d) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
(e) CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

98
Exercise
1. Balance the following equations
(a) H2(g) + Cl2(g) → HCl(g)
(b) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(c) P(s) + O2(g) → P2O5(s)
(d) H2S(g) + O2(g) → H2O(l) + SO2(g)
(e) CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(f) Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3(s)
(g) KMnO4(s) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + MnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
[C] Ionic equations
Ionic equations show only the ions involved in a chemical reaction
Ions not taking part in the reaction (spectator ions) are cancelled out in the construction of ionic
equations
Steps to consider when writing the ionic equation
1. Construct a balanced chemical equation
2. Split only soluble ionic compounds (compounds in aqueous state) into ions . Insoluble
ionic compounds, elements and covalent compounds remain unchanged.
3. Cancel out spectator ions. These are ions that appear on both the left and right hand side of
the equation.
4. Rewrite the equation without the spectator ions

99
 Ion Formula of ion Valency Ion Formula of ion Valency
Ammonium ion 1 Aluminium ion 3
Chloride ion 1 Carbonate ion 2
Hydrogen ion 1 Lead (II) ion 2
Hydroxide ion 1 Phosphate ion 3
Nitrate ion 1 Sulphate ion 2
Potassium ion 1 Barium ion 2
Silver ion 1 Copper (II) ion 2
Sodium ion 1 Calcium ion 2
Example
1. Write the ionic equations for the reactions below
(a) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
(b) CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(c) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Solution
(a) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3-aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)
(b) CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(c) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
Exercise
1. Write the ionic equations for the following reactions
(a) AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
(b) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

100
Determining the number of atoms in a compound
Examples
1. What is the total number of atoms present in a molecule of lead (II) nitrate,
Data Solution
Pb = 1 Total number = 1 +2 + 6
N=2 = 9 atoms
O=3x2=6
2. Find the total number of atoms in ammonium phosphate,
Data Solution
N=3 Total number = 3 + 12 + 1 + 4
H = 4 x 3 = 12 = 20 atoms
P=1
O=4

3. Find the total number of atoms in three moles of ammonium sulphate,

Data Solution
N=3x2=6 Total number = 6 + 24 + 3 + 12
H = 3 x 4 x 2 = 24 = 45 atoms
S=3
O = 3 x 4 = 12

4. How many different atoms are in sodium ethanoate, ?

Solution
4 different atoms i.e. C, H, O and Na.
Exercise
1. Calculate the total number of atoms in calcium hydrogen sulphate,
2. How many different atoms are in urea?

101
Stoichiometric calculations
Relative atomic mass
Symbol: Ar
Units: It has no units
Definition: Relative atomic mass of an element is the mass of one atom of an element compared to
.

Relative atomic masses of some elements

Element Symbol Ar Element Symbol Ar
Hydrogen H 1 Aluminium Al 27
Carbon C 12 Sulphur S 32
Nitrogen N 14 Chlorine Cl 35.5
Oxygen O 16 Calcium Ca 40
Sodium Na 23 Iron Fe 56
Magnesium Mg 24 Copper Cu 64

Relative molecular mass

Symbol:
Units: It has no units
Definition: Relative molecular mass of a compound is the mass of one molecule of the compound
or element compared with .

Relative molecular mass can also be defined as the sum of relative atomic masses
Examples
1. Find the relative molecular, Mr, of the following:
(a) Hydrogen chloride, HCl
(b) Carbon dioxide, CO2
(c) Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4
(d) Copper (II) sulphate -5-water, CuSO4.5H2O
(e) Three moles of ammonium carbonate, 3(NH4)2CO3

102
Solution
(a) Mr of HCl = [(1 x 1) + (1 x 35.5)]
= 1 + 35.5
= 36.5
(b) Mr of CO2 = [(1 x 12) + (2 x 16)]
= 12 + 32
= 44
(c) Mr of Na2SO4 = [(2 x 23) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16)]
= 46 + 32 + 64
= 142
(d) Mr of CuSO4.5H2O = [(1 x 64) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) + (10 x 1) + (5 x 16)]
= 64 + 32 + 64 + 10 + 80
= 250
(e) Mr of 3(NH4)2CO3 = [(6 x 14) + (24 x 1) + (3 x 12) + ( 9 x 16)]
= 84 + 24 + 36 + 144
= 288
2. It is known that one form of carbon has the molecules of formula . What is the relative
molecular mass, , of these molecules?
Solution
The formula means that the molecule contains 60 carbon atoms bonded together.
= 60 x 12
= 720
Exercise
1. Work out the relative molecular mass of the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

103
 Molar mass
Symbol: MM
SI unit: gram per mole, g/mol
Definition: Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance
Molar mass can also be defined as relative molecular mass expressed in grams per mole
Examples
Symbol / Formula Relative molecular mass Molar mass
One mole of potassium K (1x39) = 39 39g/mol
One mole of sodium Na (1x23) = 23 23g/mol
One mole of ammonia [(1x14) + (3x1)] =17 17g/mol
One mole of carbon dioxide [(1x12) + (2x16)] = 44 44g/mol

Mole

Symbol: n

Unit: mole, mol

Definition: The mole is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary entities as
they are in 12.00g of carbon-12 isotope

Formula: Number of moles =

n=

n = mole [mol]

m = mass [g]

MM = molar mass [g/mol]

104
Examples

1. How many moles of potassium are there in 3.9g of potassium?

Data Solution
n =? n=
n=
m = 3.9g
n = 0.1mol
MM = 39g/mol

2. Find the mass of 0.2moles of ammonia molecules, NH3.

Data Solution
m =? m = n x MM
n = 0.2mol m = 0.2mol x 17g/mol
MM = 17g/mol m = 3.4g

3. Calculate the molar mass of 2.5moles of a substance X weighing 100g.

Data Solution
MM =? MM =
n = 2.5mol
MM =
m = 100g
MM = 40g/mol

4. How many moles of hydrogen atoms does 3.2g of methane, , contain?

Solution

MM for = [(1 x 12) + (4 x 1)] = 16g/mol

n=

n = 0.2mol

Number of moles of hydrogen in = number of hydrogen atoms in xn

= 4 x 0.2mol

= 0.8mol

Exercise
105
 1. Calculate the number of moles in 20g of calcium carbonate, CaCO3
2. If you need 2.5 moles of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, what mass of sodium hydroxide do
have to weigh?
3. Calculate the molar mass of 0.5 moles of substance X weighing 28g.
4. How many moles of oxygen molecules are there in 64g of oxygen,

Avogadro’s number

Alternative term: Avogadro‟s constant

Symbol:

NA = moles

Definition: Avogadro‟s number is the number of particles in exactly one mole of a pure substance

12.00g of carbon contains as many as atoms

1 mole of any element has mass equivalent to its mass number and contains particles.

Example: 1 mole of Ca = 40g = particles

1 mole of Fe = 56g = particles

1 mole of C = 12g = particles

1 mole of Mg = 24g = particles

1 mole of N = 14g = particles

1 mole of = 28g = particles

1 mole of H = 1g = particles

1 mole of = 2g = particles

1 mole of Na = 23g = particles

Elementary entities include atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, protons and neutrons

106
1 mole of atoms = atoms

1 mole of molecules = molecules

1 mole of ions = ions

1 mole of electrons = electrons

1 mole of protons = protons

1 mole of neutrons = neutrons

Examples

1. How many atoms of iron (Fe) are there in 25g of iron?

Solution

56g → atoms

25g → x

x=

x= atoms

2. If 1 mole of carbon is 12g, calculate the mass of 1 atom of carbon 12

Solution

6.02 x 1023 atoms → 12g

1 atom → x

x=

x= g

107
 3. What is the mass of atoms of calcium?

Solution

6.02 x 1023 atoms → 40g

atoms → x

x=

x = 7.97g

4. How many hydrogen atoms are there in 1 mole of hydrogen molecules, H2?

Solution

1 mole of atoms → 6.02 x 1023 atoms

1 mole of H2 molecules → x

But

1 mole of H2 molecules → 2 atoms

6.02 x 1023 molecules → x

x=

x = 1.204 x 1024 atoms

5. How many oxygen atoms are in 1.6g of sulphur trioxide, ?

Solution

of oxygen = 3 x 16 = 48

of = [(1 x 32) + (3 x 16)] = 80

n( =

n=

n = 0.02mol

Number of oxygen atoms in 1.6g of = number of oxygen atoms in x n x NA

108
 = 3 x 0.02mol x atoms

= atoms

Exercise

1. How many atoms of magnesium are there in 5g of magnesium?

2. What is the mass of 3.01 x 1023 atoms of carbon?

3. How many nitrogen atoms are there in 7g of nitrogen molecules, N2?

Calculations from equations

Mole to mole calculations
Examples
1. How many moles of chlorine are required to react 2.5 moles of calcium to produce
calcium chloride?
Solution
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(s)
1 mol Ca → 1 mol Cl2
2.5mol Ca → x

x=

x = 2.5 mol
2. How many moles of carbon dioxide (CO2) will be produced by complete combustion of
2 moles of glucose (C6H12O6) according to the equation?
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Solution
1 mol C6H12O6 → 6 mol CO2
2 mol C6H12O6 → x

x=

x = 12 mol CO2
Exercise
1. How many moles of ammonia can be produced from 8 moles of nitrogen gas?

109
 N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
2. How many moles of oxygen are needed to burn 1.8 moles of ethanol, C2H5OH?
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
Mole to mass calculations
Examples
1. What mass of hydrogen can be produced by reacting 6 moles of aluminium with
hydrochloric acid?
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)

Solution
2 mol Al → 6g H2
6 mol Al → x

x=

x = 18g H2
2. How many grams of oxygen are required to react with 0.3 moles of aluminium to produce
aluminium oxide?
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Al2O3(s)
Solution
4 mol Al → 96g O2
0.3 mol Al → x

x=

x = 7.2g O2
Exercise
1. What mass of magnesium oxide will be produced when 0.5 moles of magnesium burns in
oxygen

Mass to mass calculation

Examples

110
 1. Calculate the mass of calcium chloride produced when 40g of calcium carbonate reacts
with hydrochloric acid
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Solution
100g CaCO3 → 111g CaCl2
40g CaCO3 → x

x=

x = 44.4g CaCl2
2. Consider the reaction below.
UF4 + 2Mg → 2MgF2 + U
How many tonnes of uranium can be produced in the above reaction using 24 tonnes of
magnesium?
Solution
48g Mg → 238g U
24tonnes Mg → x

x=

x = 119 tonnes U
Exercise
1. What mass of calcium metal reacts with 9.0g of water according to the equation below?

2. Hydrogen burns in oxygen to form water. The equation for the reaction is:

How much oxygen is needed to burn 1g of hydrogen?

3. Consider the reaction: . What mass of lime (CaO) would be
produced from 20 tonnes of limestone ( )?

Limiting reagents
Definition: A limiting reagent is a reactant that is in short supply by the mole ratio and hence it
finishes before the other reactants are completely reacted.

111
A limiting reagent is always smaller or in less quantity compared to the other reactant
A limiting reagent is found by dividing the number of moles of each reactant by its stoichiometric
coefficient in a balanced chemical equation.

RA = , RB =

= Reagent A, = Reagent B
The ratio that is smaller is that of a limiting reagent. A limiting reactant has less number of moles
compared to the other reactant
A limiting reagent determines the extent to which the chemical reaction can proceed and the
amount of products that would be formed. Once the limiting reagent is finished, the reaction stops
even if the other reactants are still available in the reaction vessel
For this reason, it is important to identify the limiting reagent before calculating the theoretical
yield
In the identification of the limiting reagent,
 The balanced chemical equation and the mole ratio of reactants are used
 You cannot use volumes, concentrations or masses of the reactants since these will easily
mislead you.
Note
Excess reagents
An excess reagent is a reactant that remains unreacted at the end of the reaction.
Example
1. 19.5g of zinc and 9.40g of sulphur were heated together
Zn(s) + S(s) → ZnS(s)
(a) Which of the two is the limiting reactant?
(b) How many moles of zinc remain unreacted?
(c) How many grams of zinc element remain unreacted?
(d) Calculate the mass of zinc sulphide formed
Solution
(a) n(Zn) = n(S) =

112
 = =

= 0.3mol = 0.29 mol

The limiting reagent: Sulphur
Reason: It has a smaller number of moles compared to zinc.
(b) Number of moles of Zn unreacted = 0.3mol – 0.29mol
= 0.01 mol
(c) m = n x MM
m = 0.01mol x 65g/mol
m = 0.65g of Zn remained unreacted
(d) 32g S → 97g ZnS
9.4g S → x

x=

x = 28.5g ZnS
2. How many grams of hydrogen chloride would be produced from 0.49g of hydrogen and
50g of chlorine?
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
Solution
n (H2) = n (Cl2) =

= =

= 0.245mol = 0.704 mol

The limiting reagent: Hydrogen
Reason: It has a smaller number of moles compared to chlorine.
2.0g H2 → 73g HCl
0.49g H2 → x

x=

x = 17.885g HCl

113
 3. How many moles of iron trioxide (Fe3O4) can be obtained by reacting 16.8g of iron with
10g of steam?
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)
Solution
n(Fe) = n(H2O) =

n= n=

n = 0.3mol n = 0.56 mol

R= R=

n= n=

n = 0.1mol n = 0.14mol
Limiting reagent: Iron (Fe)
3mol Fe → 1mol Fe3O4
0.3mol Fe → x

x=

x = 0.1mol Fe3O4
Exercise
1. Aluminium reacts with Sulphuric acid, which is the acid in automobile battery, according
to the equation below
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
If 20.0g of aluminium are put in a solution containing 115g of Sulphuric acid;
(a) Which is the limiting reagent
(b) How many moles of hydrogen gas will be produced
(c) How many moles and grams of the reactant in excess will remain after the reaction has
stopped?
2. A mixture of 8.0g of hydrogen with 8.0g of oxygen is ignited
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
What is the mass of water formed?
Gas volume (Molar volume of gases)

114
Avogadro’s law
The law states that: the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas
molecules present if the pressure and temperature are constant

Number of moles =

n=

V = n x Vm
n = number of moles [mol]
V = volume [cm3] or [dm3]
Vm = molar volume [cm3/mol] or [dm3/mol]
Room temperature and pressure (r.t.p): The volume of one mole of any gas is 24dm3 or
24000cm3 at r.t.p
Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p): The volume of one mole of any gas is 22.4dm3 or
22400cm3 at s.t.p
Example
1. Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide molecules present in 240cm3of gas at r.t.p
Solution

n=

n=

n = 0.01 mol
2. What is the volume of the following gases at s.t.p?
(a) mol of Nitrogen,
(b) 3.2g of oxygen, O2

Solution
(a) V = n x Vm
V= mol x 22.4dm3/mol
V = 0.0627dm3

115
 (b) n =

n=

n = 0.1mol
V = n x Vm
V = 0.1mol x
V = 2.24dm3
Exercise
1. How many moles of molecules of each of the following gases would contain
(a) 12dm3 of hydrogen at r.t.p
(b) 100cm3 of carbon dioxide at s.t.p
Calculations from equations
Examples
1. What volume of hydrogen measured at s.t.p is produced when 0 .35g of Lithium reacts with
water?

Solution
=

n=

n = 0.05mol
2 mol Li → 1mol H2
0.05mol Li → x

x=

x = 0.025mol H2
V = n x Vm
V = 0.025mol x 22.4dm3/mol
V = 0.56dm3

116
 2. What mass of ammonium sulphate is required to produce 5.6dm3 of ammonia at s.t.p by the
reaction shown below
2NaOH(aq) + (NH4)2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
Solution

n (NH3) =

n=

n = 0.25mol NH3
1mol (NH4)2SO4 → 2mol NH3
x → 0.25mol NH3

x=

x = 0.125mol (NH4)2SO4
m=n x MM
m = 0.125mol x 132g/mol
m = 16.5g (NH4)2SO4
Exercise
1. What volume of carbon dioxide measured at s.t.p will be produced when 21.0g of sodium
hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) is completely decomposed according to the equation?
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2. What volume of oxygen at s.t.p is required for complete combustion of 40cm3 of butane
(C4H10) according to the equation?
2C4H10 + 13O2 → 8CO2 + 10H2O
3. Methane burns completely in oxygen according to the equation below.

If 0.2mol of methane is burned completely, what volume of carbon dioxide measured at

r.t.p is formed?
4. What volume of sulphur dioxide at r.t.p is given off on heating 9.7g of zinc sulphide, ZnS?

5. The following reaction takes place when chlorine is bubbled into excess ammonia solution.
3Cl2(g) + 8NH3(g) → N2(g) + 6NH4Cl(s)

117
 (a) What volume of nitrogen at r.t.p is formed when 72cm3 of chlorine is bubbled in
ammonia solution?
(b) How many moles of nitrogen are there in this volume at r.t.p?
(c) How many grams of nitrogen are in these number of moles
6. What volume of oxygen at r.t.p is required for the complete combustion of 25.0cm3 of
hexane according to the equation?
2C6H14 + 19O2 → 12CO2 + 14H2O(l)
Volume ration
Gas volume calculations are easy especially when the reactants and products are all gases.
Avogadro’s law
The law states that: equal number of volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of moles.
The significance of Avogadro‟s law is that the ratio of gas volumes in a reaction is the same as the
number of moles in the equation: e.g.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
1mol 1mol 2mol
1 volume 1 volume 2 volumes
1cm31cm3 2cm3
Example
1. Consider the reaction below
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(a) What volume of oxygen is needed to react with 40cm3 of methane, CH4?
(b) What volume of carbon dioxide would be produced?

Solution
(a) 1 volume CH4 → 2 volumes O2
40cm3 CH4 → x

x=

118
 x = 80cm3 O2
(b) Volume of CO2 = 40cm3
2. When 100cm3 of hydrogen is sparked with 100cm3 of oxygen at 110oC, steam is produced.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
(a) Which reactant is in excess?
(b) What volume of steam would be produced
Solution
(a) 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
2 : 1

50mol 100mol
Oxygen is in excess because it has a bigger number of moles
(b) 2 volumes H2 → 2 volumes H2O
100cm3 H2 → x

(c) x =

x = 100cm3 H2O
Relative molecular mass of gases
Density =

Mass = Density x volume

Example
1. The density of a gas is 0.71g/dm3 at r.t.p. What is the mass of the gas?
Solution
Mass = Density x volume
= 0.71g/dm3 x 24dm3
= 17.04g
Exercise

119
 1. The mass of 1 dm3 of a gas at s.t.p is 12.37g. What is the mass of the gas?
2. The density of a gaseous oxide of carbon is 1.15g/dm3 at r.t.p. What is the mass of 1
mole of the gas?
Hydrocarbon analysis
Example
1. 20cm3 of a hydrocarbon requires 100cm3 of oxygen for complete combustion and
produces 60cm3 of carbon dioxide. What is the formula of the hydrocarbon?
Solution
CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O
20cm3 100cm3 60cm3
1 mol 5mol 3mol
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
Formula: C3H8
2. 20cm3 of hydrocarbon gas requires 100cm3 of oxygen for complete combustion. 40cm3
of carbon dioxide was formed and 40cm3 of excess oxygen remained. What is the
formula of the hydrocarbon?
Solution
CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2O
20cm3 100cm3 – 40cm3 = 60cm3 40cm3
2mol 6mol 4mol
C4H8 + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 4H2O
Formula: C4H8
Exercise
1. 10cm3 of a hydrocarbon gas reacts with 90cm3 of oxygen to form 60cm3 carbon
dioxide. What is the formula of the hydrocarbon?
2. 20cm3 of hydrocarbon gas requires 100cm3 of oxygen for complete combustion. 40cm3
of carbon dioxide was formed and 30cm3 of excess oxygen remained. What is the
formula of the hydrocarbon?

120
Concentration
Definition: Concentration is the amount of solute dissolved in a unit volume of the solution.
Units:

Formula: Concentration (g/dm3) =

Concentration (mol/dm3) =

The concentration expressed in is called molarity.

Molarity is the number of moles of solute in one liter of solution
M=

Note
M = Molarity [mol/dm3]
n = moles [mol]
V = volume [dm3]
Example
1. A solution of glucose contains 0.45g of glucose in 0.075dm3 of solution. Calculate the
concentration of glucose solution in g/dm3.
Solution

Concentration (g/dm3) =

= 6.0g/dm3
2. Find the concentration in mol/dm3 of a solution of sodium hydroxide if it contains 3.5g of
NaOH in 100cm3 of solution.

Solution
n=

n=

121
 n = 0.0875mol

Concentration (mol/dm3) =

= 0.875mol/dm3
Exercise
1. What is the concentration of 0.5g of sodium hydroxide contained in 250 cm3 of solution in:
(a) g/dm3
(b) mol/dm3
Converting Molarity (concentration in ) into g/dm3

Concentration =

Concentration ( = Concentration x Molar mass (g/mol)

Example
1. 4.5g of anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) was dissolved in distilled water and made
up to 500cm3. Express the concentration of the solution in terms of :
(a)
(b)
Solution

(a) Concentration (g/dm3) =

= 9.0g/dm3

(b) Concentration (mol/dm3) =

= 0.085mol/dm3
Exercise
1. of hydrogen chloride gas measured at room temperature and pressure was absorbed
in aqueous ammonia solution and of ammonia solution was neutralized completely

122
 Calculate;
(a) The molarity of the ammonia solution
(b) The mass of ammonium chloride expected to be produced in the reaction
(c) The percentage yield of the ammonium chloride if 2.68g of ammonium chloride was
obtained after evaporating the solution

Dilution
This is the process of adding more solvent to a solution in order to reduce the
concentration. After dilution, the volume of the solution increases where as the
concentration decreases. The concentration is inversely proportion to the volume
change when the concentration changes from initial M1 to new concentration M2.This
principle gives us the dilution law:
M1V1=M2V2 where;
M1= initial concentration
V1=initial volume
M2=new concentration after dilution
V2=new volume after dilution
The dilution law and the above formula can be used to solve stoichiometric dilution
problems.

Examples
1. 0.25dm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid of concentration of 18.0M is diluted to
give a solution of 2.0M. What is the new volume of the diluted solution?
M1V1=M2V2
M1= 18M
V1=0.25dm3
M2=2.0M
V2=?

123
 18Mx0.25dm3=2.0MxV2

V2=2.25dm3

2. 50cm3 of 1.5M potassium hydroxide solution is diluted to 200cm3. Calculate

the new concentration of the solution?
M1V1=M2V2
M1= 1.5M
V1=50cm3
M2=?
V2=200cm3

1.5Mx50cm3=M2x200cm3

M2=0.375M

3. What volume of water must be added to 30cm3 of 2M nitric acid solution to

produce o.2M solution?
M1V1=M2V2
M1= 2M
V1=30cm3
M2=0.2M
V2=?
2Mx30cm3=0.2MxV2
V2=300cm3

124
 Since the final volume is 300cm3 and the initial volume is 30cm3 of 2M nitric
acid volume of water that must be added; 300cm3-30cm3=270cm3 must be
added.
4. The concentration of a stock solution of hydrochloric acid is 12M. Calculate
the volume of the stock solution needed to prepare 250cm3 of 2.15M solution
of hydrochloric acid.
M1V1=M2V2
M1= 12M
V1=?
M2=2.15M
V2=250cm3

12MxV1=2.15Mx250cm3
V1=44.79cm3

5. Calculate the volume of 4M hydrochloric acid required to make 2.5dm3 of

0.2M hydrochloric acid.
M1V1=M2V2
M1= 4M
V1=?
M2=0.2M
V2=2.5dm

4MxV1=0.2Mx2.5dm3

V1=0.125dm3

6. Differentiate between a concentrated solution and a diluted solution.

=A concentrated solution contains more solute than a diluted solution

125
 Calculations from equations
Example
1. Calculate the mass of calcium hydroxide required to neutralize 2.5dm3 of 0.5M HCl acid.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Solution
=

n=MxV
n = 0.5mol/dm3 x 2.5dm3
n = 1.25mol HCl
1 mol Ca(OH)2 → 2mol HCl
x → 1.25mol HCl

x=

x = 0.625mol Ca(OH)2
m (Ca(OH)2 )= n x MM
m = 0.625 mol x 74g/mol
m = 46.25g Ca(OH)2
2. 0.4M of sodium hydroxide was made to react completely with 50cm3 of 0.1M Sulphuric
acid. What was the volume of sodium hydroxide used?
Solution
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
=M x V
n = 0.1mol/dm3 x 0.05dm3
n = 0.005mol H2SO4
2mol NaOH → 1mol H2SO4
x → 0.005mol H2SO4

x=

x = 0.01mol NaOH

126
 V (NaOH) =

V=

V = 0.025dm3 = 25.0cm3
Exercise
1. Calculate the volume of 1M HCl which can be neutralized by 0.29g of magnesium
hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2. What volume of 0.1 of sulphuric acid would completely neutralize 20 of
0.2 of sodium hydroxide?
Percentage by mass of an element in a compound

Formula: % by mass = x 100%

Example
1. Calculate the % by mass of each element present in sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
Solution
(a) = [(2 x 23) + (1 x 12) + (3 x 16)]
= 46 + 12 + 48
= 106
% by mass of Na = x 100%

= x 100%

= 43.3%

(b) % by mass of C = x 100%

= 11.3%

(c) % by mass of O = x 100%

= 45.3%

Percentage by mass of in a compound = x 100%

Example
1. Calculate the percentage by mass of water in sodium carbonate crystals, Na2CO3.10H2O

127
Solution
of = [(2 x 23) + (1 x 12) + (3 x 16) + (20 x 1) + (10 x 16)]
= 46 + 12 + 48 + 20 + 160
= 286

% by mass of H2O in Na2CO3.10H2O = x 100%

= 62.9%
Exercise
1. Calculate the percentage by mass of water in copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4.5H2O
Mass of element in sample

Formula: Mass of element in sample = x sample mass

Example
1. Calculate the mass of copper (Cu) in 32g of copper (II) sulphate
Solution

Mass of Cu in CuSO4 = x 32g

= 12.8g

Exercise
1. Calculate the mass of iron in 10.0g of sample of rust, Fe2O3
Empirical formula
Symbol: E.F
Definition: Empirical formula is a formula which shows the lowest ratio of the different atoms in a
compound
Example
1. Find the empirical formula of a compound with the composition of 80% copper and 20%
sulphur
Solution

Symbols of elements Cu S

128
 Percentage by mas
Molar mass
Number of moles 1.25 0.625

Divide by smallest number

Mole ratio 2 1
E.F = Cu2S

2. 30g of silicon oxide contains 14g of silicon. Find the empirical formula of the compound
Solution
Mass of O = 30g – 14
= 16g

Symbols of elements Si O
Percentage by mass
Molar mass
Number of moles 0.5 1
0.5 x 2 1x2
Multiply both sides by 2
Mole ratio 1 2
E.F = SiO2

129
 3. A compound was found to contain 29.4% calcium, 23.5% sulphur and 47.1% oxygen.
What is the empirical formula of the compound?
Solution
Symbols of elements Ca S O
Percentage by mass
Molar mass
Number of moles 0.735 0.734 2.944

Divide by smallest number

Mole ratio 1 1 4
E.F = CaSO4

4. A hydrated salt has the following percentage composition iron 20.15%, sulphur 11.51%,
oxygen 23.02% and water 45.32%. find out its empirical formula
Solution

Symbols of elements Fe S O H2O

Percentage by mass
Molar mass
Number of moles 0.35 0.35 1.43 2.51

Divide by smallest number

Mole ratio 1 1 4 7
E.F = FeSO4.7H2O

Exercise
1. A hydrocarbon contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3% hydrogen. Work out the empirical
formula.
2. A compound X contains 50% sulphur and 50% oxygen, by mass. What is the empirical
formula of the compound?

130
 3. An experiment showed that 13.88g of calcium chloride were obtained from the
combination of 5g calcium with chlorine. What is the empirical formula of calcium
chloride?
4. Analysis of an organic compound showed that 5.4g of carbon combined with 0.9g of
hydrogen and 0.8g of oxygen. What is the empirical formula of this organic compound?
Molecular formula
Symbol: M.F
Definition: Molecular formula is a formula which shows the actual number of each kind of atom in
a compound
Formula: Molecular formula =
M.F =

n=

Example
1. The empirical formula of a compound is C2H4O. Its relative molecular mass is 88. Find the
molecular formula
Solution

n=

n=

n=2
M.F = (E.F)n
M.F = (C2H4O)2
M.F = C4H8O2

131
 2. A compound of carbon has a composition of 15.8% carbon and 84.2% sulphur.
Find the empirical formula. If the relative molecular mass of the compound is 76, find its
molecular formula
Symbols of elements C S
Percentage by mass
Molar mass
Number of moles 1.317 2.631

Divide by smallest number

Mole ratio 1 2
E.F = CS2

n=

n=
n=1
M.F =
M.F = (CS2)1
M.F = CS2
Exercise
1. 4.04g of nitrogen combines with 11.46g of oxygen to produce a compound with relative
molecular mass of 92. What is the molecular formula of the compound?
2. A compound contains 40% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and 53.3% oxygen.
(a) Find the empirical formula of the compound
(b) If the relative molecular mass of the compound is 180, work out its molecular formula.
3. The empirical formula of a compound is found to be . The relative molecular mass of
the compound is known to be 42g. Find the molecular formula of the compound.
Percentage yield
Definition: Percentage yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield multiplied by
100%

Formula: Percentage yield = x 100%

132
Yield
Definition: Yield is the amount of product produced when substances react.
Actual yield
Definition: Actual yield is the amount of product obtained at the end of the reaction
Actual yield is also called experimental yield
Theoretical yield
Definition: Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of the product calculated from the measured
amounts of a given reactant using the balanced chemical equation and the mole concept.
Theoretical yield is also called expected yield
Note
The actual yield is usually less than the theoretical yield due to the following factors:
 the reactants may fail to react completely due to the presence of impurities in them
 the reaction may be reversible such that some of the products formed are converted back
into the reactants preventing the reaction from going to completion
 there may be evaporation of both reactants and products for the reaction involving volatile
chemicals
 there may be loss of samples of reactants or products as they are being transferred from one
vessel to another during measurements
 for large scale industrial processes, there may be leakages in pipes carrying the reactants or
products of the reaction
Percentage purity
Definition: Percentage purity is the ratio of the amount of a pure substance in the sample to the
total amount of the sample multiplied by 100%

Formula: Percentage purity = x 100%

–
Percentage purity = x 100%

Example
1. Consider the reaction below
C6H6 (l) + Cl2(g) → C6H5Cl (l) + HCl(g)
When 36.8g of benzene (C6H6) reacts with an excess of chlorine (Cl2), the actual yield of
chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) is 38.8g. Find the percentage yield of chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl)

133
Solution
78g C6H6 → 112.5g C6H5Cl
36.8g C6H6 → x

x=

x = 53.08g C6H5Cl(Theoretical yield)

Percentage yield = x 100%

= x 100%

= 73.1%
2. Marble occurs naturally as rock and contains a lot of calcium carbonate
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(a) If you started with 25g of marble, what would be the expected mass of calcium chloride?
(b) If the actual yield of calcium chloride obtained is 13.8g, what is the percentage purity of
calcium chloride, given that;

Percentage purity = x 100%

(c) What is the likely impurity in the sample product?

Solution
(a) 100g CaCO3 → 111g CaCl2
25g CaCO3 → x

x=

x =27.75g CaCl2

(b) Percentage purity = x 100%

= x 100%

= 41.73%
(c) Silicon dioxide, SiO2

134
Exercise
1. Methanol can be produced through the reaction of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen
(H2) in the presence of a catalyst.
CO(g) + 2H2(g) → CH3OH(l)
If 75.0g of carbon monoxide (CO) reacts to produce 68.4g of methanol (CH3OH), what is
the percentage yield of methanol, CH3OH?
2. Aluminium(Al) reacts with excess copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4) according to the equation
given below:
2Al(s) + 3CuSO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3Cu(s)
If 1.85g of aluminium (Al) reacts and the percentage yield of copper (Cu) is 56.6%, what
mass of copper (Cu) is produced?
3. Calculate the percentage yield when 6.4g of copper are heated in air and 7.6g of copper (II)
oxide is obtained.
4. 5g of calcium carbonate was reacted with 40cm3 of 2.75mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid
according to the equation below:

If 1.1dm3 of carbon dioxide gas measured at r.t.p was collected in a graduated gas jar.
(a) State the practical yield of carbon dioxide gas
(b) State which reactant was in excess
(c) State which reactant was a limiting reactant
(d) Calculate the theoretical yield
(e) Calculate the percentage yield.

135
 The periodic table
The periodic table is a chart of elements placed according to the order of increasing atomic
numbers.
Atomic number is the property of elements used to place them in order on the periodic table.
Important features of the periodic table
GROUP
I II III IV V VI VII O
P 1 H He
E 2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg TRANSITION ELEMENTS Al Si P S Cl Ar
R 3
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
I 4 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
O 5 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Ti Pb Bi Po At Rn
D 6 Fr Ra Ac
S 7
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Metals
Non- metals

Key: A = Relative atomic mass / mass number

X = Atomic symbol

136
 Z = Proton (atomic) number

In the periodic table,

1. Elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic numbers
2. Elements with similar electronic configuration are placed in the same group.
3. Elements with similar chemical properties are placed in the same group

Period
A period is a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table
The periodic table has 7 periods.
Period 1 contains two elements; hydrogen and helium
Periods 2 and 3 contains eight elements each and are called short periods.
Periods 4, 5 and 6 contain eighteen elements each and are called long periods.
Period 7 contains three elements
The period number is equivalent to the number of electron shells e.g. calcium is placed in period 4
of the periodic table because it has 4 electron shells i.e. Ca 2.8.8.2
Ca 2 8 8 2
1st shell 2nd shell 3rd shell 4th shell
Progression of properties across the period
As we move across the period (from left to right)
1. The metallic nature of elements decreases. They change from metals to non-mental and
inert gases.
2. Electro-negativity increases. Electronegativity is the relative ability of an atom to attract
the pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
3. The atomic number increases by one between successive elements.
4. The number of shells remains the same while the number of valence electrons increases
steadily. The valence of each element is equal to;
(a) The valence electrons for metals.

137
Examples
(i) Na 2. 8.1, valence = 1

(ii) Mg 2.8.2, valence = 2

(iii) Al 2.8.3, valence = 3

(b) Eight (8) minus the valence electrons for non-metals

Examples
(i) Cl 2.8.7
Valency = 8 −7
=1
(ii) O 2.6
Valency = 8 − 6
=2
(iii) N 2.5
Valency = 8 − 5
=3
Groups
A group is a vertical column of elements in the periodic table
There are eight groups on the periodic table
Groups are labeled with roman numerals i.e. groups I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII with the final group
labeled O
The position of an element in the periodic table is determined by the number of electrons in the
outer most shell.
The number of electrons in the outer most shell of an element is equivalent to its group number e.g.
oxygen is placed in group VI of the periodic table because it has 6 electrons in the outer most shell
i.e. O 2.6
Some groups have special names
Examples
Group Special name
I Alkali metals
II Alkaline earth metals
VII Halogens

138
 O Noble gases/ Inert gases/ rare gases

Progression of properties down the group

As we move from top to bottom (down the group)
1. The metallic nature of elements increases
2. The atomic number increases
3. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties
4. Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the outer most shell.
5. For non-metals, the group number is equal to eight minus the valence.
6. For metals, the group number is equal to the valence.

Position of hydrogen in the periodic table

Hydrogen is placed between group I and group VII because it behaves like group I and group VII
elements i.e. it can lose or gain a single electron.
Hydrogen can lose one electron to form hydrogen ion, with 1+ charge and can gain one electron
to form hydride ion, with 1− charge.
Zig-zag diagonal line
The zig-zag diagonal line in the periodic table divides metallic elements from non-metallic
elements.
Metalloids
Alternative term: Semi metals
Metalloids are elements near the Zig-zag diagonal line.
Metalloids have the characteristics of both metals and non – metals..
Group properties
Group I elements
Alternative term: Alkali metals
They are called alkali metals because they react with water to form alkalis (alkaline solutions).
Examples of group I elements
Element Symbol Atomic number
Lithium Li 3

139
Sodium Na 11
Potassium K 19
Rubidium Rb 37
Caesium Cs 55
Francium Fr 87

Occurrence of group I elements

Group I elements do not occur naturally as free elements because they are very reactive.
They are found in compounds e.g. rock salt (impure sodium chloride) which is a good source of
sodium.
Identification of group I elements
Group I elements and their compounds give characteristic colours in a flame.
Examples
Element Characteristic colour
Lithium Red flame
Sodium Yellow / orange flame
Potassium Lilac / Pinkish flame

Storage of group I elements

Group I element are stored under oil to prevent them from reacting with atmospheric air or water.
Physical properties of group I elements
1. They are soft metals which can be cut with a knife.
2. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
3. They have low densities and hence float on water as they react with it. Their densities
increase as you go down the group.
4. They have low melting and boiling points. Their melting points decreases as you go down
the group.
Name Symbol Density, g/cm3 Melting point, oC
Lithium Li 0.53 180

140
 Sodium Na 0.78 98
Potassium K 0.86 64
Rubidium Rb 1.5 39
Caesium Cs 1.9 29

Trend in chemical reactivity of group I elements

The reactivity of group I elements increases as you go down the group.
Lithium is the least reactive and francium is the most reactive element in group I.

Chemical properties of group I elements

1. They have a single electron in their outer most shells.
Example
(a) Li 2.1
(b) Na 2.8.1
(c) K 2.8.8.1
2. They lose their single electrons in their outer most shells to form ions with 1+ charge.
Examples
(a) Li – ẽ →
(b) Na – ẽ →
(c) K – ẽ →
3. They are powerful reducing agents because they lose electrons.
4. They react with oxygen to form basic oxides
Examples
(a) 4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)
(b) 4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
(c) 4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)

5. They react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
Examples
(a) 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

141
 (b) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
(c) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Note
 The metal hydroxide solutions formed are all strong alkalis with PH values of
around 14
 Lithium reacts violently with water
 Sodium reacts very violently with water, sometimes with an explosion
 Potassium reacts explosively with water

6. They react with group VII elements to form salts

Examples
(a) 2Li(s) + F2(g) → 2LiF(s)
(b) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
(c) 2K(s) + Br2(l) → 2KBr(aq)
Group VII elements
Alternative term: Halogens
They are called Halogens because they react with group I elements to form salts
They term halogen means salt former
Examples of group VII elements
Element Symbol Atomic number
Fluorine F 9
Chlorine Cl 17
Bromine Br 35
Iodine I 53
Astatine At 85
Occurrence of group VII elements

142
Group VII elements do not occur naturally in a free state, instead they exist as diatomic molecules
meaning two atoms chemically combined.
Physical Properties of Group VII Elements
1. They exist as diatomic covalent molecules (meaning two atoms chemically combined)
Examples
Element Molecular formula
Fluorine F2
Chlorine Cl2
Bromine Br2
Iodine I2

2. They exist as coloured,non- metallic elements

Examples
Element Colour
Fluorine Pale yellow
Chlorine Yellowish – green
Bromine Reddish-brown
Iodine Black

3. They show a gradual change in their physical states at room temperature and pressure.
Examples
Element Physical state at room temperature and pressure
Fluorine Gas
Chlorine Gas
Bromine Liquid
Iodine Solid

143
 4. Their melting and boiling points increases as you go down the group.
Element Melting point/oC Boiling point /oC
Fluorine -220 -188
Chlorine -101 -35
Bromine -7 59
Iodine 114 184

5. Their densities increases as you go down the group.

6 Their compounds can either be ionic or covalent. If they combine with a metal the
compound is ionic and if they combine with another nonmetal the compound is covalent.

Trend in Chemical reactivity of Group VII Elements

The reactivity of group VII elements increases as you go up the group.
Astatine is the least reactive halogen while fluorine is the most reactive halogen
Chemical properties of group VII elements
1. They all have seven electrons in their outer shells and hence have similar chemical
properties.
Examples
(a) F 2.7
(b) Cl 2.8.7
(c) Br 2.8.18.7
2. They gain a single electron to form ions with 1− charge
Examples
(a) F + ẽ →
(b) Cl + ẽ →
(c) Br + ẽ →
(d) I + ẽ →
3. They are oxidizing agents because they accept /gain electrons.
4. They react with group I elements to form salts
Examples

144
 (a) 2 Li(s) + F2(g) → 2LiF(s)
(b) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
(c) 2K(s) + Br2(g) → 2KBr(aq)
5. They displace each other in chemical reactions involving their halide ions i.e. the group VII
Ions. The more reactive halogen will displace the less reactive halogen from its aqueous
salt solution.
Examples
(a) 2NaCl(aq) + F2(g) → 2NaF(aq) + Cl2(g)
(b) 2NaBr(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(1)
(c) 2KI(aq) + Br2(l) → 2KBr(aq) + I2(s)
(d) NaCl(aq) + Br2(l) → No reaction

Uses of group VII elements

1. Fluorine is used in fluoride tooth paste to help prevent tooth decay.
2. Chlorine is used to sterilize drinking water because it kills harmful micro-organisms.
3. Iodine is used as an additive in table salt to prevent goiter in human beings.
Harmful Effects of Group VII Elements
Compounds of group VII elements are known to be responsible for the depletion of the Ozone
layer.
Note
Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen made up of three oxygen atoms (O3)
Group O elements
Alternative term: Noble gases / Inert gases / Rare gases
They are called noble gases or inert gases or rare gases because they are chemically unreactive and
therefore do not form compounds.
Group O elements are chemically unreactive because they have full outer most electron shells.
Their outer most shells are completely filled.
Group O elements are gases at room temperature and pressure.
Group O elements exist as unreactive monatomic elements with very low melting and boiling
points.

145
They consist of single atoms.
Examples of Group O elements.
Element Symbol Atomic number
Helium He 2
Neon Ne 10
Argon Ar 18
Krypton Kr 36
Xenon Xe 54
Radon Rn 86

Group O elements have eight electrons in the outer most shell except for helium which has only
two electrons.
Examples
(a) He 2
(b) Ne 2.8
(c) Ar 2.8.8
(d) Kr 2.8.18.8
(e) Xe 2.8.18.18.8
Uses of group O elements
1. Helium is used to fill weather balloons because of low density.
2. Neon is used to fill coloured glowing tubes used in advertisements because it glows red hot
in an electric current.
3. Argon is used to fill light bulbs to provide an inert atmosphere to prevent the oxidation of
the filament.
Transition elements
Transition elements are found in the centre block of the periodic table. They are found between
group II and III of the periodic table and through periods 4 and 6
They are all metals.
Examples of transition elements
Element Symbol Atomic number

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Manganese Mn 25
Iron Fe 26
Copper Cu 29
Zinc Zn 30
Silver Ag 47
Gold Au 79
Mercury Hg 80
Physical properties of transition elements
1. They have high densities
2. They have high melting and boiling points
3. They are good conductors of heat and electricity
4. They are solids at room temperature and pressure except mercury which is a liquid
5. They are ductile i.e. they can be drawn into wires
6. They are malleable i.e. they can be hammered into thin sheets.
Chemical properties of transition elements
1. They are catalysts
2. They have variable Valencies and form positively charged ions.
Examples
(a) Copper has a valency of 1 or 2 and forms the ions and respectively.
(b) Iron has a valence of 2 or 3 and forms the ions and respectively.
3. They form coloured compounds depending on the valence used.
Examples
(a) Copper (II) compounds are blue
(b) Iron (II) compounds are pale green
(c) Iron (III) compounds are reddish brown
4. They are reducing agents because they lose electrons.
Uses of transition elements
1. They are used to make electric cables because they are good conductors of electricity.
2. They are used to make pots and pans because they are good conductors of heat.
3. They are used to make alloys
Examples
(a) Brass is an alloy of copper and Zinc

147
 (b) Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin
4. They are used as catalysts in the industry to speed up reactions.
Examples
(a) Iron is used as a catalyst in Haber process.
(b) Nickel is used as a catalyst in the hydrogenation of oil to make margarine
(c) Platinum is used as a catalyst in contact process.
Example
1. Using the following evidence, state the group numbers for the elements A, B, C, D and
E on the periodic table:
(I) An oxide A2O exists and is strongly basic
(II) B form a liquid covalent chloride,
(III) The oxide of C is
(IV) D produces an ion
(V) E exists as an unreactive monoatomic element.
(a) Using the given letters, write the formula for the compound formed between C and D

Solution
(I) Group I
(II) Group V
(III) Group III
(IV) Group VII
(V) Group O
(a)
Exercise

1. The diagram below shows part of the periodic table.

He
C N O F Ne
S Cl Ar
Br Kr

(a) Answer these questions using only the elements shown in the diagram.
Write down the symbol for an element which

148
 (i) Has five electrons in the outer most shell
(ii) Has diatomic molecules
(iii) Reacts with sodium to form sodium bromide
(iv) Is a noble gas.
(v) Has a lower proton than fluorine
(b) Why is argon very unreactive

2. Use the periodic table to answer this question.

(a) Name the element in group II and Period 3 on the periodic table.
(b) State whether the element named in (a) is a metal or non-metal.
(c) Suggest the formula of the compound formed between the element named in (a) and
sulphur, S.
(d) Group VII of the periodic table contains fluorine and chlorine. Explain why these
elements have similar chemical properties.
3. An element has atomic number of 16.
(a) Use the periodic table to name the element and give the symbol.
(b) Explains why
(i) The element is placed in group VI of the periodic table
(ii) The element has a valence of two in its compound with magnesium.
(iii) An ion of this element has two negative charges.
4. An element is in group I of the periodic table. Another element is in group VII.
(a) Suggest two ways in which the properties of these elements must be different.
(b) Two elements are in group I of the periodic table one is placed in period 2 and the other
is in period 3. State two ways in which these elements must be chemically similar.

5. Use the periodic table to help you answer this question.

(a) Name the element in group V which is in the same period as Lithium.
(b) Calculate the number of protons and neutrons in one atom of the element you have named
in (a)
(c) (i) Name the element with a relative atomic amass of 31
(ii) Suggest one property, physical or chemical of this element.
6. Some elements have only seven electrons in their outer most shells.
(a) (i) Name three of these elements
(ii) In which of the group of the periodic table are they placed?
(b) Use your knowledge of physicals and chemical properties of these elements to just placing
them in the same group of the periodic table.

149
 7. Caesium, Lithium, Potassium and sodium are all in group I of the periodic table
(a) Place these metals in order of reactivity with water, most reactive metal first.
(b) Name the chemical products of the reactions between lithium and water and between
sodium and water.
(c) (i) What would you expect to see if small pieces of Caesium were dropped onto water?
How would the PH of the resulting solution be different from the PH of water?
(ii) Write the full chemical equation for the reaction between Caesium and water.
Include state symbols.
8. Chlorine, bromine and iodine are placed in this order in group VII of the periodic table.
(a) State four ways in which the physical or chemical properties of chlorine, bromine and
iodine are similar.
(b) (i) Describe the trends in physical properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine.
(ii) How is the trend in chemical reactivity of chlorine, bromine and iodine shown by
the displacement reactions? Give an equation for a reaction in which one element
displaces another from its compound.
9. The diagram below shows a table of elements taken from a larger classification of
elements given on the periodic table.
I II III IV V VI VII O
hydrogen helium
Lithium beryllium boron Carbo Nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
n
Sodium magnesium aluminum Silicon phosphorous sulphur chlorine argon

(a) Which group contains

(i) Halogens
(ii) Alkali metals
(b) From the diagram above, choose
(i) A metal from period 2
(ii) A non-metal with a valence of 2
(c) Hydrogen is difficult to classify into a group as it can be compared with both chlorine
and sodium.
(i) How many electrons are there in an atom of hydrogen?
(ii) What is the valence of a hydrogen atom?
(iii) State one way in which hydrogen is similar to chlorine
(iv) State one way in which hydrogen is similar to sodium.
10. Use the periodic table to answer this question

150
 (a) Give the symbol of:
(i) A non-metal used to sterilize water
(ii) An element which forms diatomic molecules
(iii) An element which reacts with water to give an alkaline solution
(iv) An element which forms an ion of the type x2−
(b) Oxygen, sulphur and selenium are in group VI of the periodic table. At room . .
temperature, oxygen is a gas and sulphur is a solid.
(i) Predict whether selenium is a liquid, a solid or a gas at room temperature
(ii) The trend in reactivity of group VI is similar to that in group VII. Suggest the most
reactive element in group VII.

Acids

Definition: An acid is a chemical substance which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen
ions, , as the only positively charged ions.

An acid can also be defined as a proton donor.

Note

The hydrogen ions give an acid its characteristic properties. All acids act alike because they
contain hydrogen ions

Types of acids

Acids can be classified into two categories

1. Mineral acids

Mineral acids are also called inorganic acids

They are acids that are prepared from the minerals obtained from the earth

Generally all mineral acids are strong acids

151
Examples of mineral acids Formula

Hydrochloric acid HCl

Nitric acid HNO3

Sulphuric acid H2SO4

Phosphoric acid H3PO4

2. Organic acids

Organic acids are naturally occurring acids

They are found in organic matter of living things

They are prepared from organic sources such as plants

Generally organic acids are weak acids

Examples of organic acids Formula

Methanoic acid HCOOH

Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

Propanoic acid C2H5COOH

Butanoic acid C3H7COOH

Ionization of acids

Ionization is the process of forming ions

An ion is a charged particle

When acids dissolve in water, they produce hydrogen ions, H+, as the only positively charged ions

Examples of ionization of acids

(a) HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

152
 (b) HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3−(aq)

(c) CH3COOH(aq) → H+(aq) + CH3COO−(aq)

(d) H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)

(e) H3PO4(aq) → 3H+(aq) + PO43−(aq)

Strength of acids

Strength of an acid is the measure of its ability to produce hydrogen ions

It can also be defined as the ability to donate protons

Acids can be grouped into two classes

1. Weak acids

A weak acid is an acid that partially ionizes when dissolved in water

Weak acids have reversible ionization ⇌

Examples of weak acids

(a) Ethanoic acid

(b) Carbonic acid

2. Strong acids

A strong is an acid that completely ionizes when dissolved in water

Examples of strong acids

(a) Hydrochloric acid

(b) Nitric acid

153
 (c) Sulphuric acid

(d) Phosphoric acid

Basicity of an acid

Alternative term: Protocity of an acid.

Definition: Basicity of an acid is the number of moles of hydrogen ions, H+, produced from one
mole of an acid

1. Monobasic acid

Alternative term: Monoprotic acid

A monobasic acid is an acid that produces one hydrogen ion,

Example of monobasic acids Formula Equation Basicity

Hydrochloric acid HCl 1
Nitric acid 1
Ethanoic acid 1
2. Dibasic acid

Alternative term: Diprotic acid

A dibasic acid is an acid that produces two hydrogen ions,

Examples of dibasic acid Formula Equation Basicity

Carbonic acid 2
Sulphuric acid 2
3. Tribasic acid

Alternative term: Triprotic acid

A tribasic is an acid is an acid that produces three hydrogen ions,

Example of tribasic acid Formula Equation Basicity

Phosphoric acid 3

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Physical properties of acids

1. Acids have PH numbers less than 7

2. Acids turn blue litmus paper red

3. Acids have a sour taste

Chemical properties of acids

1. Acids react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas, H2

Examples

(a) 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

(b) Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Note

Metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series cannot react with acids

2. Acids react with bases and alkalis to form a salt and water only. The reaction between an
acid and a base is called neutralization.

Examples

(a) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(b) CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equations for neutralization reactions

+ → O

3. Acids react with carbonates or hydrogen carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon
dioxide gas

Examples

(a) CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(b) NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Uses of acids in our every daily life

155
Name of acid Every day use
Benzoic acid Its salts are used to preserve food
Carbonic acid To make carbonated drinks
Ethanoic acid It is the main compound of vinegar used in the kitchen, is a liquid
containing 3-6% acetic acid. It is used in pickles and in many food
preparations
Hydrochloric acid To clean metals before electroplating / household cleaning / leather
processing / swimming pool maintenance
Nitric acid Production of fertilizers, explosives, etching and dissolution of metals
(purification and extraction of gold)
Sulphuric acid To make detergent and fertilizers such as super phosphate, ammonium
sulphate is used in batteries, which are used in cars, etc. Tannic acid is
used in the manufacture of ink and leather
Tartaric acid Manufacturing of soft drinks, provide tartness to food, as an emetic
(a substance to induce vomiting)

Bases

Definition: A base is a substance which reacts with an acid to form a salt and water

A base can also be defined as an oxide or hydroxide of a metal or a proton acceptor

A base neutralizes an acid

A soluble base is called an alkali

All alkalis act alike because they contain hydroxide ions

An alkali is a substance which when dissolved in water produces the hydroxide ions, OH−, as the
only negatively charged ions

Examples of alkalis

Name Formula Special name

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Caustic soda

Potassium hydroxide KOH Caustic potash

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Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH Aqueous ammonia

Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Lime water

Examples of insoluble bases

Name Formula

Copper (II) oxide CuO

Zinc oxide ZnO

Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3

Lead (II) hydroxide Pb(OH)2

Simple classification on bases

Note

All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis

Ionization of alkalis

When alkalis dissolve in water, they produce hydroxide ions, OH−, as the only negatively charged
ions.

157
Examples of ionization of alkalis

(a) NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)

(b) KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH−(aq)

(c) NH4OH(aq) → NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)

(d) Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq)

Strength of alkalis

Strength of an alkali is the measure of its ability to produce hydroxide ions

Alkalis can be classified into two categories; weak and strong alkalis.

1. Weak alkalis

A weak alkali is an alkali that partially ionizes when dissolved in water

Weak alkalis have reversible ionization ⇌

Example of a weak alkali

(a) Ammonium hydroxide

NH4OH(aq)⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)

2. Strong alkalis

A strong alkali is an alkali that ionizes completely when dissolved in water

Examples of strong alkalis

(a) Sodium hydroxide

NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)

(b) Potassium hydroxide

KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH−(aq)

(c) Calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH−(aq)

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Physical properties of alkalis

1. Alkalis have PH numbers greater than 7

2. Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue

3. Alkalis have a bitter taste and feel soapy or slippery between fingers

Chemical properties of bases and alkalis

1. Alkalis and bases react with acids to form a salt and water only

Examples

(a) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(b) CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

2. Alkalis reacts with ammonium compounds to form a salt, water and ammonia gas

Examples

(a) NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

(b) Ca(OH)2(aq) + NH4NO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

3. Alkalis react with solutions of soluble salts to form precipitates of insoluble hydroxides

Examples

(a) 2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)

(b) 2NaOH(aq) + FeSO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + Fe(OH)2(s)

4. Alkalis react with acidic oxides to form a salt and water only

Examples

(a) 2NaOH(aq) + SO3(g) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

(b) Ca(OH)2(aq) + SO3(g) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Some neutralization in everyday life

Insect stings: When a bee stings, it injects an acidic liquid into the skin. The sting can be
neutralized by rubbing on calamine lotion, which contains zinc carbonate or baking soda, which is
sodium hydrogen carbonate.

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Wasp stings are alkaline, and can be neutralized with vinegar. Anti-stings and nettle stings contain
Methanoic acid

Indigestion: The stomach contains hydrochloric acid. It is a very dilute solution and it is needed
for digesting food. But too much of it leads to indigestion, which can be very painful. To cure
indigestion, the excess hydrochloric acid can be neutralized with a drink of sodium hydrogen
carbonate solution (baking soda) or an indigestion tablet

Soil treatment: Most plants grow best when the PH of the soil is close to 7. If the soil is too
acidic, or too alkaline, the plants grow badly or not at all.

Chemicals can be added to the soil to adjust its PH. Most often it is too acidic, so it is treated with
quick lime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) or chalk (calcium carbonate). These
are all bases and quiet cheap.

Factory waste: Liquid waste from factories often contains acid. If it reaches a river, the acid will
kill fish and other river life. This can be prevented by adding slaked lime to the waste, to neutralize
it.

Uses of bases in our daily life

Name of base Every day use

Ammonia Production of fertilizers (ammonium and nitrate salts), used in the
manufacture of nitric acid, neutralize the acid (in the petroleum
industry) and prevent premature coagulation in natural / synthetic
latex
Aluminium hydroxide Manufacture other aluminium compound and to make gastric
medicine (antacid)
Calcium hydroxide To make cement, limewater, neutralize the acidity of soil and
application of sewage treatment.
Sodium hydroxide Used in the manufacturing of soaps, detergents, and cleaners
Magnesium hydroxide Suspensions of magnesium hydroxide in water are used as an
antacid, used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant and as a non-
hazardous alkali to neutralize acidic wastewater.

The PH scale

Definition: PH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a substance

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The PH scale ranges from 0 to 14

PH values from 0 to 7 implies acidic medium.

PH values 7 imply a neutral medium e.g. water, H2O and sodium chloride, NaCl

PH values from 7 to 14 implies alkaline medium

The lower the PH value, the stronger the acidity e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)

The more ions in a solution, the more acidic it be. In other words, the more ions there are,
the lower the PH number.

The greater the PH value, the stronger the alkalinity e.g. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH)

The more ions in a solution, the more alkaline it be. In other words, the more ions there
are, the higher the PH number.

The ion responsible for acidity is the hydrogen ion, and the ion responsible for alkalinity is the
hydroxide ion,

PH is a numerical value and has no units

PH is related to the concentration of acids and alkalis.

Significance of PH measurements

Apart from enabling us to determine whether substances are acidic or alkaline, PH values have
very important significance and implications in industry, agriculture, pharmacy and medicine

Control of PH in agriculture

Plants grow well in which type of soil. Some plants grow well in acidic soils (PH 6.5), while others
grow well in alkaline soils (PH 7.5)

If the ground is too acidic because of acid rain, slaked lime can help to neutralize excess acidity.
This process is called liming.

Soil acidity
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Formation of acid rain

Acid rain is formed when gaseous acidic oxides dissolve in rain water in the atmosphere

What is destroyed by acid rain?

1. Soil – the soil becomes acidic

2. Crops and vegetation

Examples of acidic rain fall

1. Nitric acid

Nitric acid is formed when nitrogen dioxide gas dissolve in rain water in the atmosphere

NO2(g) + H2O(l) → HNO3(aq)

2. Carbonic acid

Carbonic acid is formed when carbon dioxide gas dissolve in rain water in the atmosphere

CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)

3. Sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is formed when sulphur trioxide gas dissolve in rain water in the atmosphere

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

All these acids come down as acid rainfall

Acid rain causes pollution

Acidic soils on the farm can be neutralized or avoided by adding lime (Calcium oxide)

Indicators

Definition: An indicator is a chemical substance which has different colours with different
substances or solutions

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in alkali

Litmus Red Blue

Methyl orange Red Yellow

162
Bromothymol Yellow Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Red / pink

Universal indicator

A universal indicator is a solution or paper which shows different colors in acidic or alkaline
conditions

PH scale 1,2,3 4,5 6 7 8 9,10 11,12,13,14

Colour Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Purple

Exercise

1. Acid rain is partially caused by Sulphur dioxide

(a) What is damaged by acid rain

(b) How is acid rain formed?

(c) Suggest how this pollution can be avoided

2. The PH of a solution depends upon the ions present in it

(a) State the PH of a neutral solution

(b) Complete the table below

Solution in water PH range

Acids

Alkalis

(c) What gas is formed when;

(i) Dilute Sulphuric acid is added to sodium carbonate

(ii) Sodium hydroxide is warmed with ammonium chloride

(iii) Write a balanced chemical equation for either of the reactions in (c)

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(d) Explain why sulphuric acid is said to be a strong acid.

3. The figure below shows a PH scale and the PH values of four solutions A, B, C and D.

(a) Which of the solutions is likely to be:

(I) Sodium chloride

(II) Hydrochloric acid

(b) State the ion which is responsible for:

(I) Acidity

(II) Alkalinity

(c) What type of reaction occurs when solution A is mixed with solution D? Write an ionic
equation for the reaction that occurs.
4. Analysis of cigarette smoke and cigar smoke were carried out. The results showed that
cigarette smoke is acidic and cigar smoke is alkaline with the following PH values:
Smoke PH
Cigarette 5.2
Cigar 8.3
(a) State the ion which is formed when:
(I) Cigarette smoke is absorbed in water and is responsible for the PH value given
(II) Cigar smoke is absorbed in water and is responsible for the PH value given
(b) When cigar smoke is mixed with cigarette smoke, neutralization occurs. What is the
meaning of neutralization?
(c) If cigarette smoke is absorbed in universal indicator solution, what colour change would be
observed?
(d) Name an alkali that would neutralize cigarette smoke.
(e) Smoking cigarette can be a danger to health. This fact is well known in Zambia. The main
danger of cigarette smoking is that it can cause lung cancer. Carbon monoxide is present in
cigarette smoke. It does not cause lung cancer, yet is toxic. Describe and explain the
poisonous or toxic nature of carbon monoxide.
(f) How would you use blue litmus paper to show that cigarette smoke is acidic?

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Oxides

Definition: An oxide is a compound formed when oxygen combines with any other element

Element + Oxygen Oxide

Classification of oxides

[A] Acidic oxides

They are oxides of non-metals

Acidic oxide Formula

Carbon dioxide

Nitrogen dioxide

Sulphur dioxide

Sulphur trioxide

Silicon dioxide

They are formed when a non – metal reacts with oxygen

Example

165
 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Characteristics of acidic oxides

1. They dissolve in water to form acids

Examples

(a) CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq) (Carbonic acid)

(b) NO2(g) + H2O(l) → HNO3(aq) ( Nitric acid)

(c) SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq) ( Sulphurus acid)

(d) SO3(g) + H2O(g) → H2SO4(aq) (Sulphuric acid)

Note

 Dinitrogen tetra oxide forms two acids when dissolved in water

N2O4(g) + H2O(l) → HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)

(Nitrous acid) (Nitric acid)

 They are called acidic oxides because they react with water to form acids

2. They react with alkalis to form a salt and water only

Examples

(a) SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

(b) SO3(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

(c) CO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

[B] Basic oxides

They are oxides of metals

Basic oxide Formula

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 Sodium oxide Na2O

Copper (II) oxide CuO

Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3

Calcium oxide CaO

Magnesium oxide MgO

Potassium oxide K2O

They are formed when a metal reacts with oxygen

Example

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Characteristics of basic oxides

1. Some soluble basic oxides dissolve in water to form alkalis

Examples

(a) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)

(b) CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)

2. They react with acids to form a salt and water only

Examples

(a) Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(b) CaO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

[C] Amphoteric oxides

They are oxides of metals

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 Amphoteric oxide Formula

Zinc oxide ZnO

Aluminium oxide Al2O3

Lead (II) oxide PbO

They are formed when a metal reacts with oxygen

Example

(a)
(b)
(c)

Amphoteric oxides show both basic and acidic properties i.e. they react with both acids and alkalis
to form a salt and water

(a) Reaction with acids

Examples

(I) ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

(II) Al2O3(s) + H3PO4(aq) → AlPO4(aq) + H2O(l)

(III) PbO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H2O(l)

(b) Reaction with alkalis

Examples

(I) ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l)

(Sodium zincate)

(II) Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)

(Sodium aluminate)

(III) PbO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2PbO2(aq) + H2O(l)

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 (Sodium plumbite)

[D] Neutral oxides

Neutral oxides are oxides of non – metals

Neutral oxide Formula

Carbon monoxide CO

Nitrogen monoxide NO

Water (Hydrogen oxide) H2O

Dinitrogen oxide N2O

Neutral oxides do not show either basic or acidic properties i.e. they do not react with either bases
or acids

Salts

Definition: A salt is a chemical substance formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced
by a metal or ammonium ions,

Types of salts

1. Normal salt

This is a salt formed when all the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by a metal or ammonium
ions.

Examples

1. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

2. Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq ) → CaSO4(aq) + H2(g)
3. 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Normal salt Formula Common name

Sodium chloride NaCl Common salt/Table salt
Calcium sulphate CaSO4
Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 Glauber‟s salt
Copper (II) sulphate CuSO4

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Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Limestone/Marble
Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 Epsom salt

2. Acid salt

This is a salt formed when part of the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by a metal or
ammonium ions.

Examples

1. KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

2. NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → NH4HSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
3. NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → NaHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
4. CaO(s) + 2H2CO3(aq) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

Acid salt Formula Common name

Potassium hydrogen sulphate KHSO4
Sodium hydrogen sulphate NaHSO4
Calcium hydrogen carbonate Ca(HCO3)2
Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3 Baking/Bicarbonate salt
Solubility of salts

Solubility is the ability of a salt to dissolve in water.

Facts about solubility of salts in water

Salt Solubility
Nitrates All nitrates are soluble
Chlorides All chlorides are soluble except silver chloride and lead (II) chloride which are
insoluble
Sulphates All Sulphates are soluble except barium sulphate and lead (II) sulphate which are
insoluble. Calcium sulphate is slightly soluble.
Carbonates All carbonates are insoluble except potassium carbonate, sodium carbonate and
ammonium carbonate which are soluble.

Preparation of salts

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The method chosen to prepare a given salt depends on its solubility and how it can be separated
from the mixture of other products.

Methods of preparing salts

1. Neutralization

2. Replacement (Displacement)

3. Synthesis

4. Precipitation (Double Decomposition)

1. Neutralization

It is a reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and water only.

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Neutralization includes the preparation of a salt by reacting:

(a) a metal hydroxide with a dilute acid.

(b) an insoluble metal oxide with a dilute acid.
(c) a metal carbonate with a dilute acid.

Preparation of soluble salts by neutralization

(a) Metal hydroxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Example: Preparation of sodium chloride

Reagents

 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

 Hydrochloric acid, HCl

Products

 Sodium chloride, NaCl

 Water, H2O

Reaction equation

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NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equation

OH−(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)

Method of preparation

A preliminary titration is carried out to find the end point with the help of an indicator.

 Using a pipette, measure 25.0cm3 of sodium hydroxide and put it into a conical flask.
 Add two or three drops of indicator to sodium hydroxide using a teat pipette.
 Fill the burette to the zero reading with dilutehydrochloric acid.
 Place the conical flask on a white tile below the burette.
 Add dilute hydrochloric acid from the burette to sodium hydroxide in the conical flask,
while swirling, until the mixture just changes colour.
 From the titration result, we can know the exact volume of hydrochloric acid needed to
react with 25.0cm3 of sodium hydroxide.
Volume of hydrochloric used:

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The results are recorded in the table below:
Burette reading
Rough 1 2 3
3
Final burette reading/cm
Initial burette reading/cm3
volume of HCl used/cm3
Tick best titration result(√)

Summary
Tick (√) the best titration results
Using these results, the average volume of hydrochloric acidused was __________cm3
Volume of sodium hydroxide used was______________________cm3

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A second titration is carried out without the indicator. The exact volume obtained from the
preliminary titration is used.

 Using a pipette, measure of sodium hydroxide and put it into a conical flask.
This time no indicator is added.
 Add of dilute hydrochloric acid from the burette to sodium hydroxide.
 Evaporate the mixture to obtain a saturated solution.
 Cool the saturated solution to obtain crystals of sodium chloride.
 Filter the mixture to obtain pure crystals sodium chloride.

Note

 The point at which the colour changes is called end point.

 At the end point, the volume of acid used is measured at the bottom of the meniscus in the
burette. This volume is called titre.

Exercise

1. 6.00g of sample containing iron was obtained for analysis. All the iron in it was converted
into iron (II) and the solution made up to 1000cm3.
P is a solution containing iron (II) ions, prepared as described above.
Q is 0.02mol/dm3 potassium manganate (VII) solution
(a) Qwas put into the burette
25cm3 portions of P was pipetted into a flask. No indicator was required. Qwas added
from the burette until a faint pink colour persisted.
The results are recorded in the table. Since Q is dark, it was suitable to read the upper
meniscus.
Results
Burette reading
Rough 1 2
Final burette 16.9 33.5 16.5
reading/cm3
Initial burette 0.0 16.9 0.0
reading/cm3
volume of 16.9 16.6 16.5
Qused/cm3
Tick best titration
result(√)

Summary
Tick (√) the best titration results

174
 Using these results, the average volume of solution Q used was
____________________________cm3
Volume of solution P used was________________________cm3
The reaction between iron (II) ions and manganate (VII) is given below

(b) Q is 0.02mol/dm3 of potassium manganate (VII).

Using your answer to (a), calculate the number of moles of potassium manganate (VII)
in the average volume of Q.
(c) Using your answer to (b) above and the equation given, calculate the number of moles
of iron (II) in 25cm3.
(d) Using your answer to (c), calculate the mass of iron in 25cm3
(Molar mass of iron is 56g/mol)
(e) Using your answer to (d), calculate the mass of iron in 1000cm3.
(f) Using your answer to (e), calculate the percentage of iron in the original sample
2. Sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, is a soluble salt, used as water softener in washing powders.

It is made by reacting dilute phosphoric acid, H3PO4, with an alkali.

(a) Give the formula of the ions present in sodium phosphate.

(b) (i) Name the alkali which reacts with phosphoric acid to make sodium phosphate.

(ii) Write an equation for this reaction.

(c) Given solutions of phosphoric acid and an alkali, a suitable indicator and standard
laboratory apparatus, explain how you would obtain crystals of sodium phosphate.

(d) Sodium carbonate also reacts with phosphoric acid to make sodium phosphate.

(i) Name the gas formed during this reaction.

(ii) Describe the test for this gas.

(e) Calcium sulphate is used to make fertilizers.

(i) Deduce the formula of calcium phosphate.

(ii) What essential plant element does calcium phosphate provide?

(b) Insoluble metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Example: Preparation of copper (II) sulphate

Reagents

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  Copper (II) oxide, CuO
 Dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Products

 Copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4

 Water, H2O

Reaction equation

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Method of preparation

Copper (II) sulphate crystals CuSO4.5H2O are prepared from copper (II) oxide and
sulphuric acid.

 Put dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker, warm the acid but don‟t boil.
 Add an excess of copper (II) oxide to the acid in the beaker and stir until the reaction is
over. Excess copper (II) oxide is added to ensure that all the sulphuric acid is converted
to copper (II) sulphate.
 Filter off excess copper (II) oxide to have a blue solution of copper (II) sulphate.
 Evaporate the filtrate to obtain a saturated solution.
 Cool the filtrate in an ice bath to allow crystals of copper (II) sulphate to form.

Exercise

1. Copper (II) sulphate crystals, , are soluble in water. Describe how these
crystals could be prepared from a named acid and a suitable compound of copper.

(c) Metal carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Example: Preparation of Magnesium sulphate

Reagents

 Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3

 Dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Products

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  Magnesium sulphate, MgSO4
 Water, H2O
 Carbon dioxide, CO2

Reaction equation

MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Method of preparation

 Put dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker, warm the acid but don‟t boil.
 Add an excess of magnesium carbonate to the acid to ensure that all the sulphuric acid is
converted to magnesium sulphate.
 Stir the mixture and filter to have a clear solution of magnesium sulphate.
 Evaporate the mixture to obtain a saturated solution.
 Cool the filtrate (saturated solution) in an ice bath to allow crystals of magnesium sulphate
to form.

Exercise

1. The following procedure was used by Darlington Naosa junior to prepare magnesium
sulphate crystals: “Dilute sulphuric acid was put in a beaker and an excess of
magnesium carbonate was added to the acid. The mixture stirred and filtered. The
filtrate obtained was evaporated to half its original volume. The filtrate was then cooled
in an ice bath”.
(a) State why ;-
(I) An excess of magnesium carbonate was added to dilute sulphuric acid.

(II) The reaction mixture was filtered.

(III) The filtrate was evaporated to half its original volume.

(IV) The filtrate was cooled.

2. Epsom salt is a commercial or trade name for hydrated magnesium sulphate crystals,
MgSO4.7H2O
The crystals are formed from a solution of magnesium sulphate, MgSO4(aq) by a
suitable process.
A pupil wishes to prepare Epsom salt, in its pure, dry form by starting with an insoluble
solid reactant X with a known dilute acid Y.
(a) Give the name and formula of the acid Y

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 (b) Give the formulae of any three possible reactants to be used as solid X in this
experiment
(c) When X is reacted with Y, a gas which turns lime water milky is produced.
(I) Use this information to construct a balanced chemical equation for the
reaction of X and Y, including state symbols.
(d) The pupil deliberately adds more of the solid X to 100cm3 of 1.0mol/dm3 acid.
(I) Explain why the pupil chooses to use the solid in excess
(II) What separation technique must the pupil use at this stage to obtain the
solution of magnesium sulphate?
(e) The crystals of Epsom salt, MgSO4.7H2O are then collected from the solution of
MgSO4(aq). The following steps are involved (not in their order)
1. Filter
2. Dry crystals
3. Heat solution
4. Allow solution to cool slowly

Arrange these four steps in their logical order for the dry, pure crystals
of MgSO4.7H2O to be collected from MgSO4(aq).

(f) Excess of the solid x is used or added to 100cm3 of 0.1mol/dm3 acid Y.

(I) Calculate the mass of the crystals of MgSO4.7H2O expected to be
produced in the experiment
(II) Calculate the percentage yield if 20.0g of MgSO4.7H2O is actually
collected
Hydrated salt
This is a salt that contains water of crystallization. They contain a fixed amount of water in their
crystal lattice. This is called water of crystallization. The water of crystallization is part of the
structure. If this water is removed, by heating for example, the colour and shapes of the crystals
may change.

Examples of hydrated salts

Name of crystallized salt Formula

Copper (II) sulphate -5 water

Sodium carbonate -10 water

Cobalt (II) chloride - 6 water

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Iron (II) sulphate - 7 water

Anhydrous salts
A salt which has lost its water of crystallization is called an anhydrous salt.
When water is added to an anhydrous salt, the salt becomes hydrated.
For example, when blue copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated, stem is produced and a pale- blue
or white powder.
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)
(Hydrated copper sulphate) (Anhydrous copper sulphate) (Steam)
When water is added to anhydrous copper (II) sulphate heat is produced and a blue solution is
formed:
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) → CuSO4.5H2O(aq) + heat
This process is called hydration.
Efflorescence
This is the loss of water of crystallization to the atmosphere.
Example
Crystals of sodium carbonate – 10 − water become Powderly when exposed to air.
Na2CO3.10H2O(s) → Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(l)

Deliquescence
This is the absorption of water from the atmosphere to form a solution. Calcium chloride is a
deliquescent salt. It is used as a drying agent in desiccators. A desiccator is a piece of equipment
used to dry substances.
Hygroscopic
A hygroscopic substance absorbs water from the air but does not the change its state.
Anhydrous cobalt chloride is a hygroscopic salt.
Water changes anhydrous cobalt chloride from blue to pink.
CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) → CoCl2.6H2O(s) + heat
(Blue) (Pink)
This reaction is often used as a test for the presence of water. The process can be reversed by
heating the pink hydrated salt:

CoCl2.6H2O(s ) → CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(g)

(Pink) (Blue)

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Concentrated sulphuric acid is also hygroscopic. It can be used to dehydrate blue crystals of
hydrated copper (II) sulphate forming the pale blue anhydrous salt.
2. Replacement (Displacement)

This is a method where the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by a metal. It can also be defined
as a reaction in which one element displaces another from a compound
Reactive metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Example: Preparation of iron (II) sulphate

Method

 Add iron fillings to warm dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker until no more hydrogen gas is
evolved.
 Filter off the solution when the reaction is complete to remove excess iron.

Reaction equation

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Note

 Iron should be in excess so that all the acid is used up.

 Air must be excluded to prevent oxidation of iron (II) sulphate.

Exercise

1. Name one salt that can be prepared by the reaction of a metal with a dilute acid

3. Synthesis

This method involves the direct combination of elements for binary salts.

In this method, a salt is prepared directly from its elements i.e. a metal and a halogen.

Metal + Halogen → Salt

Example: Preparation of iron (II) chloride

Iron (II) chloride can be prepared by passing chlorine gas over heated iron.

Reaction equation

Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl2(s)

4. Precipitation

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Precipitation is the formation of an insoluble product and may occur on mixing two solutions.

Precipitation is an example of double decomposition. In double decomposition, two solutions are

mixed to form an insoluble salt and a soluble solution.

Soluble salt + soluble salt → insoluble salt + soluble salt

Soluble solution + soluble solution → insoluble solid + soluble solution

In double decomposition reactions, cations and anions are exchanged.

Precipitation is also an example of ionic association which is the attraction of oppositely charged
ions to one another to form a solid called precipitate abbreviated as ppt.

Preparation of insoluble salts by precipitation (Double decomposition)

Example 1: Preparation of silver chloride

Reagents

 Silver nitrate, AgNO3

 Sodium chloride, NaCl (Alternatively hydrochloric acid, HCl)

Products

 Silver chloride, AgCl

 Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

Reaction equation

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Ionic equation

Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)

Method of preparation

 Mix silver nitrate solution with sodium chloride solution in a beaker.

 A white precipitate of silver chloride forms.
 Allow the precipitate to settle.
 Filter off the precipitate and wash it with distilled water to remove any amount of sodium
nitrate left.
 Dry the precipitate on the filter paper.
 A pure dry sample of silver chloride forms.

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Exercise

1. Silver chloride is an insoluble salt.

(a) Describe how you would prepare a pure dry sample of silver chloride naming the
reagents used.

(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction involved.

Example 2: Preparation of lead (II) chloride

Reagents

 Lead (II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2

 Sodium chloride, NaCl (Alternatively, hydrochloric acid, HCl)

Products

 Lead (II) chloride, PbCl2

 Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

Reaction equation

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) → PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Ionic equation

Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → PbCl2(s)

Method of preparation

 Mix lead (II) nitrate solution with sodium chloride solution in a beaker.
 A white precipitate of lead (II) chloride forms.
 Allow the precipitate to settle.
 Filter off the precipitate and wash it with distilled water to remove any amount sodium
nitrate left.
 Dry the precipitate on the filter paper.
 A pure dry sample off lead (II) chloride forms.

Example 3: Preparation of lead (II) iodide

Reagents

 Lead (II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2

 Potassium iodide, KI

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Products

 Lead (II) iodide, PbI2

 Potassium nitrate, KNO3

Reaction equation

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Ionic equation

Pb2+(aq) + 2I-(aq) → PbI2(s)

Method of preparation

 Mix lead (II) nitrate solution with potassium iodide solution in a beaker.
 A yellow precipitate of lead (II) iodide forms.
 Allow the precipitate to settle.
 Filter off the precipitate and wash it in distilled water to remove any amount of potassium
nitrate left.
 Dry the precipitate on the filter paper.
 A pure dry sample of lead (II) iodide forms.

Example 4: Preparation of lead (II) sulphate

Reagents

 Lead (II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2

 Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 (Alternatively, sulphuric acid, H2SO4)

Products

 Lead (II) sulphate, PbSO4

 Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

Reaction equation

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Ionic equation

Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s)

Method of preparation

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  Mix lead (II) nitrate solution with sodium sulphate solution in a beaker
 A white precipitate of lead (II) sulphate forms.
 Allow the precipitate to settle.
 Filter off the precipitate and wash it with distilled water to remove any amount sodium
nitrate left.
 Dry the precipitate on the filter paper.
 A pure dry sample of lead (II) sulphate forms.

Example 5: Preparation of barium sulphate

Reagents

 Barium nitrate, Ba(NO3)2

 Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 (Alternatively, sulphuric acid, H2SO4)

Products

 Barium sulphate, BaSO4

 Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

Reaction equation

Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Ionic equation

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)

Method of preparation

 Mix barium nitrate solution with sodium sulphate solution in a beaker.

 A white precipitate of barium sulphate forms.
 Allow the precipitate to settle.
 Filter off the precipitate and wash it with distilled water to remove any amount of sodium
nitrate left.
 Dry the precipitate on the filter paper.
 A pure dry sample of barium sulphate forms.

Exercise

1. Barium sulphate (BaSO4) is an insoluble salt which is prepared by precipitation.

a) Using sodium sulphate as one of the reactants:

184
 (i) Name the other reactant you would use to prepare barium sulphate

(ii) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction. Include state symbols.

(iii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.

b) Briefly explain how you would obtain a fairly pure dry sample of the salt.

Note

Silver chloride, lead (II) chloride, lead (II) iodide, lead (II) sulphate and barium sulphate do not
form crystals and therefore cannot be crystallized.

Qualitative analysis tests

Identification of ions.

Test for anions in solution

Anion in solution Test method Positive test result

Carbonate ion, Add any dilute acid Effervernsce occurs and bubbles of
carbon dioxide gas are produced.
CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Chloride ion, Add a few drops of dilute A white precipitate of silver chloride
nitric acid to make the forms.
solution acidified. Then add Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)
a few drops of silver nitrate.
Iodide ion, Add a few drops of dilute A yellow precipitate of lead (II) iodide
nitric acid to make the forms
solution acidified. Then add Pb2+(aq) + 2I- (aq) → PbI2(s)
a few drops of aqueous lead
(II) nitrate
Sulphate ion, Add a few drops of dilute A white precipitate of barium sulphate
nitric acid to make the forms.
solution acidified. Then add Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)
a few drops of barium
nitrate.
Nitrate ion, Add a few drops aqueous Moist red litmus paper turns blue.
sodium hydroxide then Ammonia gas is produced.
aluminium foil; warm
carefully. Introduce red
litmus paper into the test
tube.

185
Test for cations in solution

When testing for a cation using either aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia, two
observations will help identify the cation present:

 The colour of the precipitate formed on adding a few drops of chemical reagent;
 The solubility of the precipitate in excess chemical reagent

Cation in solution Effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide Effect of aqueous ammonia

Aluminum, White ppt, soluble in excess giving a White ppt, insoluble in excess
colourless solution

Ammonium, Ammonia gas produced on warming.

Calcium, White ppt insoluble in excess No ppt or very slight white ppt

Copper (II), Light blue ppt, insoluble in excess Light blue ppt, soluble in
excess giving a dark blue
solution

Iron (II), Green ppt, insoluble in excess Green ppt, insoluble in excess

Iron (III), Red-brown ppt, insoluble in excess Red-brown ppt insoluble in

excess

Zinc, White ppt, soluble in excess giving a White ppt, soluble in excess
colourless solution giving a colourless solution

The cations react with hydroxide ions present in aqueous sodium hydroxide or ammonia to form
insoluble hydroxides. These hydroxides appear as precipitates.

Example:

186
Some of these precipitates dissolve in excess aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia to
form soluble complex salts. These appear as colourless solutions, or in the case of copper (II) ions
in excess aqueous ammonia, a dark blue solution.

Copper (II), iron (II) and iron (III) ions are easily identified by the characteristic colour of their
precipitates.

Aluminium, lead (II) and zinc ions all give the same observations when aqueous sodium hydroxide
is used. However, only zinc ions will give a white precipitate soluble in excess aqueous ammonia;
aluminium and lead ions do not.

To distinguish between aluminium and lead (II) ions, dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) or aqueous
potassium iodide can be used:

(from HCl) (colourless solution)

(from HCl) (white precipitate)

Similar results will be obtained if potassium iodide is used. Aluminium ions will give a colourless
solution of aluminium iodide while lead (II) ions will give a yellow precipitate of lead (II) iodide.

Test for gases

When recording observations for gases, it is important to record

187
  Presence of effervescences, if any
 Colour and smell of the gas
 Chemical test for the gas and test result
 Name of the gas

Gas Colour and Test method Positive test result

smell of gas
Oxygen, Colourless Introduce a glowing splint Relights a glowing splint
Odourless in the test tube containing
oxygen.
Hydrogen, Colourless Introduce a burning splint in Burns with a pop sound.
Odourless the test tube containing
hydrogen.
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Colourless Bubble carbon dioxide into Turns lime water milky
Odourless lime water (Calcium
hydroxide)
Ammonia, NH3 Colourless Turns damp red litmus paper blue.
Pungent smell -

Chlorine, Cl2 Yellow green Turns most blue litmus paper red, then
Pungent smell - bleached.
Bleaches the moist blue litmus paper.
Sulphur dioxide, SO2 Colourless Turns moist blue litmus red
Pungent smell - Turns orange acidified potassium
dichromate (VI) green

Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation and reduction can be defined in terms of oxygen, hydrogen, electrons and oxidation
number.

[A] Oxidation
Oxidation in terms of oxygen

188
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a chemical substance.
Examples
(I) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Magnesium has been oxidized to magnesium oxide since oxygen has been added
(II) 4FeO(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
Iron (II) oxide (FeO) has been oxidized to iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) since oxygen has been
added.
Oxidation in terms of hydrogen
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a chemical substance.
Examples
(I) 2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)
Ammonia (NH3) has been oxidized to nitrogen (N2) since hydrogen has been removed.
(II) H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) has been oxidized to sulphur (S) since hydrogen has been removed.
Oxidation in terms of electrons.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons from a chemical substance.
Examples
(I) Cu → Cu2+ + 2e
Copper atoms (Cu) have been oxidized to copper (II) ions (Cu2+) since two electrons have been
lost.
(II) Al → Al3+ + 3ẽ
Aluminum atoms (Al) have been oxidized to aluminum ions (Al3+) since three electrons have
been lost.
(III) 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2ẽ
-
Chloride ions (Cl ) have been oxidized to chlorine molecules (Cl2) since electrons have been
lost.

Oxidation number.
Rules to consider when assigning the oxidation number
1. The oxidation number of neutral particles like atoms and molecules is equal to Zero.
Examples
Oxidation number = 0 Oxidation number = 0 Oxidation number = 0

189
 Oxidation number = 0 Oxidation number = 0 Oxidation number = 0

Oxidation number = 0 Oxidation number = 0 Oxidation number = 0

2. The oxidation number of hydrogen in all compounds except metallic halides is +1

3. The oxidation number of oxygen in all compounds except in peroxides and in OF2 is -2.
4. For some metals the oxidation number is equal to the group number on the periodic table or the
valence.
5. The oxidation number of a simple ion is equal to the charge it carries.
Examples
Ion Formula oxidation number

Aluminium ion +3

Calcium ion +2

Chloride ion -1

Nitride ion -3

Oxide ion -2

Sodium ion +1

6. In neutral compounds, the sum of individual elements present is equal to zero.

Examples
a) Find the oxidation number of
(i) S in SO2
(ii) S in H2SO4
Solution
(i) x + (-2) 2 = 0
x + (-4) = 0
x–4=0
x = +4
(ii) (1x2) + x + (-2) 4 =0
2+x–8=0
x–6=0
x = +6
7. The sum of all oxidation numbers of all elements in a complex ion is equal to the charge on the
ion.
190
Examples
a) Find the oxidation number of
(i) C in HCO3-
(ii) S in SO42-
Solution
(i) 1 + x + (-2)3 = -1
x+1–6=-1
x – 5 = -1
x = +5 - 1
x = +4
(ii) x + (-2)4 = -2
x – 8 = -2
x = +8 - 2
x = +6
Oxidation in terms of oxidation number
Oxidation is the increase in the oxidation number of a substance.
Examples
(I) Cuo → Cu2+ + 2ẽ
Copper atoms (Cu) have been oxidized to copper (II) ions (Cu2+) because the oxidation number
has increased from 0 in Cu to +2 in Cu2+.
(II) Cl− → Clo + ẽ
-
A Chloride ion (Cl ) has been oxidized to chlorine atom (Cl) since the oxidation number has
increased from −1 in Cl− to 0 in Cl.
(III) + →
Sulphur (S) has been oxidized to sulphur dioxide (SO2) since the oxidation number has
increased from 0 in S to +4 in SO4.
Oxidizing agents
Alternative term: Oxidants
Definition: An oxidizing agent is a chemical substance which brings about oxidation of another
substance but end up being reduced.

Examples of oxidizing agents.

 Oxygen, O2
 Chlorine, Cl2
 Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
 Potassium permanganate, KMnO4

191
  Manganese dioxide (manganese (IV) oxide), MnO2
 Concentrated Sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Characteristics of an oxidizing agent.

An oxidizing agent: -
(a) Supplies or donates oxygen to another substance
Example
PbO(s)+ H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(g)
Lead (II) oxide (PbO) is an oxidizing agent because it has donated oxygen to hydrogen
(b) Removes hydrogen from another substance
Example
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)
Chlorine (Cl2) is an oxidizing agent because it has removed hydrogen from hydrogen sulphide
(H2S)
(c) Accept electrons from another substance.
(d) Increases the oxidation number of another substance.
Example
Zno + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cuo
Copper (II) ion (Cu2+) is an oxidizing agent because it has caused the increase in the
oxidation number of Zinc from 0 in Zn to +2 in Zn2+.
Test for oxidizing agents.
An oxidizing agent can be tested by using acidified potassium iodide, KI or concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
Oxidizing agents liberate iodine from a solution of acidified potassium iodide.
They turn moist starch iodide paper from white to blue. Starch iodide paper contains starch and
potassium iodide. The iodide ion is oxidized to form iodine.
2I−(aq) → I2(s) + 2 ẽ
The iodine reacts with starch to produce a blue colour.
[B] Reduction
Reduction in terms of oxygen
Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a chemical substance.
Examples
(a) CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO(g)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been reduced to carbon monoxide (CO) since oxygen has been
removed.
(b) PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(g)
Lead (II) oxide (PbO) has been reduced to lead (Pb) by the removal of oxygen.
(c) 3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) has been reduced to iron (Fe) by the removal of oxygen.

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Reduction in terms of hydrogen.
Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to a chemical substance.
Examples
(a) N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
Nitrogen (N2) has been reduced to ammonia (NH3) since hydrogen has been added.
(b) C2H4(g) + H2(g) → C2H6(g)
Ethene (C2H4) has been reduced to ethane (C2H6) by the addition of hydrogen
(c) 2C(s) + H2(g) → C2H2(g)
Carbon (C) has been reduced to ethyne (C2H2) by the addition of hydrogen.
Reduction in terms of electrons
Reduction is the gain of electrons.
Examples
(a) Cu2+ + 2ẽ → Cu
Copper (II) ions (Cu2+) have been reduced to copper atoms (Cu) by gaining two electrons.
(b) Cl2 + 2ẽ → 2Cl-
Chlorine molecules (Cl2) have been reduced to chloride ions (Cl-) by gaining two electrons.
Reduction in terms of oxidation number
Reduction is the decrease in the oxidation number of a chemical substance.
Examples
(a) Zn2+ + 2 ẽ → Zno
Zinc ions (Zn2+) have been reduced to Zinc atoms (Zn) since the oxidation number has
decreased from +2 in Zn2+ to 0 in Zn.
Reducing agents
Alternative term: Reductants
Definition: A reducing agent is a chemical substance which brings about reduction but end up
being oxidized.
Examples of reducing agents.
 Hydrogen, H2
 Carbon monoxide, CO
 Carbon, C
 Ammonia, NH3
 Hydrogen sulphide, H2S
 Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Characteristics of a reducing agent.
A reducing agent: -
(a) Removes oxygen from another substance
Example
3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

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 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a reducing agent because it has removed oxygen from iron (III)
oxide (Fe2O3)
(b) Donates or supplies hydrogen to another sustenance
Example
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a reducing agent because it has donated hydrogen to chlorine.
(c) Donates electrons to another substance
(d) Decreases the oxidation number of another substance
Example
Zno + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cuo
Zinc atom (Zn) is a reducing agent because it has caused the decrease in the oxidation
number of copper (II) ions from +2 in Cu2+ to 0 in Cu.
Test for reducing agents.
Reducing agents can be tested by using acidified potassium per manganate or acidified potassium
dichromate (VI)

1. Reducing agents change the colour of the solution of potassium permanganate (VII) from
purple to colourless.
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5ẽ → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(Purple) (Colourless)

2. Reducing agents change a solution of acidified potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to
green.
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6ẽ → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O(l)
(Orange) (Green)
In both tests, the electrons come from the reducing agent.

Redox reactions
Reduction and oxidation reactions are called redox reactions because they occur simultaneously.
When one substance is reduced, the other one is oxidized.
Examples of redox reactions

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(I) Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe

Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) has been reduced to iron (Fe) while aluminium (Al) has been
oxidized to aluminium oxide, Al2O3.

(II) PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(l)

Lead (II) oxide (PbO) has been reduced to lead (Pb) while hydrogen (H2) has been oxidized
to water (H2O).

(III) 2CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → 2Cu(s) + 2N2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Copper (II) oxide (CuO) has been reduced to copper (Cu) while ammonia (NH3) has been
oxidized to nitrogen (N2)

(IV) Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu

Zinc (Zn) has been oxidized to zinc ion (zn2+) while copper (II) ion (Cu2+) has been
reduced to copper (Cu).

(V) H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)

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 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) has been oxidized to sulphur (S) while chlorine molecules (Cl2)
have been reduced to hydrogen chloride (HCl)
Exercise
1. Which of the following reactions is oxidation and which is reduction?
(a) Al3+ + 3ẽ → Al
(b) Cl2 + 2ẽ → 2Cl−
(c) 2O2- → O2 + 2ẽ
2+ 3+
(d) Fe → Fe + ẽ
+
(e) Cu + ẽ → Cu
2. State whether the underlined substance has been oxidized or reduced.
(a) CO2 + C → 2CO
(b) 2FeO3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Fe
(c) 2CuO + 2NH3 → 2Cu + 3N2 + 2H2O
3. Indicate reduction and oxidation in the following redox reactions.
(a) Ag2O(s) + H2(g) → 2Ag(s) + H2O(l)
(b) CO(g) + CuO(s) → Cu(s) + CO2(g)
(c) Zn(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Pb(s) + Zn(NO3)2 (aq)
(d) MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
2+ 2+
(e) Zn (aq) + Mg(s) → Mg (aq) + Zn(s)
4. Find the oxidation number of:
(a) Manganese in
(b) Carbon in
(c) Chromium in

Rates of chemical reactions

Definition: Rate of chemical reaction is the speed at which the reaction takes place
Formula: Rate of reaction =
Measuring the rate of reaction

196
The rate of reaction can be measured by measuring:
 how quickly a product is obtained
 how quickly a reactant is used up
Example
Consider the reaction below;
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
In the reaction above, the rate of reaction can be measured by measuring:
 The volume of carbon dioxide over time
 The decrease in mass of the system due loss of carbon dioxide
[A] Measuring the rate of reaction by measuring the volume of the gas produced
A graduated syringe is used to measure the volume of carbon dioxide gas formed over time

The total volume of carbon dioxide given off at one minute interval is recorded

The graph of total volume of carbon dioxide against time is plotted

The gradient of the graph is calculated

The gradient of the graph is equal to the rate of reaction.

Rate of reaction =

[B] Measuring the rate of reaction by measuring the decrease in mass of a system due to loss
of product

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A mass balance is used to follow the loss in mass of a system

The mass readings will drop over time as the carbon dioxide gas formed escapes. The mass
readings are taken at one minute intervals and plotted against time

The gradient of the graph at various points of the curve will give the rate of reaction. The reaction
is fastest at the start because the gradient of the graph is the highest. The value of the gradient
decreases with time and finally becomes zero. This means that as the reaction proceeds, the
reaction slows down and finally comes to a stop.

Note

198
  The cotton wool is used as a stopper. It will allow the escape of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere and prevent the solution inside the conical flask from splashing out.
 The mass decreases as the reaction proceeds because of the loss and escape of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere
 When the curve levels off, it means the reaction has stopped

Exercise
1. The rate of reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and marble chips (calcium carbonate)
was investigated using the following apparatus

(a) Name the piece of apparatus labeled F and G

(b) Why was the cotton wool placed in the neck of the apparatus F?
(c) Name two compounds left in the solution at the end of the experiment
(d) Why did the mass decrease as the reaction proceeds?

The collision theory

The collision theory states that: For a reaction to take place, the particles of the reacting substances
must move and collide with each other with a certain amount of kinetic energy.
The number of collisions taking place per unit time depends on the number of particles.
If the particles are increased, the number of collisions also increases.

Factors affecting the rate of reaction

 Concentration
 Temperature
 Pressure

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  Surface area (size of particles)
 Catalyst

1. Effects of concentration on the rate of reaction

Concentration refers to the reactants in solution.
When concentration is increased, the rate of reaction also increases. This is because the number of
particles in the solution increases and collides with each other effectively.
On the other hand, when concentration is reduced, the rate of reaction also reduces. This is because
the number of particles in the solution reduces and do not collide effectively.
Graphical representation of concentration
Example: Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

Exercise
1. The rate of reaction between magnesium ribbon and an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid
could be measured using the apparatus shown below.

(a) What was the purpose of the test tube?

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 (b) How do you get the reaction to start?
(c) The volume of hydrogen produced was recorded every minute as shown in the table below

Time / minutes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
Volume of hydrogen gas / cm 0 14 23 31 38 40 40 40
(I) Plot the results on the graph and draw the graph
(II) What was the total volume of hydrogen produced when the reaction was over
(III) Why did the reaction stop?
(IV) How do you make the reaction go faster?

2. Effects of temperature on the rate of reaction

Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles
When temperature is increased, the rate of reaction also increases. This because the particle gain
kinetic energy and move faster and collide effectively
On the other, when temperature is reduced, the rate of reaction also reduces. This is because the
particles lose kinetic energy and move slower and do not collide effectively
Note
Temperature increases the rate of reactions for endothermic reactions
3. Effects of pressure on the rate of reaction
Pressure becomes a dominant factor in reactions involving gases
When pressure is increased, the rate of reaction also increases. This is because the volume reduces
forcing the gas particles closer together and collides effectively
On the other hand, when pressure is reduced, the rate of reaction also reduces. This is because the
volume increases and the gas particles are further apart and do not collide effectively

4. Effects of surface area (particle size) on the rate of reaction

Particle size usually refers to particles of a solid reactant.
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The rate of reaction is faster when the size of particles is small. This is because a small sized
particle has a large surface area.
Note
 When a reactant is in solid state, the reaction takes place on the surface of the solid. By
breaking up the solid into smaller pieces, the surface area is increased giving a greater area
for collisions to occur. This results in an increase of the rate of reaction.
 This explains why mixtures of saw dust, fine products of flour mills and combustion of
gases can cause an explosion due to the large surface area.

Graphical representation of surface area

Example: Reaction of magnesium with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Note
The reaction stops when the reactant in fewer quantities is used up, and hence curve levels off.

Exercise
1. A lump of marble was used to react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
(a) What is the chemical name for marble?
(b) State three different ways in which the reaction could have been made more rapidly
2. The diagram below shows the volume of hydrogen produced over a period of time
when 4g of calcium pellets are carefully added to an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid
at

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 (a) Draw on the same diagram the curve you would expect if the experiment were repeated at
the same temperature with:
(I) 4g of calcium pellets but with excess acid of half the concentration of the original
acid. Label this curve A
(II) Excess acid of the original concentration but with 4g of powdered calcium. Label
this curve B
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction including state symbols
(c) Write an ionic equation for the reaction in (b) above.
3. The table below shows the results of the production of hydrogen in the reaction o between
zinc granules and dilute hydrochloric acid at 25oC.
Volume (cm3) 0 5.0 10.0 13.0 15.5 18.5 19.5 19.5 19.5
Time (Min) 0 0.6 1.5 2.3 3.0 4.4 5.7 7.0 7.5
(a) Plot a graph of volume against time for the reaction
(b) Calculate the average rate of the reaction during the first 3 minutes
(c) Use the graph to determine the volume of gas collected after 5 minutes
(d) On the same graph, sketch a curve you would expect if powdered zinc were used
instead of zinc granules. Label this curve P
(e) How long did it take for the reaction to end?
(f) Mention factors you would employ to increase the rate of production of the gas
(g) Explain briefly how each of the mentioned factors above increases the rate of
production of the gas.
5. Effects of a catalyst on the rate of reaction
A catalyst is a chemical substance which alters the rate of reaction but remains chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction
A catalyst usually speeds up the reaction by lowering the activation energy of the reaction.
For example, the volume of oxygen produced from the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) can be measured using a gas syringe with a catalyst manganese (IV) oxide, a black solid.

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The addition of manganese (IV) oxide ( ) speeds up the reaction and increases the volume of
oxygen formed within a short time.

Graphical representation of a catalyst

Exercise
1. The decomposition of aqueous hydrogen peroxide solution is catalyzed by a black
solid. A gas is evolved.
(a) Name the gas
(b) What is a catalyst and name the catalyst suitable for this reaction?
(c) The small amount of catalyst is mixed with 20cm3 of hydrogen peroxide. The total
volume of gas produced is measured in every 5 seconds. The results are plotted as
shown below

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 (I) What is the final volume of the gas produced?
(II) Why does the curve level off after 10 seconds?
(III) Choose at which point where the reaction is fastest A, B, C or D?

Activation energy
Symbol:
Definition: Activation energy is the minimum energy required to start a reaction. As a result, a
catalyst allows a reaction to go by a different pathway with lower activation energy allowing more
collisions for a successful reaction.

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Activation energy is usually the energy barrier because if any collision is not energetic enough, the
reaction will be futile
Some catalysts slow down the reactions; these are called inhibitors (negative catalysts)
Characteristics of a catalyst
1. It catalyzes both the forward and reverse reaction
2. It undergoes physical change
3. It remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction
4. It is only needed in very small amounts
5. It is poisoned or rendered useless in the presence of impurities

Examples of some catalysts used for important reactions

Catalyst Reaction catalyzed
Aluminium oxide Cracking of alkanes
Iron Haber process: Production of ammonia
Manganese (IV) oxide Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Vanadium pentoxide Contact process: Manufacture of sulphuric acid
Nickel Hydrogenation of vegetable oils
Chemical equilibrium
Equilibrium is the point where the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of reverse reaction.
Reversible reactions
Symbol: ⇌
Definition: A reversible reaction is a reaction that proceeds in the forward and backward directions
It follows that if the reaction is exothermic, then the reverse reaction will be endothermic and vice
versa
Example: A + B ⇌ C + D
The double headed arrow shows that the reaction is a reverse reaction
Characteristics of equilibrium reactions
1. Rate of forward reaction is equal to rate of backward reaction
2. Concentration of reactants and products remain constant at equilibrium
3. An equilibrium can only be established in a closed system
4. There is no loss or gain of external materials by the reacting system
Le Chartelier’s Principle
The principle states that: When a chemical equilibrium is externally disturbed by a change in one
of the factors upon which it depends, the equilibrium will shift in a direction so as to offset the
change.

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Factors that affect the position of equilibrium
1. Temperature changes
Temperature variations changes the position of the equilibrium of either endothermic or
exothermic reactions
An increase in temperature favors the forward reaction of endothermic reaction while a decrease in
temperature will shift the equilibrium backwards
Example
NH4Cl(s)⇌ NH3(g) + HCl(g)
In thermal decomposition of ammonium chloride, temperature increase cause equilibrium to shift
to the right producing ammonia and hydrogen chloride. On the other hand, when temperature is
reduced, equilibrium shifts to the left and the backward reaction is favored producing ammonium
chloride
2. Concentration changes
Generally, an increase in concentration of the reactants of an equilibrium reaction favors the
forward reaction. This is because the equilibrium will adjust itself so as to offset the effect of
adding more reactants. On the other hand, if the concentration of products is increased, the
backward reaction will be favored so that the reactants are produced to restore the balance
3. Pressure changes
In gaseous systems, an equilibrium reaction is followed by volume change. Therefore, the
equilibrium is affected by change in pressure.
Example
N2(g) + 3N2(g)⇌ 2NH3(g)
In the production of ammonia, there is a general decrease in volume and a consequent increase in
pressure. Therefore, an increase in pressure will make the equilibrium shift towards the reduction
of volume. This means the forward reaction is favored and more ammonia is produced.
Consequently, a decrease in pressure leads to the production of nitrogen and hydrogen; it favors
the backward reaction
Generally, gaseous reactions that lead to reduction in volume are favored by high pressure.
Exercise
1. The gas ammonia is made industrially by Haber process. In process nitrogen and hydrogen
gases are reacted together, as in the equation
N2(g) + H2(g)⇌ NH3(g)
(a) Balance the equation
(b) What does the notation ⇌ show about the reaction?
(c) Ammonia is removed from the reaction mixture by cooling until it condenses. How
does this affect the formation of ammonia
(d) How does an increase in pressure affect the position of equilibrium?
(e) State Le Chartelier‟s principle
(f) Mention any two characteristics of an equilibrium reaction

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 4. Catalysts
Catalysts help to attain equilibrium quickly by increasing both the forward and backward reactions
the same way. Therefore, a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium.
Energy changes
Alternative term: Energetics
Energetics refers to the energy changes that characterize chemical reactions
Terms related to energy changes
Enthalpy
Symbol: H
Definition: This is the total energy in one mole of a substance
It is also the heat content of a reacting system
It depends on the physical state of the compound and varies from compound to compound
Enthalpy change of reaction
Symbol: ∆H (delta H)
Formula: ∆H = –
Units: Kilojoules per mole, Kj/mol
Definition: This is the difference between the enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the
reactants
Endothermic reaction
This is a reaction which absorbs heat energy from the surroundings
Examples of endothermic reactions
(a) Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(b) Photography in which light energy helps to decompose silver salt to silver on the
photographic plate. The essential reaction in photography is the reduction of silver ions to
metallic silver. With exposure to light energy, the silver salts decompose into ions as
follows:

Light is usually absorbed to dissociate silver salts

(c) Dissolving processes such as dissolving ammonium nitrate or potassium nitrate in water.

In endothermic reaction;

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  Energy is absorbed from the surroundings

 Reactants have less energy than products

 ∆H is positive
 Temperature of the system falls
Endothermic reaction as a bond breaking process
It generally requires the absorption of heat energy from the surroundings, hence endothermic.
For example, decomposition of ammonia gas into nitrogen and hydrogen gas.
2NH3(g)⇌ N2(g) + 3N2(g) ΔH = + 46.5 Kj / mol
The positive sign in front of the energy value indicate that the reaction is endothermic
Enough amount of heat is required to break the bonds of ammonia gas.
Therefore, endothermic reactions involve bond breaking
Energy level diagram for endothermic reactions

Example of energy level diagram for the formation of carbon disulphide

209
Exercise
1. Consider the reaction below
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g) ∆H = +187 kj/mol
(a) State whether the reaction is exothermic or endothermic. Give a reason
(b) Draw the energy level diagram for this reaction
(c) When calcium oxide reacts with carbon dioxide, will heat be given out or taken in?
(d) Calculate the energy change when 88g of carbon dioxide reacts with excess of calcium
oxide

Exothermic reaction
This is a reaction in which energy is released to the surroundings
Examples of exothermic reactions
(a) All combustion or burning processes e.g. burning of fuels such as coal, oils, wood.
(b) Tissue respiration in all living organisms
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
(c) Dissolving sodium hydroxide crystals in water
In exothermic reactions;
 Energy is released to the surroundings

210
  Reactants have more energy than products
 ∆H is negative
 Temperature of the system increases
Exothermic reaction as a bond forming process
In general, when bonds are formed, heat is liberated to the surroundings. For example, in a
combustion reaction, carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide as the atoms combine.

The negative sign in front of the energy value indicate that the reaction is exothermic.
Therefore, exothermic reactions involve bond forming and the bonds formed are relatively stronger
than bonds broken

Energy level diagram for exothermic reactions

Example of energy level diagram for the combustion of methane

211
Example
1. The diagram below is an energy level diagram for the combustion of propane in plentiful
supply of air

Use the information above to answer the following questions

(a) Given that propane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water, write down a
balanced chemical equation including state symbols for this reaction.
(b) State the molar enthalpy change of combustion of propane
(c) What is X?
(d) What is the purpose of Y?
(e) How much heat is energy is released to the surroundings when 2.2g of propane is burnt
completely in oxygen?

212
Solution
(a) C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
(b) ∆H = −2220 kj/mol
(c) Activation energy
(d) To start a chemical reaction
(e) C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) ∆H = −2220 kj/mol
n(C3H8) =
n=
n = 0.05mol
1 mol C3H8→ −2220 kj /mol
0.05mol C3H8 → x
x=
x = −1110 Kj/mol
2. When carbon is burnt in air, heat is released to the surroundings
(a) State with reason, whether the reaction is an endothermic or exothermic process.
(b) When 1.2g of carbon is completely burned in air, 39Kj of heat is liberated
Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of carbon
(c) Draw the energy level diagram for the burning of carbon

Solution
(a) Exothermic process
Reason: Heat is released to the surroundings
(b) From the equation: C + →
12g C → x
1.2g C → -39kj
x=
x = −390kj/mol

(c)

213
Exercise
6. Below is the energy level diagram for the combustion of one mole of an unknown fuel X

(a) State the type of reaction represented by the diagram

(b) State the energy levels for:
(I) reactants
(II) products
(c) Calculate the energy change for this reaction
(d) State one example of an endothermic reaction in every day experiences
(e) What scientific term is used to describe the amount of energy required for the reaction
to occur?

Bond energy

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Alternative term: Bond enthalpy
Definition: This is the amount of energy required to either break the bond or energy released when
one mole of bond is formed

Calculating enthalpy change using bond energies

Formula: ∆H = ∑ bond energies of reactants – ∑ bond energies of products
Example
1. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine gas given the
following bond energies

Bond Bond energy, Kj/mol

Cl – Cl 243
H–H 436
H – Cl 431
Solution
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
H – H + Cl – Cl → 2(H – Cl)
∆H = ∑ bond energies of reactants – ∑ bond energies of products
= (436 + 243) – (2 x 431)
= 679 – 862
= -183Kj/mol

Exercise

1. Some bond enthalpy terms in kj/mol are shown in the table below
H–H C – Cl H – Cl N≡N N–H
+436 +242 +431 +945 +389

Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Electrochemistry
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte by using an electric current
Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a substance which conduct electricity in fused (molten) or in solution and is
thereby decomposed

Examples of electrolytes
215
  Aqueous sulphuric acid
 Aqueous hydrochloric acid
 Aqueous nitric acid
 Aqueous sodium chloride
 Aqueous sodium hydroxide
 Aqueous carbonic acid
 Aqueous ethanoic acid

Strong electrolyte
It is a substance which ionizes completely and produces a lot of ions in solution which are able to
carry out an electric current rapidly.
Examples of strong electrolytes
 Aqueous sodium hydroxide
 Aqueous sodium chloride
 Aqueous copper (II) sulphate
 Aqueous hydrochloric acid
 Aqueous sulphuric acid
 Aqueous nitric acid
Weak electrolyte
It is a substance which ionizes partially and it conducts electric current only slightly and therefore
undergoes slight decomposition
Examples of weak electrolytes
 Carbonic acid
 Organic acids e.g. ethanoic acid
Non electrolyte
It is a substance which does not conduct electricity I fused or in solution state
Examples of non-electrolytes
 Sugar solution
 Ethanol
 Petrol
 Benzene
 Tetra chloromethane
They do not conduct electricity because they exist only in form of molecules and not capable of
ionization
Conductor
It is a solid substance that allows electricity to pass through without decomposing e.g. all metals

Non conductor

216
Alternative term: Insulator
It is a solid that does not conduct electricity e.g. plastics, wood and glass
Electrodes
They are conductors that allows electricity in and out of an electrolyte
Anode
It is a positively charged electrode
It is an electrode connected to the positive terminal of the power supply
Cathode
It is a negatively charged electrode
It is an electrode connected to the negative terminal of the power supply

Cations
They are positively charged ions
Example
Cation Formula of cation
Aluminium ion
Calcium ion
Hydrogen ion
Magnesium ion
Sodium ion

Anions
They are negatively charged ions
Example
Anion Formula of anion
Bromide ion
Chloride ion
Hydroxide ion
Iodate ion
Sulphate ion

The ionic theory

The ionic theory states that: The electrolytes contain ions and when no current is passing, the ions
wander about randomly in the solution. If the electric circuit is closed, the cathode immediately
becomes negatively charged and the anode becomes positively charged. The anode attracts
negatively charged ions while the cathode attracts the positively charged ions.

The selective order of discharge of ions

217
The discharge of ions varies from one electrolyte set up to another. When two or more ions of
similar charge are present under similar conditions in a solution e.g. and or and ,
one is preferentially selected for discharge. The ion selected for discharge of competing ions
depends on the following factors:
 The position of ions in the electrochemical series
 The concentration of ions in solution
 The nature of electrodes
1. Position of ions or radicals in the electrochemical series
Ions are arranged in the order of decreasing order of stability and amount of energy they require
for them to get discharged from an aqueous solution when an electric current is made to flow
through the solution. The arrangement is called electrochemical series. Note that the
electrochemical series is slightly different from the reactivity series of metals.

Most stable ions Increase in stability and require energy least stable ions

The ions of very reactive metals such as potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium
are more stable in solution and hence require more energy to be liberated as compared to the ions
of less reactive metals such as copper, silver, mercury and gold.
Therefore, when the ion of a more reactive metal is competing for discharge against the ion of a
less reactive metal, the less stable ion requiring lower energy for discharge is liberated in
preference to the more stable ion. Positive ions will be discharged at the cathode and negative ions
at the anode. For example, H+ will be discharged at the cathode in preference to Na+ since H+ are
less stable and require lower energy for discharge. Equally, the will be discharged at the
anode in preference to since the are less stable and require lower energy for discharge.
2. Concentration of ions in aqueous solution
Concentration has no effect on the selective discharge of metal cations. However, the
concentration of anions is the principle factor that determines which anions will be liberated
regardless of their position in the electrochemical series. The anion with the highest concentration
is selectively discharged from the solution in preference to the one whose concentration is lower
regardless of their position in the electrochemical series. For example, in the electrolysis of
concentrated sodium chloride, both and are present. The are discharged in preference
to owing to the high concentration of in solution despite requiring more energy than
. This is the only case in which the order of discharge as stated by the electrochemical series is
reversed.

218
 3. Nature of electrodes
Inert or unreactive electrodes such as platinum and graphite (Carbon) have no effect on the
selective discharge of competing ions on their surfaces. However, active electrodes such as copper,
mercury and most metals have an effect on the preferential discharge of competing ions. An active
electrode selectively discharges more stable ions in preference to less stable ions. For example, in
the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using inert electrodes, H+are discharged at the cathode
in preference to Na+. However, when the mercury cathode has been used, Na+ are selectively
discharged to form sodium Amalgam (NaHg) in preference to the H+.
Electrolysis of lead (II) bromide
Ions present in lead (II) bromide
Pb2+ and Br−
At the cathode
Lead (II) ions, , move to the cathode where they gain electrons to become lead atoms

Lead is given off as a liquid

At the anode
The bromide ions, , each lose one electron to form bromine atoms. They pair as molecules

Bromine is given off as a gas.

Exercise
1. The diagram below shows apparatus which were used by Jane Naosa to electrolyte molten
sodium bromide using inert electrodes.

(a) State the ions present in molten sodium bromide

(b) State two suitable materials for the electrodes

219
 (c) Name the product formed at each electrode. Write the equation for the reaction
occurring at each electrode
(d) A silvery coloured liquid was seen floating on the electrolyte around the cathode. Name
this liquid and explain why it floats on molten sodium bromide.
(e) State what was seen at the anode
(f) Why was molten sodium bromide being heated?
(g) Jane Naosa repeated the electrolysis but using aqueous sodium bromide.
Write the;
(I) Equation for the anode and cathode reactions
(II) Overall equation for this electrolysis
Electrolysis of acidified water
Pure water is a weak electrolyte. It only partially ionizes. Therefore, it is a poor conductor of
electricity. The addition of hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid makes it a strong electrolyte.
Hoffman apparatus

Ions present in aqueous sulphuric acid

and : from sulphuric acid
and : from water
At the cathode
Hydrogen ions, H+, are attracted to the cathode where they are discharged as hydrogen gas
2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g)
2 volumes of hydrogen gas are produced
At the anode
Hydroxide ions, OH-, and sulphate ions, are attracted to the anode. But the OH- are preferred
for discharge due to their position in the electrochemical series.

220
4OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
1 volume of oxygen is produced
Electrolysis of sodium chloride
Concentrated sodium chloride is called brine.

Ions present in aqueous sodium chloride

and : from sodium chloride
and : from water
At the anode
Chloride ions, Cl-, are discharged in preference to hydroxide ions, OH- due to the concentration
factor.
2Cl−(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e
At the cathode
Hydrogen ions, H+, are discharged in preference to sodium ions, Na+.
2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g)
The sodium ions, , and hydroxide ions, , that remain solution combine to form sodium
hydroxide and electrolyte gradually becomes alkaline due to the presence of sodium hydroxide,
NaOH.

221
Exercise
1. Aqueous sodium chloride was electrolyzed in the apparatus shown below

(a) Name the gas X

(b) How can gas X be identified?
(I) Test
(II) Result
(c) Name the gas Y
(d) Write the equation for the half – reaction in which Y is produced
(e) Why is the volume of X smaller than that of Y?
(f) The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride is used to manufacture important chemicals in
industry. Name the major product of this electrolysis.

222
Electrolysis of aqueous copper (II) sulphate
(a) Using copper electrodes

Ions present in aqueous copper (II) sulphate

and : from copper (II) sulphate
and : from water
At the cathode
Copper (II) ions gain two electrons and deposited as copper atoms on the cathode.
Cu2+ + 2e → Cu
The copper cathode grows as copper atoms are deposited
At the anode
Copper atoms lose two electrons and enter the solution as copper (II) ions
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e
(b) Using an inert electrode e.g. carbon (graphite)
At the cathode
Copper (II) ions, Cu2+ are liberated in preference to hydrogen ions, H +, to form copper metal
because Cu2+require less energy for discharge than H+. Hydrogen ions remain in solution
Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
At the anode
Hydroxide ions, OH−, from water are discharged in preference to sulphate ions, SO42-, to produce
oxygen gas becausethey require less energy for discharge and are more concentrated than sulphate
ions. The sulphate ions remain in solution
4OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e

223
The hydrogen ions and sulphate ions that remain solution combine to form sulphuric acid. As
aqueous copper (II) sulphate solution is electrolyzed using inert electrode, its blue colour
disappears due to the removal of copper (II) ions and the solution becomes acidic.

Example
1. The diagram below shows the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid

(a) Give the names of the gases labeled

(I) L
(II) M
(b) During the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, which ions move;
(I) Positive electrodes
(II) Negative electrodes
(c) Give the equations for the reactions occurring at:
(I) The positive electrode
(II) Negative electrode
Solution
(a) (I) L = Oxygen
(II) M = Hydrogen
(b) (I) Hydroxide ions, OH-
(II) Hydrogen ions, H+
(c) (I) 4OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
(II) 2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g)
Exercise

224
 1. In order to determine the charge on chromium ion, two electrolytic cells were connected in
series, one containing an aqueous solution of chromium ions and the other an aqueous
solution of silver nitrate as shown in the diagram below.

(a) What name is given to the electrode where chromium and silver are deposited?
(b) Write down the half reaction showing the discharge of silver ions
(c) The two aqueous solutions in the diagram above conduct electricity. What name is given to
compounds which conduct electricity and are decomposed?
(d) At the end of the experiment, it was found that 2.02g of silver and 0.324g of chromium had
been deposited. Calculate the charge on a chromium ion. Show your working.
(e) Suggest the formula of the compound, chromium, in solution.
(f) Chromium is a metal. Explain how the structure of metals enables them to conduct
electricity and beaten into thin sheets.
Industrial application of electrolysis
1. Electrolysis is used in extraction of very reactive metals such as potassium, sodium,
magnesium, calcium and aluminium
2. Electrolysis is used in the refinery and purification of metals such as copper and zinc.
3. Electrolysis is used in the electroplating metals. Electroplating is the art of covering the
surface of a metal with a thin adherent metal coating by means of electrolysis.
Electroplating is done to protect the surface of the base metal against corrosion or for a
purely decorated effect. Metals that may be used for electroplating include nickel, silver,

225
 gold, chromium, zinc, tin etc. The object to be electroplated is used as the cathode and is
immersed in a solution containing ions of the metal to be plated. When an electric current
passes through the solution, metal ions that migrated to the cathode are reduced, depositing
on the object as free metal. The metal deposited on the object is replaced in the solution by
using an anode of the same metal.

Anode reaction
Nickel dissolves at the anode and replenishes the solution

Cathode reaction
Nickel plated on the object

4. Sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas and hydrogen gas are manufactured on a large scale by
electrolysis of brine in the mercury cathode cell.
Exercise
1. Electrolysis is also used to purify copper.
(a) Draw a labeled diagram which could be used to purify a block of impure copper
(I) Describe what happens at each electrode during electrolysis
(II) Write equations to show the reactions at each electrode
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
Faraday’s first law of electrolysis
The law states that: The mass of a substance produced at the electrode during electrolysis is
directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte.

226
 m∞Q
m ∞ It
Q = It
m = mass[g]
I = current [A]
t = time [s]
Q = charge (quantity of electricity) [Coulombs, C]
Example
1. A current of 0.4A flows for about 1500 seconds. Calculate the quantity of electricity.
Solution
Q = It
Q = 0.4A x 1500s
Q = 675C
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis
The law states that: When the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes
the number of moles of the element deposited is inversely proportional to the charges on the ions
of the element.
Note
1 Faraday = 1 mole of electrons = 96500C
=

n= =q
m=
n = number of moles [mol]
m = mass [g]
MM = molar mass
F = faraday‟s constant [96500C /mol]
Ar = relative atomic mass
I = current [A]
q = number of faradays = magnitude of charge on the ion
Example
1. Calculate the charge on an ion X if 5.4g is deposited by a current of 5A passing for 3 hours
13 minutes. [ Ar of X = 27]
Solution
q=
q=
[ ]
q=

227
 q=3
Charge on ion X = or
2. How many moles of electron are required to produce 2.7g of aluminium by electrolytic
reduction?
Solution
Al3+ + 3e → Al
3mol of electron → 27g
x → 2.7g
x=
x = 0.3 mol of electron
Exercise
1. An element X has a relative atomic mass of 88. When a current of 0.5A was passed through
the fused chloride of X for 32 minutes 10 seconds, 0.44g was deposited at the cathode.
Calculate the number of faradays to liberate 1 mole of X.
2. In an electrolysis experiment, the same quantity of electricity deposited 16g of copper and
6g of titanium. What was the charge on the titanium ion?
[Assume the charge on the copper ion is 2+]
A 1+ B 2+ C 3+ D 4+
Calculations involving molar volumes
The volume of one mole of any gas is:
 24dm3 (24000cm3) at r.t.p
 22.4dm3 (22400 cm3) at s.t.p
Example
1. 0.2 faradays of electricity were passed through a solution of dilute sulphuric acid. Calculate
the volume of the gases produced or evolved measured at r.t.p at the anode and cathode.
Solution
At the anode oxygen gas is produced.
4OH−(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
1F → 1 mol of ẽ
x → 4 mol of ẽ
x=
x = 4F

4F → 24dm3
0.2F → x
x=
x = 1.2dm3

228
At the cathode hydrogen gas is produced
2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g)
1mol of ẽ → 1F
2mol of ẽ → x
x=
x = 2F
2F → 24dm3
0.2F → x
x=
x = 2.4dm3
2. What volume of oxygen and hydrogen is produced at r.t.p. when a current of 2A is passed
for 6 minutes 26 seconds through a solution containing:
(a) Hydroxide ions
(b) Hydrogen ions
Solution
(a) 4OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e
Q= It
Q = 2A x [(6 x 60) + 26]s
Q = 772C
1mol of e → 96500C
4mol of e → x
x=
x = 386000C
386000C → 24dm3
772C → x
x=
x = 0.048dm3
(b) 2H+(aq) + 2e → H2(g)
1mol of e → 96500C
2mol of e → x
x=
x = 193000C
193000C → 24dm3
772C → x
x=
x = 0.096dm3

229
Exercise
1. 0.2F of electricity were passed through a solution of copper (II) sulphate. Calculate the
volume of oxygen produced at r.t.p.

Alloys
Definition: An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a metal with a non-metal
The combination of alloys is physical
Alloys are harder than the metals from which they are made
Alloying a metal is one way of increasing its strength
Preparation of alloys
The mixture is usually heated under controlled temperature
The molten mixture is then allowed to cool and solidify
Advantages of alloys
1. They are flexible in use
2. They usually have improved appearance
3. They are durable and reliable
4. They have increased resistance to corrosion
Examples of alloys
Alloy Typical composition Particular property Typical use
Brass Copper, Cu 70% Harder than pure copper, Used to make musical
Zinc, Zn 30% Resistant to corrosion instruments
Bronze Copper, Cu 90% Harder than pure copper Used to make trophies
Tin, Sn 10% Used to make medallions
Mild steel Iron, Fe 99.7% Stronger and harder than Used to make bridges
Carbon, C 0.3% pure iron Used to make boring tools
and crushing equipment
Used to make automobile
bodies and parts e.g. car
bodies
Stainless steel Iron, Fe 70% Harder than pure iron Used in cutlery e.g. making
Chromium, Cr 20% Does not rust razor blades, knives because
Nickel, Ni 10% it does not rust
Solder Tin, Sn 50% Has lower melting point Used for soldering and
Lead, Pb 50% than either tin or lead welding

Exercise
1. Alloying is one way of preventing rusting of iron
(a) Name any two alloys containing iron and state one use for each
(b) State two other methods of rust prevention
230
Metals
General physical properties of metals
1. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity
2. Metals are malleable i.e. they can be hammered into thin sheets
3. Metals are ductile i.e. they can be drawn into long wires
4. Metals are sonorous i.e. they produce sound when hammered
5. Metals are lustrous i.e. they have a silver luster surface when freshly cut
6. Metals are solids at room temperature and pressure except for mercury which is a liquid
at room temperature and pressure
7. Metals have high melting and boiling points

The reactivity series

Alternative term: Activity series
Definition: Reactivity is a list of metals with the most reactive metal at the top and the least
reactive metal at the bottom.
The order of reactivity can be determined by the reaction of the metal with water or steam and
acids. In both types of reaction, if a reaction takes place, hydrogen gas is formed.
Metal Symbol Hint
Potassium K Kaunda Most reactive
Sodium Na Now
Calcium Ca Can
Magnesium Mg Make
Aluminium Al All
Zinc Zn Zambians
Iron Fe Free
Lead Pb Provided
Hydrogen H He
Copper Cu Could
Mercury Hg Hung
Silver Ag All
Gold Au Americans Least reactive
The reactivity series is related to the tendency of metals to form positive ions
Very reactive metals lose their valence electrons easily to form cations
Metals at the top of series lose the electrons more easily and form ions rapidly and are called
electropositive.
Metals at the bottom of the series lose electrons with difficulty and do not readily form ions and
are said to be less electropositive
The metal higher up in the series will displace the one below it from aqueous solution of its salts
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Hydrogen is included in the series although it is a non-metal. It serves as a reference point in the
series. Metals above hydrogen will react with dilute acids to give hydrogen gas, while metals
below hydrogen will not react with dilute acids to give hydrogen gas.
Reaction of metals with water or steam
Metal Symbol Observation / Equation
Potassium K Reacts very violently with cold water to produce potassium hydroxide
and hydrogen gas
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium Na Reacts violently with cold water to produce sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium Ca Reacts less violently with cold water to produce calcium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Mg Reacts very slowly with cold water but violently with steam to produce
hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
Aluminium Al Does not react with cold water but react slowly with steam to form
aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas.
2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) → Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g)
Zinc Zn Does not react with cold water but hot zinc burns in steam to form zinc
oxide and hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + H2O(g) → ZnO(s) + H2(g)
Iron Fe Does not react with cold water but react slowly with steam to form iron
oxide and hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + H2O(g) → FeO(s) + H2(g)
Lead Pb They are below hydrogen in the reactivity series do not react with cold
Copper Cu water not even steam
Silver Ag
Gold Au

Reaction of metals with dilute hydrochloric acid

All metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with dilute hydrochloric acid to form a salt
and hydrogen gas
All metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series do not react with dilute acids

232
Metal Symbol Observation / Equation
Potassium K Explosive reaction
K(s) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium Na Explosive reaction
Na(s) + HCl(aq) →NaCl(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium Ca Reacts vigorously to give calcium chloride and hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) →CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium Mg Reacts rapidly to give magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) →MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Zinc Zn Reacts quiet slow (moderately fast) to give zinc chloride and hydrogen
gas
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) →ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Iron Fe Reacts slowly to give iron (II) chloride and hydrogen gas
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) →FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Lead Pb Slow, and only if the acid is concentrated
Pb(s) + 2HCl(aq) →PbCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Copper Cu No reaction, even with concentrated acid
Gold Au

Reaction of metals with oxygen

Metal Symbol Behavior / Equation
Sodium Na Catches fire with only a little heating.
Burns fiercely with a bright yellow flame
4Na(s) + 2O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
Magnesium Mg Catches fire easily.
Burns with a blinding white flame
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Iron Fe Does not burn, but the hot metal glows brightly in oxygen, and gives
off yellow sparks.
Fe(s) + O2(g) → Fe3O4(s)
Copper Cu Does not burn, but the hot metal becomes coated with a black
substance.
2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
Gold Au No reaction, no matter how much the metal is heated.

233
Example

1. Iron, calcium and copper are metals. The table below describes the reactions of these
metals with cold water and steam.
(a) Place a tick (√) if the reaction will take place and a cross (x) if the reaction will not take
place
Metal Reaction of metal with cold water Reaction of metal with steam
Copper
Iron
Calcium

(b) place these metals in order of chemical activity, starting with the most reactive
Solution

(a) Metal Reaction of metal with cold water Reaction of metal with steam
Copper x x
Iron x √
Calcium √ √

(b) Calcium, iron, copper

Exercise
2. The list below shows metals arranged in ascending order of reactivity.
Silver
Zinc
Aluminium
Sodium
(a) Using metals from the list only, name:
(I) A metal which can be displaced by copper
(II) A metal which can react with cold water to produce an alkaline solution
(III) A metal which forms an amphoteric oxide when burnt
(IV) A metal whose carbonate does not decompose when heated
(V) A metal which forms a stable oxide layer
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between sodium and water.
3. Place in order of chemical reactivity towards the metals calcium, iron, magnesium and
zinc, with the most reactive first. Four other metals A, B, C and D are tested with dilute
hydrochloric acid and with water
Metal A reacts with steam but not with cold water
234
 Metal B does not reacts with steam or cold water but does react with dilute hydrochloric
acid
Metal C reacts quickly with cold water
Metal D does not react with water or with dilute hydrochloric acid
(a) Place metals A, B, C and D in order with the most reactive first
(b) State between which two letters (metals) hydrogen should be placed in the above series

Displacement of metals from their compounds

A metal high in the reactivity series will always displace a less reactive metal from the solution of
its compound
A metal lower in the reactivity series cannot displace the one above it from the solution of its
compound.
Example 1:
Iron will displace copper from the blue copper (II) sulphate solution. Green iron (II)
sulphate is formed.

Example 2:
Since copper is above silver in the reactivity series, copper will displace silver from
silver nitrate solution. The solution will also turn from colourless to blue due to the
formation of copper (II) ions.

Example 3:
Iron is lower than zinc in the reactivity series. Since it is less reactive than zinc, no
displacement reaction will take place
Exercise
1. What would you see when zinc is added to copper (II) sulphate solution? Write a balanced
chemical equation for the reaction.
2. Will copper react with zinc sulphate? Explain why

Recycling of metals
Metals are finite resources. It is essential that we recycle metals that are still useful to us.
Advantages or reasons of recycling metals
1. Better conservation of natural resources, so that reserves last longer. The demand for metal
ores will decrease once scrap metal is identified as a viable source of raw material.
2. With recycling, less mining will take place. There will be less air and water pollution
caused by mining process
3. More effective waste disposal as scrap metal is recovered. Less landfill space will be
needed. This will also solve the problem of litter accumulation

235
Recycling is sometimes not feasible because of the costs involved. Transportation, sorting through
waste and cleaning the scrap metal etc. may cost more than extracting the metal from ores. This is
true for some cheaper metals.
Extraction of metals
Most metals occur in the earth‟s crust as ores
An ore is a compound from which a metal can be extracted.
Methods of extraction
The method of extraction of a metal from the ore depends on its position in the reactivity series
There are three main methods used to extract metals from their ores
1. Electrolysis
2. Reduction
3. Thermal decomposition
Metal Symbol Method of extraction
Potassium K
Sodium Na Electrolysis of fused oxides
Calcium Ca or chlorides
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al

Zinc Zn
Iron Fe Reduction by coke
Lead Pb

Copper Cu
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag Thermal decomposition
Gold Au

Stability of compounds
Compounds of very reactive metals like potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium
cannot be decomposed by heating or reduction method using hydrogen, carbon or carbon
monoxide as reducing agents
Compounds of these metals are very stable and can therefore be extracted by electrolysis
Mild reactive metals like iron, zinc and lead can easily be extracted from their ores by reduction
with carbon or carbon monoxide because their compounds are less stable
Less reactive metals like copper and silver can be extracted from their ores by heating

236
Unreactive metals like gold exists in nature as pure and free metals and can be mined in pure form
because their compounds are unstable
Gold always occur in native (Free State)
Silver occurs both in native and combined state
Metal extraction often produces sludge because they contain impurities
Effects of heat on carbonates
(a) Carbonates of group I elements like potassium, sodium, rubidium are extremely stable
and hence cannot be decomposed by heat
(b) Carbonates of group II elements like calcium, magnesium, barium and transition
elements like zinc, iron, lead, copper etc. are only decomposed to oxides and carbon
dioxide when heated. No further decomposition is possible after this. The oxides are
extremely stable and can only be reduced by electrolysis.
Examples
(I) CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(II) MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)
(III) CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)
Effects of heat on nitrates
(a) Nitrates of Group I elements like potassium and sodium decomposes into nitrites and
oxygen when heated.
Examples
(I) 2KNO3(s) → 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
(II) 2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)

(b) Nitrates of group II elements like calcium, magnesium, barium and transition elements
like zinc, iron, lead, copper etc. are decomposed to metal oxides, nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen when heated.
Examples
(I) 2Ca(NO3)2 → 2CaO + 4NO2 + O2
(II) 2Mg(NO3)2 → 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
(III) 2Cu(NO3)2 → 2CuO + 4NO2 + O2

Aluminium
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth‟s crust
Ores of aluminium
1. Bauxite
Chemical name: Aluminium oxide
Formula: Al2O3
The oxide is very stable and hence cannot be decomposed by heat or reduction with carbon
Extraction of aluminium

237
Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis of molten bauxite, Al2O3 in the electrolytic cell.
Extraction of aluminium from bauxite is carried out in cell graphite (carbon) electrodes
Bauxite is dissolved in cryolite to lower its lower melting point
Aluminium is formed at the cathode and settles at the bottom in molten form
Aluminium is tapped out by opening an outlet when it has accumulated

Aluminium is formed at the cathode

Oxygen gas is formed at the anode

The oxygen gas immediately reacts with the graphite electrodes to form carbon dioxide gas since
they are made of carbon. For this reason, the anodes are eaten away and hence they are replaced at
regular intervals

Summary
Three main stages in the extraction of aluminium from bauxite
Bauxite is impure aluminium oxide,
1. Bauxite is purified
2. Pure aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite,
3. Electrolysis is performed in the cell
The apparent unreactivity of aluminium
Despite being high in the reactivity series, aluminium does not easily react with water and
oxidizing acids like nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
Aluminium forms aluminium oxide in the presence of air. This is because shortly after being
extracted out, a thin protective layer of aluminium oxide forms on its surface.
This oxide is insoluble and resistant to corrosion. So it forms a protective coating for aluminium.
Uses of aluminium
1. It is used in overhead electrical cables because it is a good conductor of electricity

238
 2. It is used in making cooking utensils like sauce pans and kettles because it is a good
conductor of heat and it is resistant to heat
3. It is used in making food wrappers and drink cans due to its resistance to corrosion and
is non-toxic
4. It used in the manufacture of aeroplanes because it is lighter (low density) and has high
strength. It is cheaper and therefore preferred than copper
5. It is used in making light aluminium roofing sheets
6. It is used in making alloys e.g. duralumin
7. It is used in making aluminium paints. The powdered metal is used with oil

Example
1. The diagram below represents the electrolytic cell used for the production of
aluminium. The electrolyte contains aluminium oxide and cryolite (sodium aluminium
fluoride) and is molten at about . The electrodes are made from graphite.

(a) Why is a mixture of cryolite and aluminium oxide, and not pure aluminium oxide, is used
as the electrolyte?
(b) Write the equations for the reactions occurring at

(I) the positive electrode

(II) the negative electrode
(c) Explain why the graphite anodes need to be replaced at regular intervals?
(d) Calculate the maximum mass of aluminium that can be made from 408 tonnes of
aluminium oxide.
(e) Aluminium foil is used to make food containers because it does not corrode easily.
(I) Explain why aluminium does not corrode easily

239
 (II) Give a use, other than for food containers, together with the physical property
that makes aluminium suitable for that use
(III) Give a further use of aluminium, other than for food containers, together with a
different physical property from that given in part (II) that makes aluminium
suitable for that use
Solution
(a) Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point. With the addition of cryolite, the melting
point is greatly reduced. Hence it is economical
(b) (I) → + 4e
(II) + 3e →
(c) The oxygen produced at the graphite anode oxidizes the graphite to carbon dioxide.
(d) From the equation: → 4Al +
204g → 108g Al
408 tonnes → x

x=
x = 216 tonnes Al
(e) (I) Aluminium forms aluminium oxide in the presence of air. This oxide is insoluble and
resistant to corrosion. So it forms a protective coating for aluminium
(II) It is used in making cooking utensils since it has very good conductivity, in addition to
its good appearance and resistance to corrosion use
(III) It is a component in several alloys used in air craft construction. Its favorable use is
due to its low density and high tensile strength

Exercise
1. Before experimenting with aluminium to place in the reactivity series, the surface of the
aluminium must be scrapped. Why is this necessary?
2. Give two reasons why it is important to recycle metals
Copper
Ores of copper
1. Malachite
Chemical name: Copper (II) carbonate
Formula: CuCO3
2. Copper pyrites
Chemical name: Copper (I) sulphide
Formula: Cu2S
Extraction of copper

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Copper is extracted from copper (I) sulphide by thermal decomposition. This is usually done in the
presence of oxygen. The copper (I) sulphide is reduced to copper by heating in a controlled supply
of air. The impure copper is called blister copper.
Cu2S(l) + O2(g) → 2Cu(s) + SO2(g)
Purification of copper
The copper formed is impure
Silver, gold and cobalt are usually present as impurities
It is purified by electrolysis

The electrolyte is an acidified solution of an electrolyte containing the metal ion

The impure copper anode loses mass as copper ions are formed.
At the anode pure copper from pure anode goes into solution, reducing the size of the anode
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Impurities called anode sludge fall to the bottom of the cell. The anode sludge may contain
valuable metals such as silver and gold
At the anode copper ions accept two electrons each and are deposited as pure copper metal on the
electrode which increases in size.
Cu2+ + 2e → Cu
Uses of copper
1. it is used in making electric cables because it is a good conductor of electricity
2. it is used in making alloys e.g. bronze and brass
3. it is used in making coils
4. it is used in making ornaments in jewelry industries e.g. coins, necklaces and rings
5. it is used in making cooking utensils and boilers since it is a good conductor of heat
Zinc
Ores of zinc
1. Zinc blend

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 Chemical name: Zinc sulphide
Formula: ZnS
2. Calamine
Chemical name: Zinc carbonate
Formula: ZnCO3
Extraction of zinc
Zinc blend is heated in air to form zinc oxide and sulphur dioxide
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
Zinc oxide is then reduced to zinc metal by carbon monoxide
ZnO(s) + CO(g) → Zn(s) + CO2(g)
Uses of Zinc
1. It is used in making alloys e.g. brass which is an alloy of zinc and copper
2. It is used to galvanize iron to prevent rusting
3. It is used in making roofing sheets
4. It is used in the preparation of dry cell batteries
Exercise
1. Zinc is extracted from its ore, zinc blend. The zinc blend is heated in air to form the oxide
and an acidic gas. The oxide is then reduced to zinc.
(a) Name the acidic gas
(b) What is the chemical name of zinc blend
(c) Write down the chemical equations for the two processes involved in the extraction of
zinc from zinc blend
(d) Why is not possible to reduce aluminium oxide to aluminium using carbon?
(e) Important uses of zinc are galvanizing steel, making alloys and manufacturing dry cells.
(i) Why is steel galvanized?
(ii) Name an alloy containing zinc metal. State one physical property of the alloy

Iron
Ores of iron
1. Heamatite
Chemical name: Iron (III) oxide
Formula: Fe2O3
2. Magnetite
Chemical name: Tri iron tetra oxide
Formula: Fe3O4
3. Siderite
Chemical name: Iron (II) carbonate
Formula: FeCO3

242
Extraction of iron
Iron is extracted from Heamatite by the reduction method in the blast furnace
The blast furnace
The blast furnace is tower of about 30 – 40 meters high
It is made of steel, and lined with fire proof bricks with a high melting point.

Charge
To extract iron, three substances called charge (raw materials) are mixed together.
These are:
1. Iron ore: The chief ore is heamatite, Fe2O3
2. Lime stone: This is calcium carbonate, CaCO3
3. Coke: This is pure carbon, C
The charged is crushed and placed into the top of the blast furnace. It is then roasted in air.
Chemical reactions in the blast furnace
1. Coke reacts with oxygen in hot air to form carbon dioxide. This is an oxidation process.
The reaction rises the temperature in the blast furnace.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Hot air (oxygen) is forced into the bottom of the blast furnace

243
 2. Carbon dioxide rising up reacts with more coke to form carbon monoxide
Carbon (coke) is a reducing agent because it reduces carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide
C(s)+ CO2(g) → 2CO(g)
3. Carbon monoxide react with iron oxide to form liquid iron and carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide gas is a reducing agent because it reduces the iron oxide to iron
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
Fe3O4(s) +4CO(g) → 3Fe(l) + 4CO2(g)
Iron trickles to the bottom of the furnace where it is tapped off.
4. Limestone decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
CaCO3(s)→ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The purpose of limestone is to act as a flux
5. Calcium oxide reacts with silicon dioxide (sand) to form calcium silicate or slag. The slag
runs down the furnace and floats on the iron. This prevents the molten iron from being
oxidized by the incoming oxygen. Slag is tapped off.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
Calcium oxide is used to remove impurities such as silicon dioxide )
Uses of slag
1. It is used in the manufacture of cement
2. It is used for making roads
Note: The raw iron obtained in this process is called cast iron or pig iron. It contains impurities.
The purest form of iron is called wrought iron.

244
Exercise
1. The diagram below shows the blast furnace

(a) Name the components of mixture A, B and C in the diagram above

(b) Explain how the furnace is heated to the high temperature needed for the reduction of
the iron ore.
(c) Name two processes that lead to the production of carbon dioxide in the blast furnace
(d) Name the gaseous reducing agent in the furnace
(e) Which of the components of mixture A produces the gaseous reducing agent in (b).

245
 (f) Construct an equation for a reaction in which the gaseous reducing is produced.
(g) Outline the changes that take place in a blast furnace during the manufacture of iron
(h) The iron produced by the blast furnace is converted into alloys. Explain what is meant
by an alloy.
(i) How is mixture C removed from the furnace?
(j) What is the chemical name given to the change by which iron oxide becomes iron?

Air
Clean, dry air is a mixture of gases
Composition of clean dry air
Component Percentage
Nitrogen, 79%
Oxygen, 20%
Carbon dioxide, 0.04%
Noble gases (mainly argon) 0.93%

Example
1. A student wanted to find the percentage of water in air. A candle wax was fixed to a
weighed piece of cork. This was floated on water. The student then lit the candle and
lowered a graduated gas jar over it, as shown below

The candle flame slowly went out and the water level rose in the jar
(a) Why did the flame go out?
(b) What two substances are produced when a wax (hydrocarbon) candle burns?
(c) What did the water replace when it rose in the jar?
(d) Why did the water not fill the jar?
(e) The water rose to the 3.5cm mark on the jar. Calculate the percentage change of volume of
the air.

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Solution
(a) All the oxygen needed to support combustion in the jar is used up
(b) Carbon dioxide and water
(c) The water replaced the oxygen gas used up to burn the candle
(d) Oxygen occupies only 20% by volume of air. The remaining gas is mainly nitrogen gas
(e) Percentage change = x 100%
= 17.5%

Non metals
Hydrogen gas
Formula:
At room temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas exists as a diatomic molecule, H2
Occurrence
Hydrogen occurs in water, oils and natural gas
Preparation of hydrogen gas
1. Laboratory preparation of hydrogen
In the laboratory, hydrogen gas can be prepared by reacting:
 a reactive metal with a dilute acid
 a reactive metal with water
[A]Reaction of reactive metal with a dilute acid
Example
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

247
The gas is collected over water
Drying agent: Concentrated Sulphuric acid
Method of collection: Down ward displacement of air or upward delivery since it is less dense
[B] Reaction of a reactive metal with water
Example
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Note
 Potassium and sodium float on water as they react with it, they must be wrapped in a wire
mesh to make them sink.
 The reaction of potassium with water produces a lilac flame and the reaction of sodium
with water produces a yellow flame
2. Industrial preparation of hydrogen
On the scale, hydrogen gas is manufactured by the reaction of methane and steam
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)
Conditions
1. Catalyst: Nickel metal
2. Temperature: 1000oC
3. Pressure: 50 atmospheres
More steam is then added and the gases are passed over a catalyst iron (III) oxide to remove the
carbon monoxide
CO(g) + H2O(g)⇌ CO2(g) + H2(g)
Carbon dioxide is removed by dissolving it in water under pressure
3. Hydrogen can also be produced by cracking of alkanes
Test for hydrogen
Hydrogen gas burns with a pop sound when a burning splint is introduced to it

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Physical properties of hydrogen
1. It is colourless
2. It is odorless
3. It is less dense than air
4. It has a boiling point of -253oC
5. It is not poisonous and does not support life

Chemical properties of hydrogen

1. It has no effect on litmus paper
2. It burns in oxygen with a blue flame producing a pop sound
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
3. It is a reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of metals below it in the reactivity series
Example
CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)

When hydrogen is passed over black copper (II) oxide in the apparatus above, the black powder
turns pink

4. Hydrogen burns in chlorine with a white flame forming hydrogen chloride

Example
H(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
A mixture of hydrogen and chlorine is explosive in sun light
Uses of hydrogen gas
1. It is used in the manufacture of ammonia in haber process
2. It is used in the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oil in the process called catalytic
hydrogenation
3. Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets because it does not pollute the air.
4. It is used as a reducing agent
Exercise
1. A small piece of potassium is dropped on to called water and mixed with a little universal
indicator.
(a) When potassium reacts with water, hydrogen gas is produced
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 (I) What name is given to reactions that produce heat?
(II) What colour does the universal indicator become?
(III) Describe a test for hydrogen
(b) (I) How do the observations differ when sodium is used instead of potassium?
(III) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between sodium with water.

Oxygen gas
Formula:
Oxygen gas exits as a diatomic molecule, O2
It makes up about 21% of air by volume
Preparation of oxygen
1. Laboratory preparation of oxygen
In the laboratory, oxygen gas can be prepared using the following chemicals:
(a) Potassium chlorate, KClO3
(b) Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
(c) Sodium nitrate, NaNO3 and Potassium nitrate, KNO3
[A] Potassium chlorate
Potassium chlorate is mixed with a catalyst manganese (IV) oxide upon heating and decomposes
into potassium chloride and oxygen gas
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

Note: This experiment is explosive

250
Example
1. Study the diagram below that shows preparation and collection of oxygen gas

(a) Name substance J

(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in the experiment
(c) What is the method of collecting the gas used in the experiment?
(d) What is the function of the manganese (IV) oxide in the experiment?
(e) Explain why the first gas collected in the gas jar was not pure oxygen?
(f) State one industrial use of oxygen
Solution
(a) Potassium chlorate
(b) 2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
(c) Down ward displacement of water
(d) Acts as a catalyst
(e) It is contaminated with air already in the apparatus
(f) Welding (as oxyacetylene flame) etc.

251
[B] Hydrogen peroxide
Oxygen gas is also prepared by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution using manganese
(IV) oxide as a catalyst. No heating is required
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

Oxygen gas is collected over water

Method of collection: Down ward displacement of water
Drying agent: Concentrated sulphuric acid
[C] Sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate
Oxygen gas can be prepared by heating sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate
(I) 2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
(II) 2KNOs(s) → 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
2. Industrial preparation of oxygen gas
On the large scale, oxygen gas is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air. Liquid
oxygen boils at -183oC while liquid nitrogen boils at -196oC
Nitrogen gas which has a the lower boiling point distils off first
Test for oxygen gas
Oxygen gas relights a glowing splint introduced in its container
Uses of oxygen
1. It is used in the manufacture of steel in the blast furnace
2. It is used in oxygen tents in hospitals for patients in the intensive care unit
3. It used for welding in the oxy-acetylene flame
4. It used by deep sea divers and mountain climbers
5. It is used as liquid oxygen in rockets when in outer space to support burning of hydrogen
Physical properties of oxygen
252
 1. It is colorless
2. It is odorless
3. It is slightly soluble in water
4. It is slightly denser than air
5. It supports burning
6. It boils at −183oC
7. It does not burn
Chemical properties of oxygen
1. Respiration
Respiration is the process by living organisms oxidize glucose to produce carbon dioxide, water
and energy
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
2. Combustion
Alternative term: Burning
Combustion is the process by which a substance reacts with oxygen to produce an oxide and heat.
It is also defined as the burning of substances in oxygen.
Example
Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and heat energy.
C + O2 → CO2 + energy
3. Rusting
Rusting is the corrosion of iron.
Corrosion is a process by which something, especially a metal, is destroyed progressively by
chemical action, as iron when it rusts
It is an electrochemical process by which iron corrodes in the presence of oxygen, water and an
electrolyte.
Rust
Rust is a reddish brown coating of iron oxide on the surface of iron or steel that forms when the
metal is exposed to air and moisture
Chemical formula:
Chemical name: Hydrated iron (III) oxide.
Colour: Reddish – brown
Formation of rust
Iron reacts with oxygen in air in the presence of water to form rust.
Overall reaction:
Conditions necessary for iron to rust
1. Presence of oxygen
2. Presence of water or moisture
3. Presence of a strong electrolyte such as sodium chloride or sulphuric acid

253
Prevention of rusting
1. Painting
A paint coat excludes both air and water from contact with iron
2. Oiling
Oil or grease may be applied on the surface of iron metal to prevent water and oxygen from
contact with iron
3. Galvanizing
Galvanizing is the coating of iron with zinc metal. Zinc is higher than iron in the reactivity series
of metals; so if the surface is scratched, the zinc is oxidized in preference to iron. This is called
sacrificial protection.
4. Electroplating or alloying
Iron can be electroplated or alloyed with non-corrosive elements like nickel, copper, chromium
and carbon. The coating of iron with a metal which does not corrode easily protects iron from
rusting. An electric current is used in electroplating.
Exercise
1. Burning and rusting are two chemical processes
(a) Give four ways by which rusting of iron metal can be prevented
(b) Give one in which rusting and burning :
(I) resemble one another
(II) differ from one another
(c) Explain how you could show the presence of iron metal in a sample of rust
2. Oxygen may be prepared by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
(a) Explain the term decomposition
(b) Name the catalyst used in this preparation
(c) Draw the apparatus which could be used to prepare and collect the oxygen produced

254
 (d) On the industrial scale, oxygen is separated from nitrogen by fractional distillation.
(I) Explain what is meant by fractional distillation and name one other commercial
process in which it is used.
(II) What is the chemical name for rust?
(III) State any conditions which are needed for iron metal to rust
(IV) Mention and describe any three methods of rust prevention
Sulphur dioxide

Formula:

Sulphur burns in oxygen with a blue flame to form sulphur dioxide

Properties of sulphur dioxide

1. It has a smell
2. It does not burn or support burning
3. It is fairly soluble in water forming sulphurous acid
4. It decolourizes the solution of acidified potassium permanganate since it is a reducing agent
5. It turns aqueous potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to green
6. It is denser than air.

Uses of sulphur dioxide

1. It is used as a bleaching agent in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper

2. It is used as a food preservative since it kills bacteria
3. It is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid in contact process

Manufacture of sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is manufactured on large scale by contact process.

Raw material when making sulphuric acid

 Sulphur
 Air
 Water

The following steps are involved:

1. Sulphur reacts with oxygen in air to form sulphur dioxide.

2. Sulphur dioxide reacts with more oxygen in air to form sulphur trioxide.

255
 3. Note: Sulphur dioxide is passed over vanadium (V) oxide catalyst at a temperature of
. The catalyst will not work below . So at lower temperatures, the reaction
will be too slow. And at higher temperatures, the yield of sulphur trioxide drops. So the
reaction is carried out at as a compromise.
4. Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in cold concentrated sulphuric acid to form an oily liquid
called oleum,
SO3 + H2SO4 →
5. Oleum is then converted to sulphuric acid by diluting it with water.
+ H2O →

Summary

Diluting sulphuric acid

During dilution, sulphuric acid is added to water and not the other way round i.e.do not add water
to acid because this results in an explosion since the specific heat capacity of sulphuric acid is
small and hence the heat evolved will boil the solution.

Properties of sulphuric acid

1. It is a strong electrolyte

256
 2. It reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to produce a salt, water and carbon
dioxide
3. It neutralizes bases and alkaline solutions
4. It reacts with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to form a salt and hydrogen gas
5. It displaces less volatile acids like hydrochloric acid and nitric acid from their salts
6. It is a strong dehydrating agent since it removes water from other compounds e.g.
H2SO4 + C12H22O11 → 12C + 11H2O
7. It is a powerful oxidizing agent

Uses of sulphuric acid

1. It is used in the manufacture of detergents and soap

2. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers like ammonium sulphate
3. It is used as an electrolyte in car batteries
4. It is used in refining of petroleum
5. It is used as a drying agent when concentrated

Exercise

1. The following equation is for the contact process

⇌
The table below shows the percentage conversion to sulphur trioxide by this process at a
number of different temperatures at constant pressure
Temperature Percentage of
350 99
450 97
550 86
650 55
(a) The process is carried out at . Suggest why this temperature has been chosen
(b) The contact process uses vanadium (V) oxide as a catalyst.
(I) Explain why the catalyst is used
(II) Explain why the catalyst used does not increase the percentage of sulphur
trioxide produced

Chlorine gas

Formula:

Chlorine exists as diatomic molecules,

Properties of chlorine gas

1. It is a greenish yellow gas with a chocking smell.

257
 2. It is poisonous
3. It is sparingly soluble in water
4. It bleaches damp litmus paper

Preparation of chlorine

Chlorine is prepared by the action of oxidizing agents on hot concentrated hydrochloric acid
solution

+ 16HCl → 2KCl + + +

Manufacture of chlorine

Chlorine is manufactured by the electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride or brine in the

mercury cathode cell. Sodium hydroxide is obtained as a by product

Sources of sodium chloride include sea water and rock salt

Uses of chlorine

1. It is used in the sterilization of drinking water and water in swimming pools

2. It is used in the manufacture of bleaching agents and pesticides
3. It is used to make polyvinylchloride (PVC)
4. It is used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid

Silicon

Formula: Si

Silicon is a non - metal in group IV of the periodic table. It is a common element in most rocks as
it is found in combination with oxygen. It is commonly found as silicon dioxide or silica e.g.
quartz and sand which is an impure form of silicates e.g. mica and calcium silicate

Uses of silicon

1. It is used in the manufacture of semi – conductors dioxides for radios and televisions and
other electronic devices
2. It is used in the manufacture of silicones. Silicones are macromolecules of polymers of
silicon, oxygen and alkyl group of organic compounds

Different silicones are able to exist as oils, waxes or plastics. Silicone plastics are fire resistant
since they have to form sand and carbon dioxide when burnt in oxygen

258
Uses of sand

1. It is used in making glass

2. It is used in manufacture of silicon by reduction
3. It is used in the construction of buildings when mixed with cement and water

Nitrogen gas

Formula:

Nitrogen exists as a diatomic molecule,

Physical properties of nitrogen

1. It is colourless
2. It is odorless
3. It does not burn and does not support burning except magnesium which burns with it.

Chemically, nitrogen gas is very unreactive due to the strong bonds between the nitrogen atoms in
the molecule However, under forced conditions; nitrogen reacts with hydrogen gas to form
ammonia in the presence of the iron catalyst

Manufacture of nitrogen gas

Nitrogen gas is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air

Uses of nitrogen

1. It is used in the manufacture of ammonia

2. It is used to provide an inert atmosphere during the arc welding of aircraft parts and in
electric bulbs.

The need for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds in plant life

Nitrogen is essential in the manufacture of proteins while phosphorus is mainly needed for enzyme
activity. Potassium is important in the controlling of rates of photosynthesis and respiration.

Ammonia

Formula: NH3

Physical state: Gas

Preparation of ammonia

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[A] Laboratory preparation of ammonia

In the laboratory, ammonia gas can be prepared by the action of heating an alkali with an
ammonium compound.

Example

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

The test tube must be tilted downwards to prevent the water formed from running back into the
reaction mixture which may boil and cause an explosion.

Method of collection: Ammonia gas is collected by down ward displacement of air because it is
less dense than air.

Drying agent used: Calcium oxide

Drying agents like calcium chloride and concentrated sulphuric acid should not be used because
they easily react with ammonia.

Physical properties of ammonia

1. It is a colourless gas with a pungent choking smell

2. It is less dense than air
3. It is very soluble in water
4. It is easily liquefied, either by cooling to -33oC or by compressing. This makes it easy to
transport in tanks and cylinders.

260
Chemical properties of ammonia

1. It turns damp red litmus paper blue

2. It burns in pure oxygen with a yellow - brown flame
3. It dissolves in water to form ammonium hydroxide
NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)

Note

NH3(g) + H2O(l)⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

NH4OH(aq) → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
4. It is a reducing agent because it reduces oxides to metals low in the reactivity series of
metals.

Example

3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) → 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l) + N2(g)

5. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to form a white smoke.

The white smoke is made of tiny particles of solid ammonium chloride:

NH3(g) + HCl(g) → NH4Cl(s)

Test for ammonia gas

261
Ammonia gas turns damp red litmus paper blue. It is alkaline in nature

[B] Industrial preparation of ammonia

The industrial preparation of ammonia is called Haber process

Ammonia gas produced industrially from nitrogen and hydrogen

Importance of Haber process

Haber process is important because it produces ammonia on a large scale

Raw materials for Haber process

 Nitrogen
 Hydrogen

Sources or raw for nitrogen and hydrogen

1. Nitrogen
Source: Liquid air (obtained by fractional distillation)

Nitrogen is obtained by burning hydrogen in air. Air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with small
amounts of other gases. Only the oxygen reacts with hydrogen, forming steam:

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

When the steam condenses, the gas that remains is mainly nitrogen.

2. Hydrogen
Source: Methane (natural gas)
Steam

Hydrogen is made from methane and steam.

CH4(g) + 2H2O(g) → CO2(g) + 4H2(g)

Reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen

N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

Essential conditions needed for the manufacture of ammonia in haber process

1. Catalyst: Iron
2. Temperature: 350oC to 450oC
3. Pressure: 350 atmospheres

262
The reaction scheme

Nitrogen is unreactive. To make it react with hydrogen, a process called Haber process is used:

263
 1. The two gases are mixed. The mixture is cleaned or scrubbed, to get rid of any impurities
2. Next the mixture is compressed. This pushes the gas molecules closer together
3. Then the mixture goes to the convertor. This is a round tank containing beds of hot iron.
The iron is a catalyst for this reaction:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
The double headed arrow in the equation means the reaction is reversible. So it does not go
to completion. A mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia leaves the convertor.
4. The mixture is cooled until the ammonia condenses. At the end of the reaction, about 10%
of ammonia is produced. The unreacted gases of nitrogen and hydrogen are pumped back
to the convertor (iron catalyst) for another chance to react.
5. The ammonia is run into tanks and stored as a liquid, under pressure.

Uses of ammonia

1. It is used in the refrigerating plants as a refrigerant

2. It is used in the manufacture of explosives
3. It is used in the manufacture of plastics and glue
4. It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid
5. It is used as a cleaning agent
6. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate
and ammonium phosphate.

Examples

(a) 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)

(b) NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
(c) 3NH3(g) + H3PO4(aq) → (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ionic equations

1. (NH4)2SO4(aq) → 2NH4+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

2. NH4NO3(aq) → NH4+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
3. (NH4)3PO4(aq) → 3NH4+(aq) + PO43-(aq)

Note

1. Ammonium sulphate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen and sulphur needed
by plants
2. Ammonium nitrate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen needed by plants
3. Ammonium phosphate is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen and phosphorous
needed by plants

264
 4. The three essential elements present in many fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium (N.P.K)

Problems with chemical fertilizers

 Chemical fertilizers tend to make the soil acidic if they are used for long periods of time
 Chemical fertilizers are easily leached away e.g. nitrates (NO3-), sulphate (SO42-) and
chlorides (Cl−). They are leached because they easily dissolve in water and move with it.
This is wasteful. Besides, when the rainwater drains into rivers, the nitrates cause pollution

Example

1. Study the reaction scheme below

(a) Identify substances A, B and C

(b) Ammonia is manufactured by direct synthesis in the Haber process. The reaction is
reversible and releases 46kj of heat energy per mole of ammonia. Write a balanced
chemical equation including all the information given.
(c) State three essential conditions which are needed for the manufacture of ammonia in
Haber process
(d) What is the use for solid C
(e) Write down the chemical equation for the reaction between ammonia and nitric acid
(f) Write any two uses of ammonia besides the one shown above.

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Solution

(a) A – Nitrogen
B – Hydrogen
C – Ammonium nitrate
(b) N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
(c) Catalyst: Iron
Temperature: 350oC to 450oC
Pressure: 350 atmospheres
(d) It is used as a fertilizer because it contains nitrogen needed by plants
(e) NH3(g) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
(f) It is used in the refrigerating plants as a refrigerant.
It is used in the manufacture of explosives.
It is used in the manufacture of plastics and glue.
It is used as a cleaning agent.
2. The diagram below shows some of the properties and reactions of aqueous ammonia and
some other substances

(a) Identify, by name, the substances A, B, C and D

(b) Write an ionic equation including symbols for the reaction of:
(I) A with aqueous barium nitrate to form B
(II) A with aqueous ammonia to form C
(III) C with aqueous sodium hydroxide
(c) Name a method you would use to collect gas D

Solution

(a) A – Sulphuric acid

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 B – Barium sulphate
C – Ammonium sulphate
D – Ammonia
(b) (I) Ba2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4(s)
(II) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
(III) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g)
(c) Down ward displacement of air.

Exercise

1. Ammonium nitrate contains ammonium ions (NH4+) and nitrate ions (NO3-)
(a) Name two substance which are used to manufacture ammonium nitrate
(b) Explain why ammonium nitrate can act as a fertilizer
(c) The diagram below shows ammonium ions (NH4+) and nitrate ions (NO3-) can be
changed into ammonia.

(i) Describe how you would carry out reaction 1 and reaction 2
(ii) Write an ionic equation for reaction 1 including state symbols
2. In the industry, nitrogen is combined with hydrogen to form ammonia
(a) From what raw materials is the hydrogen extracted?
(b) Explain why haber process is important?
3. Name three essential elements present in many fertilizers
(a) Name two compounds which can be used as fertilizers
(b) Explain why after fertilizers have been added to the soil heavy rains can be a
disadvantage.
4. Ammonia is an important compound used in making fertilizers. It is manufactured by direct
synthesis by haber process. Ammonia is a base – it neutralize acids
(a) State the raw materials for the haber process
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the formation of ammonia by the haber process

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 (c) Ammonia combines with nitric acid to form ammonium nitrate, which is the most
important nitrogenous fertilizer

(I) Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in ammonium nitrate

(II) Why is ammonium nitrate used as a fertilizer?
(d) Apart from nitrogen, name two other elements which are essential for plant growth

Pollution

pollution is the contamination of the environmet with harmful substances. The harmful substances
are called pollutants.

Types of pollution

There are three main types of pollution.

 Land pollution
 Air pollution
 Water pollution

[A] Land pollution

Land pollution occurs when pollutants are added to the land. The major causes of land pollution
are mateials which do not rot or decay. These materials resist bacterial action and are said to be
non biodagradable.

Examples of land pollutans

 Plastics
 Glass

[B] water pollution

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Water polution occurs when pollutants are added to water.

Examples of water pollutants

1. Oil spillage: Oil spillage by oil tankers and leaking engines of speed boats pollutes the water. It
disturbes marine life since oxygen supply is cut off.

Solution: You can scoop the oil from the surface of the water

2. Weeds: Weeds usually prevent smooth transport and make H.E.P genearation very difficult.

Solution: You can cut and remove all the weeds from the water

3. Industrial wastes: Acidic industrial effluents make the water slightly acidic. This disturbes the
balance of living things .

Solution: Industrial wastes should be treated with slaked lime to neutralize them. You can also set
up dumping sites

4. Acid rain: Acid rain reduces the PH of the water

5. Debris: Debris include solid particles and plant parts

[C] Air pollution

Air pollution occurs when pollutants are added to the atmosphere

Examples of air pollutants

 Carbon monoxide
 Sulphur dioxide
 Oxides of nitrogen
 Soot
 Lead compounds

Carbon monoxide

Formula: CO

Source: Incomplete combustion of fuel in car exhausts.

Carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon containing compounds in

limited suuply of air such as in engines of vehicles and blast furnace

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Effects: When carbon monoxide is inhaled in the body, it enters the blood stream; it combines with
haemoglobin making it difficult for red blood cells to tansnport oxygen. This may lead to
suffocation, unconsciousness or death.

Solution: Use alternative source of fuel like hydrogen which does not pollute the air. Avoid
incomplete combustion of fuels

Sulphur dioxide

Formula:

Source: Combustion of fossil fuels.

Sulphur dioxide is produced as a result of the combination of fossil fuels containing sulphur
compounds. Sulphur dissolve in rain water which come down as acid rain

SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

Adverse effects of acid rain

Acid rain has a lot of adverse effects on buildings, roofing sheets, monuments, vegetation and on
the lungs

1. Acid rain make the soil to become acidic and hence destry vegetation
2. Acid rain dissolve monuments (statues) made of calcium carbonate
3. Acid rain erodes buildings and iron roofing sheets. Iron roofing sheets rust rapidly because
of the presence of an electrolyte
4. Sulphur dioxide combines with water vapour in the lungs to form an acid. The acid can
cause temperary or permanently damaged to the lungs

Carbon dioxide

Formula:

Source: Complete combustion of fuels like petrol and charcoal

Effects: Depletes the ozone layer leading to global warming. It also causes causes acid rain.

Solution: Massive afforestation

Oxides of nitrogen

Source: Combustion of fuels in car exhaust.

Oxides of nitrogen are found in car exhaust gases.

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Effects: Compounds of nirogen form cumulative poison in tissues of living things. Nitrogen
combines with oxygen at high temperature in the cylinder of car engines to form nitrogen
monoxide which is very poisonous. Nitrogen monoxide damage lungs and irritate eyes.

Lead compounds

Source: Combustion of fuels in car exhausts.

Lead compounds are found in car exhaust gases.

Effcects: When lead is taken into the body, it may settle and be stored in the bones or membranes
of the brain. This lead to damaging of the bones, brain and the nervous system.

Quantities of lead in the blood as low as 100 micrograms per cubic decimeter can cause children to
have low intelligence, poorer memories and less mascular coordination than children who do not
carry that burden of lead.

Petrol contains about 0.5g/dm3 to 1g/dm3 of lead. Lead poisoning is an example of global
poisoning.

Solution: Lead tetraethyl is added to petro as an inhibitor to prevent knocking

Ozone

Formula:

Source: Photochemical smog

Effects: At ground level, ozone is an eye irritant, causes breathing problems and damages plants.

Example

1. Ozone, O3, is an atmospheric pollutant in the lower atmosphere but is beneficial higher up
in the atmosphere.
(a) How is ozone formed in the lower atmosphere?
(b) Ozone in the upper atmosphere is being depleted. Describe briefly how this is happening
and some of the health problems caused by ozone depletion.
(c) At room temperature ozone decomposes slowly to form oxygen, O2.
The decomposition can be represented by the equation below. The reaction is exothermic.
One mole of ozone will release 143 kJ when it is fully decomposed.
2O3 → 3O2
(I) In terms of the energy changes that take place during bond breaking and bond making,
explain why this reaction is exothermic.
(II) Explain why the rate of this decomposition increases as the temperature increases.
(III) Calculate the energy released when 16 g of ozone is decomposed.

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Solution

(a) Ozone is formed by photochemical reactions (or sparks in air, ultraviolet on O2)
(b) Ozone removed by reaction with chlorine (atoms) and is derived from CFC‟s
Ozone loss causes skin cancers or cataracts or crop damage or skin diseases or eye damage
(c) (I) Bond breaking is endothermic/absorbs energy and bond forming is exothermic/releases
energy more energy released than absorbed
(II) As temperature increases molecules move faster or increased K.E hence more frequent
collisions or more molecules energy exceeds the activation energy.

(III)
n=
n=

n = 0.33mol

1mol 143 kJ
0.33mol x

x = 47.7 kJ

General solutions to the problems of pollution

1. Recycling of waste products

2. Setting up protection standards. This involves limiting or banning of the manufacture and
handling of certain products that are a source of pollution
3. Developing engines that use fuels which pollutes less and using catalytic convertors.
4. Setting up advisory boards to monitor pollution. Such boards would advise and give
assistance on the disporsal of pollutants

Note: Fossil fuels must be conserved because they are limited and non-renewable energy sources.

Exrcise

1. The increase in industrial activity in Zambia has resulted in high level of air pollution.
(a) What is meant by air pollution?
(b) Name two common air pollutants in Zambia and state what effect each pollutant has on
either plant or animal life

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 (c) State one way in which the emission of one of the pollutants you have named can be
minimised.
(d) When limestone is heated strongly, quiclime, CaO, is formed according to the
following chemical equation:
→ CaO(s) +
What would be observed if the gas produced above was passed through lime water until
there was no further change?
(e) Name two gases, other than sulphur dioxide, that pollute the atmosphere. Give one
source of each of each pollutant. Sulphur dioxide is shown as an example of a pollutant
Pollutant: Sulphur
Source: Burning coal
(f) Give one reason for conserving fossil fuels
(g) What is damaged by the sulphur dioxide released when some fossil fuels are burnt. .
Give two examples

Water

Chemical formula: H2O

Test for water

If a liquid is water, it will:

(a) turn blue colbat chloride paper pink

(b) turn white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate blue
(c) boils at 100oC and freezes at 0oC at natutral pressure if it is pure water

Uses of water

(a) It is essential for all living things

(b) In homes, water is used for cooking, washing and flushing
(c) It is used as a solvent
(d) It is used for making beer, cement
(e) It is used for cooling machines in the industry

Water from the source (rivers and underground) is never completely pure because it contains the
following impurities:

1. Bacteria and tiny organisms: Most bacteria are harmles but some can cause diseases

2. Dissolved substances: Nitrates and sulphates from the soil, gases from air and some calcium
and magnesium compounds from the rocks

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3. Solid particles: Solid particles include particles of mud, sand, grit, twigs, dead plants, dead
animals and perhaps tins and rags that people have dumped.

Before the water is safe to drink, the bacteria and solid substances must be removed. This is done
at the water works.

The water works - Purification of water at the water works

The diagram below shows what happens at the water works

The water is pumped through the screen which gets rid of large bits of rubbish. Then the water gets
through following stages:

1. Course sand filter

The course sand filter tank traps the larger particles of solid
2. Sedimentation tank
Here chemicals are added to water, to make the smaller particles stick together. These
particles then settle to the bottom of the tank.
3. Fine sand filter
The fine sand filter traps any remaining particles.
4. Chlorination tank
In this tank, a little chlorine gas is added. Chlorine gas dissolves, and kills any remaining
bacteria. This is called disinfecting or sterilising the water. In some places, a flouride
compound is also added to the water, to help prevent tooth decay. Water is now fit to drink.
5. Storage tank
Water is now pumped into high storage tanks and from there piped to homes and facories

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 The water that flows from the taps is clean but not quite pure. It still contains dissolved
substances which were not removed at the water works. Pure water can be made by
distillation of tap or rain water
Two main stages in the purification of water
(a) Filtration: Solid paticles are removed from the water
(b) Chlorination: Chlorine is added to water to kill the bactera

Exercise

1. Water is life and it is an important raw material in the home and industry
(a) Describe the identty test of pure water
(b) Outline the two main stages in the purification of water
(c) State two uses of water in the industry

Types of water

There are two types; soft water and hard water

1. Soft water

Soft water forms lather easily with soap

2. Hard water

Hard water does not form lather easily with soap. Soap gives a scum with hard water.

Hardness in water is caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds e.g calcium
hydrogen carbonate, magnesium hydrogen carbonate, calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate

The scum form because the compounds react with soap and give an insoluble product that floats on
water

Calcium sulphate + sodium stearate → calcium stearate + sodium sulphate

(Soap) (Scum)

Temperory hardness

Temperory hardness is caused by the presence of calcium hydrogen carbonate in water. It occurs in
limestone areas when rain water containing a small amount of dissolved carbon dioxide from the
air passes over the limestone.

CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

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Temperory hardness can be removed by boiling the water. The white diposite (fur) which is
produced by boiling hard water is calcium carbonate

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Permanent hardness

Permanent hardness is caused by small amounts of dissolved calcium and magnesium compounds.

Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling

Removal of permanent hardness

[A]Distillation

This method is too expensive to produce large quatities of soft water

[B]Addition of sodium carbonate ( washing soda)

Sodium carbonate precipitates the calcium and magnesium ions which cause hardness

Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq) → CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Na2CO3(aq) + MgSO4(aq) → MgCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

This method removes both temperory and permanent hardness but it can damage wollen materials
since water becomes alkaline

Advantages of hard water

1. It has a better or pleasant taste due to dissolved compounds
2. It contains calcium cmpounds which are good for bones and teeth
3. Doctors think it helps to prevent heart disease
Disadvantages of hard water
1. Leads to wastage of soap and production of scum
2. Leaves fur in kettles, pipes, boilers and radiators. This makes them less effective and may
also cause blockages.
Carborn
Allotropes of carbon
Definition: Allotopes are elements in different physical forms but in the same state
Allotropy is the existence of an element in different physical forms but in the same state
Carbon exists in the form of graphite, diamond and amorphous
Grapphite and diamond are allotropes of carbon.

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[A] Graphite
Structure of graphite
Graphite is a soft, black, crystalline form of carbon that is a fair conductor of electricity.
It is made up of flat sheets of carbon atoms

Each carbon atom is boneded to three others while the fourth electron is delocalised. Since each
carbon atom forms covalent bonds to three other, this gives rings of six atoms that join to make flat
sheets
The sheet of atoms lie on top of each other, held together by weak forces
Physical properties of graphite
1. It is a good conductor of electricity because of free moving electrons in between the layers
of carbon atoms
2. It is soft and slippery. This is because the sheets of atoms can slide over each other easily.
3. It writes well on paper
4. It is has a density of 2.22g/cm3
5. It has a high melting point. This is because the strong bonds between the carbon atoms
within a layer make graphit difficult to pull apart in the direction of the layer.
Uses of graphite
1. It is used as a lubricant because the layer of carbon atoms slide over each other easily
2. It is used as an electrode in electrolysis
3. It is used in making the “lead” for pencils. This is because it leaves a grey streak when it is
drawn across a sheet of paper
[B] Diamond
Structure of diamond
Diamond is a colourless, crystalline solid with an extremely high density
It is a giant structure of carbon atoms

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Each carbon atom shares electrons with each of its four nearest neighbours, thus forming four
covalent bonds
In addition, each carbon atom is imagined to be at the centre of the tetrahedron surrounded by four
other carbon atoms whose centres are at the corners of the tetrahedron
Physical properties of diamond
1. It is very hard - the hardest substance known. It has a very high melting point of about
3700oC because each atom is held in place by four strong bonds.
2. It is colourless and transparent with a dazzzling brilliant lustre
3. It has a density of 3.5g/cm3
4. It does not conduct electricity because there are no ions or free electrons in it to carry
charge
Uses of diamond
1. It is uesd for cutting tools and drilling devices
2. It is used for cutting glass
3.
[C] Amorphous carbon
Amorphous carbon such as coal and charcoal is porous and easily absorbs pigments from solutions
e.g in the refining of white spoon sugar
Charcoal is used to absorb the brown colour from brown sugar which is then turned white
Chemical properties of carbon
1. All the forms of carbon react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

Example
1. Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon. Diamond has a melting point of about
3700oC where as graphite has a melting point of about 3300oC.

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 (a) Explain what is meant by the term allotropes?
(b) Explain why diamond does not conduct elecrticity where as graphite does
Solution
1. (a) Allotopes are elements in different physical forms but in the same state.
(b) Diamond does not conduct electricity because there are no ions or free electrons in it to
carry charge where as graphite conduct conduct electricity because of free moving
electrons in between the layers of carbon atoms.

Exercise
1. Carbon exists in two different forms. They have the following sructures

(a) Name the form of carbon having:

(I) Structure A
(II) Structure B
(b) Give the use of the form of carbon having:
(I) Structure A
(II) Structure B
(c) Explain why both diamond and graphite have very high melting points
(d) Why is graphite used in pencils?

Carbonates, oxides and hydroxides

[A] Calcium carbonate
Chemical formula: CaCO3
Special name: Limestone / marble
Calcium carbonate is a white solid which is insoluble in water
When strongly heated, calcium carbonate decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
CaCO3(s)→ CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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Uses of calcium carbonate
1. It is used in the manufacture of cement
2. It is used for making glass
3. It is used to remove impurities like silica as slag in the blast furnace
[B] Calcium oxide
Chemical formula: CaO
Special name: Quick lime
Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to form calcium hydroxide and a lot of heat energy
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat energy
[C] Calcium hydroxide
Chemical formula: Ca(HO)2
Special name: Slaked lime or lime water
Calcium hydroxide glows brightly at high temperatures
Calcium hydroxide turns milky or cloudy when carbon dioxide is passed through it and a white
precipitate (suspension) of calcium carbonate is formed
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
When excess carbon dioxide gas is passed through for some time, the precipitate disappears and a
clear solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate is formed
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Uses of calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide
1. They are used in treating acidic soils on the farm
2. They are used in the neutralization of acidic industrial waste products before discharging
them into rivers and lakes
3. Calcium hydroxide is used as plaster of paris for broken arms and legs
4. Calcium oxide is used as lining in the blast furnace.
5. Calcium oxide is used to remove silica impurities in the extraction of iron.
6. Calcium oxide is used as a drying agent especially for ammonia gas.

Example
1. A white solid V is heated strongly. At a high temperature, V gives off carbon dioxide and
changes to solid W which begins to glow. When water is added to W, it begins to fizz,
produces heat and crumbles to a powder X. X dissolves in water to form an alkaline
solution Y. When carbon dioxide is passed into solution Y, the solution turns cloudy. The
cloudiness is caused by a white suspension Z and its formation is used as a test for carbon
dioxide.
(a) Deduce the identity of V, W, X, Y and Z giving either their chemical or common
names.

280
 (b) Write chemical equations for:
(I) the action of heat on V
(II) the action of carbon dioxide on solution Y
(c) State the use for either W or X
Solution
(a) V - Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
W – Calcium oxide, CaO
X – Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Y – Calcium carbonate, CaCO3
Z – Calcium hydrogen carbonate, Ca(HCO3)2
(b) (I) CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(II) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
(c) W and X are used in treatment of acidic soils on the farms and also in the neutralization
of acidic waste products before discharging them into rivers and lakes
X is used as plaster of Paris for broken arms or legs.

Exercise
1. When carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through lime water for a short period, a white
precipitate G is formed. When excess carbon dioxide is passed through, G dissolves and a
colourless solution containing the soluble compound H is produced.
(a) Identify
(I) Solid G
(II) Compound H
(b) Write down the chemical equation including state symbols to show the formation of the
white precipitate G.

Organic chemistry
Definition: Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds except carbonates, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbon disulphide etc.
Common terms used
1. Organic compounds
Organic compounds are compounds which contain carbon except carbonates, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, carbon disulphide etc.
2. Hydrocarbon

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A hydrocarbon is a compound which consists of the elements carbon and hydrogen only,
Example
Hydrocarbon Formula
Methane
Ethene
Ethyne

3. Homologous series
A homologous series is a family of similar organic compounds
Each member in a family is called homologue
Characteristics of the homologous series
(a) Members in the family show a gradual change in physical properties i.e. change from
gas to liquid and solid as the carbon chain increases.
(b) Members in the family have similar methods of preparation
(c) Members in the family have similar chemical properties because they have the same
functional group.
(d) Members in the family can be represented by the general molecular formula:
Example
Organic family General molecular formula
Alkanes

Alkenes

Alkynes

Alcohols (Alkanols)

Carboxylic acids (Alkanoics)

Esters

(e) Each member in the family differs to the next by or by 14.

4. Functional group
A functional group is a group is a group which determines the chemical properties of organic
compounds
Organic family Functional group Name of functional group
Alkanes ─C─C─ Single carbon – carbon covalent bond
Alkenes C=C Double carbon – carbon covalent bond
Alkynes C≡C Triple carbon – carbon covalent bond
Alkanols ( alcohols) ─ OH Hydroxyl group

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 ─ COOH
or
Alkanoics (carboxylic acids) Carboxyl group

Esters − COO − Ester functional group

Nomenclature of organic compounds

Nomenclature is a standardized way of naming organic compounds.
Nomenclature takes into account the following:
 Prefix
 Suffix

The prefix shows the number of carbon atoms in an organic compound.

Prefix Number of carbon atoms
Meth 1
Eth 2
Prop 3
But 4
Pent 5
Hex 6
Hept 7
Oct 8
Non 9
Dec 10

The suffix shows the organic family of the organic compound.

Suffix Organic family
ane Alkanes
ene Alkenes
yne Alkynes
anol Alcohols
anoic Carboxylic acids

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 anoate Esters

Alkanes
Alternative term: Saturated hydrocarbons
General molecular formula: where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…….
Alkanes have single carbon – carbon covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
They are called saturated hydrocarbons because they have the required (maximum) number of
hydrogen atoms.
They end with ane

Examples of alkanes

Alkane Molecular Structural formula Condensed Mr

formula formula

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Methane CH4 CH4 16

Ethane C2H6 CH3CH3 30

Propane C3H8 CH3 CH2CH3 44

Butane C4H10 CH3 (CH2)2CH3 58

Pentane C5H12 CH3 (CH2)3CH3 72

Preparation of methane
Methane can be prepared by heating a mixture of anhydrous sodium ethanoate, COONa, and
soda lime (sodium hydroxide), NaOH.
Reaction: COONa(s) + NaOH(s) → CH4(g) + Na2CO3(s)

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Diagram:

Physical properties of alkanes

1. Their physical states vary at room temperature and pressure. Lower members are gases;
others are liquids while higher members are solids.
2. Their melting and boiling points increases as the carbon chain (relative molecular masses)
increases.
3. Their densities increases as the carbon chain increases.
Chemical properties of alkanes
1. Combustion
(a) In a plentiful supply of air (complete combustion), alkanes reacts with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and water.
Example
CH4+ 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
(b) In a limited supply of air (incomplete combustion), alkanes react with oxygen to form
carbon monoxide and water
Example

2C2H6 + 5O2 → 4CO + 6H2O

(c) In a very limited supply of air (incomplete combustion), alkanes react with oxygen to
form carbon and water
Example
C3H8 + 2O2 → 3C + 4H2O

2. Substitution reaction
A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced
by another.

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Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet light.
Example
Halogenation of methane
Methane can react with chlorine gas in the presence of sunlight to form chloromethane and
hydrogen chloride.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

Conditions

1. Temperature: 200oC
2. Catalyst: Sunlight (ultraviolet light)

Isomerism of alkanes

Isomerism is the existence of compounds with the same same molecular formula but different
structural formula

Isomers

Isomers are compounds which have the same molecula formula but different structural formula.

Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms exhibit isomerism

Nomenclature of alkane isomers

The International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) rules for naming alkanes

 Choose the longest continous carbon chain in the molecule.

 Number the carbon atoms in the longest chain chosen starting from the end that gives the
smaller set of numbers nearer the branched methly group
 Write the number of carbon atom at which the branched methyl group is attached to the
main chain in alphabetical order.
 Put a comma after each group number and a hyphen between the group number and the
methyl group.
 Name the compound as a derivative of the normal alkane having the same number of
carbon atoms as in the longest chain chosen.

Example 1: Butane has two isomers

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Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: Normal butane

Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: 2 – methyl propane

Example 2: Pentane has three isomers

Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: Normal pentane

288
 Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: 2 – methyl butane

Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: 2, 2 – dimethyl propane

Exercise

1. Draw the structure of the compound with the IUPAC name; 2, 3, 4, 4 – tetra methylpentane

Cracking of alkanes

Cracking is the breaking down of large hydrocarbon molecules into simpler and smaller molecules.

Alkanes break down to produce alkenes, short chain alkanes and in some cases hydrogen gas.

Types of cracking

1. Thermal cracking
This is where heat is used to break down large molecules into smaller ones.

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Example

C4H10 → C2H6 + C2H4

C2H6 → C2H4 + H2

2. Catalytic cracking
This is where both heat and a catalyst are usedto break down large molecules into smaller
ones.
Common catalysts used include aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2).

Example

C17H36(l) → 3C2H4(g) + C8H18 + C3H6(g)

Conditions

1. Catalyst: Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

2. Temperature: 600oC

Importance of cracking

1. It is used in the production of raw materials for petrol chemicals like ethene and hydrogen.
Hydrogen is used in making plasitics and margarine.
2. It is used in the production of petrol.

Exercise

1. One of the hydrocarbons found in crude oil is undecane,

Under suitable conditions, undecane under goes the reaction below
→ +
(a) What term is used to describe this type of reaction in the petrochemical industry?
(b) State two conditions necessary for this reaction to take place

Fuels

A fuel is a substance which burns in air to produce useful energy.

Sources of fuels

(a) Natural gas

The main component of natural gas is methane.
Natural gas is usually mined and purified before use.

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(b) Crude oil
Alternative term: Petroleum
Crude oil is a mixture of long chain hydrocarbons and some elements like sulphur and
nitrogen
Crude oil was formed millions of years ago by the decomposition of animals and plants
under pressure.
Crude oil can be refined by fractional distillation.
Fractional distillation is a process of separating components of a mixture based on their
boiling points.
The diagram below shows a fractionating tower and different fractions obtained from crude
oil.

291
Fractions of crude oil and their uses

Fraction Number of carbon atoms Use

Petroleum gases C1 – C4 Used in camping stoves and cookers as
bottled gas
Petrol (gasoline) C4 – C10 Used as a fuel in internal combustion
engines in vehicles
Kerosine ( paraffin) C10 – C17 Used as a fuel in jets
Used in paraffin lamps for lighting
Used in paraffin lamps for cooking
Diesel oil (gas oil) C17 – C20 Used as a fuel in diesel engines like trains,
hammer mills, tractors, lorries
Lubricating oil C20 – C30 Used as a lubricant in machines to reduce
friction
Fuel oil C30 – C40 Used as a fuel in ships, power stations and
industrial machinary
Paraffin waxes C40 – C50 Used in making waxes, polishes and wax
papers
Bitumen (residue) C50 upwards Used to tar roads
Used as a roofing material

Note

1. Petroleum gases have the smallest boiling point and have the smallest relative molecular
mass.
2. Bitumen has the highest boiling point and have the largest relative molecular mass. In
addition, bitumen has the longest chain.
3. Octane is the main component of petrol

Exercise

1. Crude oil, a mixture of hydrocarbons, can be separated by fractional distillation. The

diagram below shows a fractionating tower and different fractions obtained from crude oil

292
 (a) What is meant by the term hydrocarbon?
(b) Which fraction contains the longest chain?
(c) State one major use of fraction:
(I) C
(II) D
(III) E
(d) State the process involved when ethene is manufactured from one of the fractions obtained
by the fractional distillation of crude oil.

Production of hydrogen from methane

Methane reacts with steam to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas.

CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 2H2(g)

Conditions

1. Temperature: 200oC
2. Catalyst: Nickel metal

Exercise

1. Hydrogen can be manufactured from methane using a nickel catalyst as shown in the
diagram below

293
 (a) Identify the substances X and Y
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction in the manufacure of hydrogen
(c) State one chemical property of hydrogen
(d) State one industrial use of hydrogen

Alkenes

Alternative term: Unsaturated hydrocarbons

General molecular formula: where n = 2, 3, 4, 5…..

Functional group: Double carbon – carbon covalent bond, C = C

They have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

They end with ene.

They are called unsaturated hydrocarbons because they have a double bond between carbon atoms.

They have two hydrogen atoms less than their corresponding alkanes

Examples of alkenes

Alkene Molecular formula Structural formula Condensed formula Mr

Ethene C2H4 CH2=CH2 28

Propene C3H6 CH2=CHCH3 42

294
Butane C4H8 CH2 =CHCH2CH3 56

Pentene C5H10 CH2 =CH(CH2)2CH3 70

Preparation of ethene gas

There are two methods used to prepare ethene.

1. Catalytic cracking of alkanes

This is where a catalyst is used to break down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones.

Reaction: C17H36(l) → 3C3H4(g) + C3H6(g) + C8H18(l)

Conditions

1. Temperature: 600oC
2. Catalyst: Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

295
Note: The broken pot can act as a catalyst.

2. Dehydration of ethanol

Ethene can be prepared by the dehydration of ethanol using concentrated sulphuric acid as a
dehydrating agent.

Sulphuric acid removes water.

C2H5OH(s) → C2H4(g) + H2O(l)

Conditions

1. Temperature: 180oC
2. Dehydrating agent: Concentrated sulphuric acid.

Test for unsaturation

Alternative term: Test for alkenes

There are two ways you could test a hydrocarbon, to see whether it is an alkane or alkene

Test 1: Shake an alkene with bromine water.

Result: The brown colour of bromine disappears immediately. In other words alkenes decolorize
bromine water.

Explanation: When ethene reacts with bromine water, the colourless compound (liquid) called 1,
2 – dibromoethane is formed.

C2H4(g) + Br2(l) → C2H4Br2 (l)

296
Note

When an alkane is shaken with bromine water, there is no reaction. Alkanes do not undergo
addition reactions because they are saturated.

Test 2: Add acidified potassium per manganate (VII) solution to the hydrocarbon.

Result: The purple colour of potassium per manganate (VII) turns colourless if an alkene is
present.

Chemical properties of alkenes e.g. ethene

Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because the double bond opens up to allow chemical
reactions.

Alkenes undergo two notable chemical reactions.

1. Combustion

Alkenes react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

Example

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

2. Addition reactions

An addition reaction is a reaction where a molecule is added to an unsaturated molecule by

breaking a double bond.

Examples of addition reaction involving ethene

(a) Halogenation – reaction with halogens

Ethene reacts with chlorine to form 1, 2 – dichloroethane.

C2H4(g) + Cl2(g) → C2H4Cl2 (l)

297
 (b) Hydrogenation – reaction with hydrogen

Alkenes react with hydrogen to form corresponding alkanes. Hydrogen makes the
unsaturated compounds to become saturated. Ethene reacts with hydrogen to form ethane

C2H4(g) + H2(g) → C2H6 (g)

Conditions

1. Temperature: C
2. Catalyst: Nickel metal

The reaction is important in the industry because it is used in the production of margarine from
unsaturated vegetable oil. Vegetable oils are changed into fats which are saturated by
hydrogenation.

(c) Hydration – reaction with water

Ethene reacts with steam to in the presence of phosphoric acid to form ethanol.

C2H4(g) + H2O (g) → C2H5OH(l)

Conditions

1. Temperature: C
2. Catalyst: Phosphoric acid,
3. Pressure: 65 atmospheres

298
Uses of ethene

1. Used in the manufacture of plastics

2. Used in the manufacture of ethanol
3. Used in the process of ripening fruits

Exercise

1. Ethene, , is an unsaturated compound. It reacts with liquid bromine to form 1, 2 –

dibromoethane.
Ethane, is a saturated compound. It does not readily react with bromine
(a) Draw the full structural formula for ethene and 1, 2 – dibromoethane
(b) Write the equation for the reaction between ethene and bromine and name the type of
reaction taking place
(c) Ethene like many other unsaturated compounds can be polymerized. Polyethene is
formed when ethene is polymerized.

Name the compound which has the above stucture

(d) Margarine is manufactured using the addition reaction between hydrogen and a
vegetable oil
(I) State the conditions used for this reaction
(II) What type of bond must be present in the vegetable oil for this reaction to take
place.

Alcohols

Alternative term: Alkanols

General molecular formula: OH where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…

Functional group: hydroxyl group, ─ OH

They end with anol

They are not hydrocarbons because they contain oxygen

299
 Examples of alcohols

Alcohol Molecular formula Structural formula Condensed

formula

Methanol CH3OH CH3OH 32

Ethanol C2H5OH CH3CH2OH 46

Propanol C3H7OH CH3 (CH2)2OH 60

Butanol C4H9OH CH3 (CH2)3OH 74

300
Pentanol C5H11OH CH3 (CH2)4OH 88

Preparation of ethanol

There are two methods of preparing ethanol.

(a) Hydration of ethene

Ethanol can be prepared when ethene reacts with steam

C2H4(g) + H2O (g) → C2H5OH(l)

Ethene Steam Ethanol

Conditions

1. Temperature: C
2. Catalyst: Phosphoric acid,
3. Pressure: 65 atmospheres
(b) Fermentation of sugars

Fermentation is the decomposition of sugars using enzymes in yeast to produce ethanol and carbon
dioxide. Sugars (glucose) is mixed with water and yeast and allowed to react for a few days in the
absence of air.

Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

→ OH +

Starch hydrolysis

Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction of a compound with water which causes it to break down.

Starch is broken down to form sugar by:

301
 1. Acid hydrolysis (heated with dilute acid)
Acid hydrolysis is slow but eventually the starch is broken down into glucose, which is the
monomer and will not undergo further hydrolysis
2. Enzyme hydrolysis (by enzyme amylase)
The enzyme breaks down the starch into the disaccharide maltose which contains two
glucose units minus a water molecule.

Summary of the breakdown of starch to maltose and glucose and then to ethanol

Conditions for fermentation

1. Optimum temperature:
2. Catalyst (enzyme): Zymase

Note

Fermentation should take place in the absence of air (oxygen) to prevent oxidation of ethanol to
ethanoic acid.

If the temperature goes above , the enzymes in yeast which catalyze the reaction becomes
denatured.

Physical properties of alcohols

1. They are colourless inflammable liquids

2. Their boiling points increases as the carbon chain increases
3. Their solubilities in water decreases as the number of carbon chain increases

Chemical properties of alcohols

1. Combustion

Alcohols burn in air (react with oxygen) to form carbon dioxide and water.

Example

302
 Ethanol + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

+ → + O

The reaction is exothermic. It gives out a lot of heat energy

2. Oxidation

Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance

(a) Ethanol can be oxidized to ethanoic acid by bacteria in the air

OH + → COOH + O
(b) Ethanoic acid can also be formed by using an oxidizing agent such as acidified potassium
per manganate [ ] and potassium dichromate (VI) [ ]
OH + 2[O] → COOH + O
The oxygen is from the oxidizing agent.
When ethanol reduces potassium permanganate, the reaction is indicated by the colour
change from purple to colourless on mixing.
When ethanol reduces potassium dichromate, the reaction is indicated by the colour change
from orange to green on mixing.

Uses of ethanol

1. Used as a component in beer and wines

2. Used as a solvent
3. Used in making methylated spirit
4. Used as a fuel
5. Used in the preservation and sterilization of food

Example

1. The diagram below gives a summary of the breakdown of starch to maltose and glucose

(a) Name the processes represented by the letters A and B

(b) What is the purpose of the yeast in process A?

303
 (c) Apart from water, which other product is produced when a mixture of propanol and
concentrated potassium dichromate is heated?
(d) If ethanol is added to the product in part (c) in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid,
(I) Name the compounds to which the products belongs
(II) Give two everyday uses of the product in (I) above.

Solution

(a) A = Fermentation
B = Hydrolysis
(b) To speed up the reaction (it acts as a catalyst)
(c) Propanoic acid
(d) (I) Esters

(II) They are used in perfumes due to sweet fruit smells

They are used in food and drink flavouring and preservation

Exercise

1. Carefully study the reaction below and use it to answer the questions that follow

(a) Give the names of the substances and the conditions needed to ferment glucose
(b) Give the name of the gas that is also produced during fermentation of glucose. Describe the
simple test for this gas
(c) Give the name and molecular formula for substances P
(d) Give the names of substance Q and R

304
 (e) Write an equation for the addition reaction between ethene and bromine.

Carboxylic acids

Alternative term: Alkanoics

General molecular formula: where n = 0, 1, 2, 3….

Functional group: Carboxyl group, ─ COOH.

They end with anoic acid

They are not hydrocarbons because they contain oxygen

Examples of carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acid Molecular formula Structural formula Condensed

formula

Methanoic acid HCOOH HCOOH

Ethanoic acid CH3COOH CH3COOH

Propanoic acid C2H5COOH CH3CH2COOH

305
Butanoic acid C3H7COOH CH3(CH2)2COOH

Pentanoic acid C4H9COOH CH3 (CH2)3COOH

Preparation of ethanoic acid

(a) Oxidation of ethanol

(I) Ethanoic acid can be prepared by the oxidation of ethanol by bacteria in
atmospheric air.

+ → +

(II) Ethanoic acid can also be prepared by the oxidation of ethanol using an oxidizing
agent e.g. Acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
+ 2[O] → +
The oxygen is from the oxidizing agent.
The orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution turns green in this
reaction.

Physical properties of carboxylic acids

1. They turn blue litmus paper red

2. They have PH values less than 7
3. They have a sour taste

Chemical properties of carboxylic acids

1. They react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas

Example

2Na + → +
2. They react with alkalis and bases to form a salt and water only

Example

306
 NaOH + → + O
CaO +
3. They react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon
dioxide

Example

Na + → + O+
+ → + O+
4. They react with alcohols to form esters and the process is called esterification.
Esterification is a reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol to form an ester in the
presence of sulphuric acid. Esters are sweet smelling compounds.

Example

Ethanoic acid can react with ethanol to form an ester called ethyl ethanoate and water.
In this reaction, ethanoic acid loses the – OH group while ethanol loses the – H group to
form water. The remaining sections of the molecules join together to form the ester.
+ ⇌ +

Ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate water

307
Conditions for esterification

1. Temperature:
2. Catalyst: Sulphuric acid

Note

The name of the ester follows the order: alcohol, then acid. For example, if methanol reacts with
propanoic acid, the ester formed will be called methyl propanoate.

Reflux condenser: It is held vertically to prevent the escape of any unchanged ethanol. Ethanol
has a low boiling point and vaporizes easily. When the ethanol vapour comes into contact with the
cold surface of the condenser, it will liquefy and return to the flask.

Esterification is reversible ⇌

The back ward reaction is called hydrolysis

308
To prevent hydrolysis, sulphuric acid is added to remove (absorb) water. Water can react with
ethyl ethanoate to form ethanoic acid and ethanol.

Special property of esters

1. Esters have sweet smells

Uses of esters

1. They are used in perfumes due to sweet fruit smells

2. They are used in food and drink flavouring and preservation

Similarities between esterification and neutralization

1. Both reactions produce water

2. Both reactions are exothermic

Differences between esterification and neutralization

1. Esterification is reversible while neutralization is not reversible

2. Esterification produces an ester while neutralization produces a salt
3. Esterification is slower while neutralization is faster
4. Esterification involves a carboxylic acid (organic acid) and an alcohol while neutralization
involves any acid (organic acid or mineral acid) and a base.

Exercise

1. Substance A is an organic compound which contains an – OH group. On boiling A with

acidified potassium dichromate (VII), substance B is formed. An aqueous solution of B has
PH 4 and reacts with sodium carbonate to give carbon dioxide.
(a) Analysis of A gave the following results
C 52.17%, H 13.04%, O 34.78%
The relative molecular mass of A is 46. Use the information to identify A and B and
draw the full structural formula of A
(b) Describe what would be seen when the acidified solution of potassium dichromate
(VII) was added to A and name the type of reaction in which A is converted to B
(c) What type of reaction occurs when concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with an alcohol?
(d) Suggest the full structural formula for the substance produced when concentrated
sulphuric acid reacts with the compound of the formula, C3H7OH.
2. The structures of four organic compounds belonging to different homologous series are
shown below

309
 (a) State the name of each of the compounds shown above
(b) State the type of reaction occurring when;
(I) J is converted to K
(II) J is converted to L
(III) L is converted to M
(c) Compound L reacts with compound M in the presence of a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid using the apparatus below:

(I) What is the purpose of the concentrated sulphuric acid?

(II) State the name of the organic compound formed in the reaction of L and M.
(III) To which homologous series does the organic compound formed in (II) belong?

Macromolecules

310
Alternative term: Polymers

Definition: Macromolecules are giant molecules formed by joining smaller units called monomers.

Macromolecules are produced by the process called polymerization.

Polymerization

Definition: Polymerization is the joining up of smaller units called monomers to form larger
molecules called polymers.

Types of macromolecules

There are two types of macromolecules; synthetic and natural macromolecules

1. Synthetic macromolecules

Alternative term: Synthetic or artificial polymers

Synthetic polymers are man-made structures

They are divided into two categories; addition polymers and condensation polymers

(a) Addition polymers

Addition polymers are polymers formed from smaller identical unsaturated monomers

No other product is formed apart from the polymer

Addition polymers are formed by the process called addition polymerization.

Addition polymerization is polymerization where the polymer has the same empirical formula as
the monomer.

Examples of addition polymers

(I) Polyethene
Polyethene is formed when ethene molecules combine

Polyethene

311
Uses of Polyethene
1. Used in making plastics bags
2. Used in making squeezing bottles

(II) Polyvinyl chloride

Polyvinyl chloride is formed when vinyl chloride molecules combine

Polyvinyl chloride
Uses of polyvinylchloride
1. Used in making PVC paints
2. Used in making electrical insulators, records, seat covers, rain coats
(III) Polypropene

Polypropene is formed when propene molecules combine

Ethane Ethene Polypropene

(IV) Polytetrafluoroethene

Polytetrafluoroethene is formed when tetrafluoroethene molecules combine

Polytetrafluoroethene

312
 Summary

Monomer Polymer
Ethene Poly(ethene)

Vinyl chloride Poly(vinyl chloride)

Tetrafluoroethene Poly(tetrafluoroethene)

Propene Poly(propene)

313
Exercise

1. The table below shows the structural formulae of various monomers and the polymers that
can be made from them.

Monomer

Tetrafluoroethene W
Ethene

Polymer Y

Poly(ethene) Poly(tetrafluoroethene)

(I) Identify the monomers which are hydrocarbons.

(II) Name the monomer W.
(III) Draw the displaced structure for polymer Y and name it.
(IV) Identify the common feature among the monomers in the table above.
(V) Give the name of the compounds with the feature in (IV) above.

314
 (b) Condensation polymers

Some man-made polymers are formed by condensation polymerization.

Condensation polymerization involves two smaller units which combine to form a larger molecule
with the elimination of the water molecule.

Condensation polymers do not have the same empirical formula as the monomers.

Examples of condensation polymers

 Nylon
 Terylene

(I) Nylon

Nylon is a typical polyamide with amide linkages.

A polyamide is a polymer containing many amide linkages.

The amide linkage

Monomers: Diamine and Dicarboxylic acid

315
The structure of nylon is similar to that of protein

Part of the structure of nylon

Uses of nylon

1. Making tough bearing

2. Making clothing
3. Making ropes
4. Making bristle for brushes

Exercise

1. Nylon is a synthetic polymer which has an amide linkage similar to that of proteins
(a) What is meant by the term synthetic polymer?
(b) Draw the structure of nylon, showing at least three monomer units.
Circle the amide linkage in the structure drawn

316
 (c) Draw the structures of the two monomers from which nylon is made
(d) By what type of polymerization is nylon formed from its monomers?
(e) What other product is formed?
(II) Terylene

Terylene is typical polyester with ester linkages.

A Polyester is a polymer containing many ester linkages

The ester linkage

Monomers: Diol and Dicarboxylic acid

The structure of Terylene is similar to that of fats.

Part of the structure of Terylene

317
Uses of Terylene

1. Making tents and sails.

2. Making clothing

Exercise

1. Terylene is synthetic polyester which has an ester linkage similar to fats. The structure of a
Terylene molecule is shown below

(a) What is a polyester?

(b) Name the elements that make up an ester link
(c) State one use of Terylene
(d) Draw a box around a repeating unit in this Terylene structure
(e) Name the plastic commonly used for making plastic bag
(f) State two reasons why there is need to recycle plastics
(g) Explain why Terylene can cause pollution

Advantages of synthetic polymers

318
 (a) They are durable. They do not rust, corrode or decay
(b) They are lighter than steel, wood or stone
(c) They are thermal and electrical insulators
(d) They are not expensive. They are produced as by-products of oil refining
(e) They are flexible in use

Disadvantages of synthetic polymers

(a) They are non-biodegradable. This means they cannot be decomposed by bacteria.
(b) Non-biodegrability makes the disposal of plastics difficult and this result in pollution
problems.
(c) Plastics burn easily and may produce poisonous gases on combustion. They need to be
coated with fire retardants to reduce the risk of fire.

Reasons for recycling plastics

 They are difficult to dispose of: Plastic bags do not rot when they are thrown away,
so they pollute the environment
 When some plastics burn, they produce harmful gases: For example
polyvinylchloride (PVC) gives off fumes of hydrogen chloride when it burns. This
would form hydrochloric acid in the eyes and throat.

2. Natural macromolecules

Alternative term: Natural polymers

Natural macromolecules occur in living organisms

Examples of natural macromolecules

 Proteins
 Fats
 Carbohydrates
(a) Proteins

Proteins are made by condensation polymerization

They are condensation polymers

They are poly amides like nylon because they contain the amide linkages

Protein hydrolysis results in amino acids

319
 (b) Fats

Fats are complex esters formed from fatty acids and glycerol

Fats have the structure similar to Terylene and poly carbonates

Fat hydrolysis results in fatty acids and glycerol

(c) Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are sugars which include starch and cellulose

Carbohydrates are formed from simple sugars like glucose

Part of a simple sugar (glucose)

Part of the structure of starch

Starch hydrolysis results in glucose

Exercise

1. Some large molecules may be broken down to smaller molecules by hydrolysis.

(a) What is formed in the hydrolysis of?
(I) Protein
(II) Fat
(III) Starch

320
(b) If starch is represented as

Complete the following to represent its hydrolysis

321
 SIMPLY
BIOLOGY

ZA S E
IN CONJUNCTION WITH

ST. LISBON PUBLICATIONS

BIOLOGY
1
CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgements
Introduction

1. LIVING ORGANISMS 4.2 Transport in Animals

1.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms 4.2.1 The Blood Circulatory System
1.2 Cell Structure, Cell Specialisation, 4.2.1.1 The Heart
Tissues, Organs, Systems and Organisms 4.2.1.2 Blood Vessels
1.3 Transport across Cell Membranes: 4.2.1.3 Blood: Composition,
Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Functions, Groups and
Transport Transfusion
1.4 Enzymes 4.2.1.4 Blood Disorders
1.5 Classification of Living Organisms 4.2.2 The Lymphatic System

2. DRAWING, MEASURING AND 5. RESPIRATION

MAGNIFICATION 5.1 Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in
2.1 Drawing Insects, Fish and Human Beings
2.2 Measuring 5.2 Gaseous Exchange in Green Plants
2.3 Magnification 5.3 The Composition of Inspired and
Expired Air
3. NUTRITION 5.4 Effects of Pollution on Gaseous
3.1 Types of Nutrition and Nutrients Exchange and Human Health
3.1.1 Modes of Nutrition
3.1.2 Nutrients: Types, Sources, Uses 6. EXCRETION
and Tests 6.1 Excretion in Plants
3.2 Nutrition in Plants 6.2 Excretion in Human Beings
3.2.1 Photosynthesis 6.3 The Kidney
3.2.2 Mineral Nutrition in Plants 6.4 The Lungs
3.3 Nutrition in Animals 6.5 The Skin
3.3.1 The Alimentary Canal and
Associated Organs 7. HOMEOSTASIS
3.3.2 Digestion and Assimilation of 7.1 Some Types of Homeostasis
Carbohydrates, Proteins and Fats 7.2 Important Organs in Homeostasis
3.3.3 Common Ailments of the 7.3 The Role of The Skin in
Alimentary Canal Thermoregulation
3.3.4 Functions of the Liver 7.4 The Role of the Liver in Regulation of
3.3.5 Common Ailments of the Liver Blood Sugar and Body Temperature
3.3.6 Dentition
8. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
4. TRANSPORT 8.1 Growth in Plants
4.1 Transport in Flowering Plants 8.1.1 Types of Growth in Plants
4.1.1 The Vascular System 8.1.2 Regions and Processes of Growth
4.1.2 Absorption of Water and Mineral in Plants
Salts 8.1.3 Germination and Development
4.1.3 The Transpiration Stream
4.1.4 Transpiration 8.2 Growth in Houseflies and Mosquitoes
4.1.5 Translocation

2
 9. RESPONSES AND COORDINATION 13.2 Chromosomes and Genes
9.1 Tropic and Taxic Responses 13.3 Cell Division
9.2 The Endocrine System 13.4 Monohybrid Inheritance
9.3 The Nervous Systems 13.5 Blood Group Inheritance
9.4 Sense Organs 13.6 Sex Inheritance
13.7 Sex Linkage
10. LOCOMOTION 13.8 Mutations
10.1 Skeletons 13.9 Selection
10.1.1 Types of Skeletons 13.10 Genetic Engineering
10.1.2 The Insect Skeleton
10.1.3 The Mammalian Skeleton 14. ECOLOGY
10.2 Muscles and Joints 14.1 Some Important Terms
14.2 Energy Flow
11. REPRODUCTION 14.3 Food Chains and Food Webs
11.1 Types of Reproduction 14.4 Ecological Pyramids
11.2 Reproduction in Plants 14.5 Nutrient Cycles
11.3 Reproduction in Animals 14.6 Effects of Human Activity on the
Environment
12. HEALTH AND DISEASE 14.6.1 Pollution
12.1 Good Health Versus Disease 14.6.2 Deforestation
12.2 Types of Diseases 14.6.3 Desertification
12.3 AIDS, Cholera, Malaria and 14.6.4 Conservation
Bilharzia (schistosomiasis) 14.6.5 The Soil
12.4 Immunity 14.7 Populations
14.8 Biodiversity
13. GENETICS
13.1 Variation

Preface

The writing of this book was inspired by the desire of the author to make an indelible contribution to the
educational system of our beloved country, Zambia.

The project started in the form of notes that the author was using to teach his Senior Secondary School Biology
Classes over a period of nine years. The notes were widely researched and proven through the good grades his
students were scoring in Zambian and International Examinations. In addition, they were frequently edited to
make them conform to the demands of the Zambian Biology Syllabus produced by the Curriculum
Development Centre (CDC).

It was not long before there was an outcry to have the notes converted into a book. By that time, the author had
been setting examinations for the Examinations Council of Zambia (ECZ) for a considerable number of years.
With the help of some of his students, notably Zameer and Shawn Banda, the first manuscript was typed in
2006 and produced in the form of pamphlet.

The pamphlet served two purposes. Firstly, it was used for instruction during classes. Most importantly, it was
availed to several teachers and pupils who gave invaluable advice. This advice has been taken into account in
producing the final copy of this first edition of the book.

In a nutshell, the book provides a very solid foundation to beginners and basic experience to those who wish to
pursue further studies in Biological Sciences.

3
Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge the contribution of several individuals and organisation to the development of this
publication. Firstly, I thank my former students, Shawn Banda and Zameer, who assisted type part of this work.
I am also indebted to a number of former pupils of DavidKaundaNationalTechnicalHigh School on whom this
material was tried and tested between 2006 and 2009. They were so enthusiastic about the project and inspired
me to keep working on it. Special thanks go to Mr. Severian Masesa, the Chief Examiner for the Biology Paper
2 Panel, for using his vast experience in editing this work

Introduction

INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS BIOLOGY?

Biologyis defined as the study of living things (organisms). There are several branches of biology such as:
Botany(the study of plants)
Zoology(the study of animals)
Ecology(the study of interactions of organisms with each other and with their non-living environment)
Biochemistry(the study of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms)
Entomology(the study of insects)

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

The characteristics of living things may be summarized by the mnemonicMR. GREFIC.

Movementis the process by which a living organism changes its location and posture without external help. The
movement of an entire organism from one place to another is also called locomotion.

Respirationis the release of energy from food substances inside living cells. There are two types of respiration.
These are aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is the release of energy from food substances
inside living cells in the presence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration is the release of energy from food
substances inside living cells in the absence of oxygen. Aerobic respiration yields more energy than anaerobic
respiration.

Growthis a permanent increase in size, mass, number of cells and complexity of an organism.

Reproductionis the process by which living organisms produce their young ones (offspring). There are two
types of reproduction, sexual and asexual. In sexual reproduction offspring are produced by the fusion of male
4
and female gametes (from one or two parents) and are genetically different from their parents. In asexual
reproduction the offspring are produced from one parent without involving any gametes and are genetically
identical to the parent and each other.

Excretionis the removal of toxic metabolicwastes from the cells of the body.

Feeding/nutritionis the process by which living organisms obtain food. There are two types of nutrition which
are autotrophic and heterotrophic. Autotrophic nutrition is the type where an organism makes its own food
e.g. green plants. Heterotrophic nutrition is the type where an organism takes in food present in bodies of others.

Irritability/sensitivityis the ability to detect and respond to stimuli (singular=stimulus). A stimulus is any
change in the environment which causes a response from an organism.
Cellsare the basic functional units of living organisms. Some organisms are made of single cells e.g. bacteria.
Such organisms are called unicellular organisms. Other organisms are made of many cells e.g. fungi, plants
and animals. Such organisms are called multicellular organisms.

Metabolism/metabolic reactions
This is the sum total of chemical reactions that take place inside living cells. There are two types of metabolic
reactions, namely anabolic and catabolic reactions. Anabolic reactions are metabolic reactions where large and
complex molecules are synthesized from small and simple molecules e.g. photosynthesis. Catabolic reactions
are metabolic reactions where large complex molecules are broken down to simpler molecules e.g. respiration.
All metabolic reactions are catalyzed by enzymes. An enzyme is a biological catalyst (a catalyst inside a living
organism).

CELLS

Cells are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Therefore they are observed using microscopes. A microscope
is an instrument used to magnify images of objects that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. There are
two groups of microscopes. These are light and electron microscopes. The light microscope shows a simple
structure of a cell while the electron microscope shows a detailed or ultrastructure of a cell.

Simple Structure of a Plant Cell and an Animal Cell

Similarities between animal and plant cells

They both have cell membranes, cytoplasm and nucleus

Differences between animal and plant cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Has cellulose cell wall Does not have cellulose cell wall
Has large permanent vacuole Does not have large permanent vacuole
Has chloroplasts Does not have chloroplasts
5
Has regular shape and bigger size Has irregular shape and smaller size

Detailed structure/Ultrastructure of an Animal Cell

Detailed structure/Ultrastructure of a Plant Cell

Functions of Cell Parts

Nucleus: This part is responsible for controlling cell activities and storage of genetic information on threads of
DNA called chromosomes. It is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear membrane which has
openings called nuclear pores. The inside of the nucleus contains a fluid called the nucleoplasm and a dense
body of DNA called the nucleolus.

Cell membrane: This part is made of lipids and proteins and is responsible for controlling the substances that
enter and leave the cells. It is adapted for this function by being selectively/partially permeable. This means it
allows some substances to pass through it but prevents others from passing through. The substances that cross
the cell membrane freely include gases (such as oxygen and carbon dioxide) and water because their molecules
have small sizes. On the other hand, substances such as urea whose molecules are large do not freely cross the
cell membrane but use special carrier proteins to do so.

Cytoplasm: This is a jelly-like fluid made of water and dissolved substances such as proteins, salts and sugars.
It contains suspended cell structures called organelles and is the site for cell activities.

6
Note: The three parts (nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane) are collectively called the protoplasm. The
protoplasm is defined as the living part of the cell.

Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria): These are rod-shaped or sausage-shaped structures in the cell. This is
where respiration takes place. For this reason mitochondria are called the power house of the cell.

Ribosomes:These are small round structures in the cell where protein synthesis takes place. Some ribosomes
float freely in the cytoplasm while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:This is a network of membranes used for transportation of substances within the
cytoplasm. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum, namely smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough
endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes on its surface and transports proteins.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes on its surface and transports lipids.

Golgi Bodies: These are a pile of flattened vesicles which modify and carry proteins such as enzymes from the
sites of synthesis to the sites of reaction. They are collectively called the Golgi apparatus.

Chloroplasts:These are oval-shaped structures found in plant cells. They carry out photosynthesis. They
contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

Vacuole:This is a fluid filled space inside the cytoplasm of a plant cell. It contains a fluid called cell sap (a
solution of sugars and salts in water) and is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast. The concentration of
the cell sap plays a role in the movement of water into and out of the cell.

Cell wall:This is the outermost boundary of the plant cell. It is made of a substance called cellulose. It is
important for protection against damage and prevention of bursting when the plant cell gains a lot of water. It
also gives shape to the plant cell. It is fully permeable to all substances.

Cell Specialization

New cells are formed from already existing cells by cell division in an organism. At first, they are all similar in
structure. But in order to be suited for their functions they have to undergo cell specialization. This is a process
by which a cell undergoes specific changes in structure and chemical composition of the cytoplasm in order to
perform a specific function. Examples of specialized cells are ciliated cells, root hair cells, xylem vessels,
guard cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, white blood cells and red blood cells.

Ciliated cells
Functions
These are cells found in the inner lining of the respiratory tract and the oviducts.
 In the respiratory tract they sweep out mucus containing dust particles and germs.
 In the oviduct they move the ovum towards the uterus.
Adaptations
 Presence of cytoplasmic hairs called cilia
 A high concentration of mitochondria in the cytoplasm to generate energy for movements of the cilia

7
Root Hair cell: These are cells found near the tips of roots
Functions
 Absorption of water and mineral salts
 Anchor the plant in the ground

Adaptations
 Has an elongated outgrowth (long extension) which increases the surface area for faster diffusion during
absorption.
 Absence of chloroplast to create more room for absorption.
 High concentration of mitochondria to provide energy for active absorption/transport of mineral salts. In
addition, root hair cells are numerous which further increase their surface area.

Xylem Cell
Functions
 Conduction of water and mineral salts
 Mechanical support of the plant.
Adaptations
 End walls of neighbouring cells broken to form continuous tubes
 Protoplasm is absent leaving a hollow space in the middle of the cell.
 Walls are lignified (filled with lignin) to provide mechanical support

Muscle Cells
Functions
 Contraction to produce movement
8
Adaptations
 Abundance of mitochondria to release energy for contraction
 Presence of actin and myosin filaments in the cytoplasm which carry out contraction.

As seen from the diagram, the shapes of the different types of muscles are different from each other

Red blood cell (Erythrocyte)

Functions
 Transportation of oxygen and small amounts of carbon dioxide.
Adaptations
 Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.
 Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin which has a high affinity (attraction) for oxygen.
Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin when oxygen concentrations are high
(e.g. in the lungs). When oxygen concentrations are low e.g. in the muscles, oxyhaemoglobin
dissociates forming haemoglobin and oxygen.

 Absence of nucleus makes more room for haemoglobin

Nerve Cell (neurone)

Functions
 To conduct electrical impulses (nerve impulses) from one part of the body to another.
Adaptations
 Presence of dendrites that collect impulses from neighbouring cells
 Presence of axon that carries impulses from one end of the neurone to another.
 Presence of synaptic knob that forms a link with other neurones.
 Presence of nodes of Ranvier that make impulses move faster
Note the part of the neurone having the nucleus and cytoplasm is called the cell body

9
White Blood Cells
These are cells that defend the body against infection (diseases). Two examples of white blood cells are
phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Phagocytes
Functions
 These defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting germs (foreign bodies).
Adaptations
 Lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of germs easy.
 Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move towards germs.
 They have no fixed shape but can change their shapes, making engulfing of foreign bodies possible.

Lymphocytes
Functions
 To defend the body against infection by producing antibodies and antitoxins. Antibodies are proteins
that destroy germs/foreign bodies while antitoxins are proteins that neutralize poisons from germs.
Adaptations
 Presence of a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.

Guard Cells
These are a pair of cells that surround each stoma.
Function
 To control the size of the stoma
Adaptations
10
  They occur in pairs and each cell has a semicircular (curved) shape when turgid and a straight shape
when plasmolysed.
 Their cell walls are thicker around the stoma than anywhere else; this makes it possible for the stoma to
open when these cells absorb water.

Phloem Cells
Function
 To transport manufactured food from one part of the plant to another
Adaptations
 End walls between neighbouring cells are perforated to form sieve plates
 Protoplasm is partly lost leaving behind some cytoplasmic strands
 Presence of companion cells which supply phloem cells with enzymes and ATP.

Palisade Cell
Functions
 Carrying out photosynthesis
Adaptations
 A high concentration of chloroplasts.
 The cells are longer vertically than horizontally. This allows chloroplasts to migrate upwards or
downwards as light intensity changes so that they are not damaged by excess light.

Cell Organization

A group of specialized cells having the same shape/structure and function make up a tissue. Examples of
tissues are epidermis, palisade tissue, spongy tissue, blood, and epithelium and bone tissue.
A group of tissues performing a specific function make up an organ. Examples of organs are roots, stems,
leaves, liver, skin, heart, brain, eyes, ears, kidneys and lungs. What tissues make up each of these organs?

11
A group of organs performing a specific function make up a system. Examples of systems are vascular system,
digestive system, excretory system, endocrine system, nervous system, skeletal system, respiratory system and
reproductive system. What organs make up each of these systems?
Levels of cell organization may be summarized as follows:

TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE (DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE

TRANSPORT)

Substances enter or leave cells through the cell membrane using three main processes which are diffusion,
osmosis and activetransport.

Diffusion

This is the movement of particles from their region of higher concentration to their region of lower
concentration (down a concentration gradient).

Experiment to Demonstrate Diffusion

Materials: A 250 cm3 glass beaker, a long glass tube, a holed rubber bung or stopper, a coloured crystal such as
potassium permanganate or copper (II) sulphate and water
Method: Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram

 First insert one end of the glass tube halfway into the rubber stopper.
 Place the rubber stopper and glass tube into the beaker, keeping the rubber firmly pressed to the bottom
of the beaker.
 Introduce the coloured crystal of potassium permanganate down the tube.
 Close the open end of the glass tube with a finger and fill the beaker halfway with water.
 With one end of the glass tube still closed with a finger, gently lift the glass tube and rubber stopper out
of the beaker without disturbing the crystal.
 Observe what happens in the beaker until there are no further changes.
Observations:
 At the beginning, the clear water and coloured crystal are each clearly visible
 After some time, the colour of the crystal starts spreading out but some of the water still remains clear.
 Eventually, all the water is evenly coloured by the colour of the crystal
Conclusion:
The particles of the potassium permanganate crystal spread out in the water by the process of diffusion.

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Factors that affect the rate of Diffusion
The rate at which particles diffuse is affected by the following factors:
 Concentration gradient
 Surface area of diffusion surface
 Thickness/ distance of diffusion surface
 Temperature
 Size of diffusing particles

Concentration gradient: This refers to the difference in concentration of particles between two regions. The
higher the concentration gradient, the faster the diffusion rate.
Surface area of Diffusion Surface:The larger the surface area of the diffusion surface, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
Thickness of Diffusion Surface: The thinner the diffusion surface, the faster the diffusion rate.
Temperature: Increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles causing them to diffuse at a
faster rate.
Size of Diffusing Particles: The bigger the diffusing particles, the slower the diffusion rate; the smaller the
diffusing particles, the faster the diffusion rate.

Importance of Diffusion
Diffusion is important in living organisms in the following ways:
 Oxygen moves from the lungs to the blood and from the blood to the tissue cells by diffusion.
 Carbon dioxide moves from the tissue cells to the blood and from the blood to the lungs by diffusion.
 Dissolved food moves from the blood into the tissue cells by diffusion.
 Metabolic wastes such as urea move from the tissue cells into the blood by diffusion.
 Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis by plants moves from the atmosphere into the leaves by
diffusion.
 Oxygen produced during photosynthesis moves out of the leaves to the atmosphere by diffusion.
 Water vapour moves out of the air spaces of leaves to the atmosphere during transpiration by diffusion.

Osmosis
Osmosisis the movement of watermolecules from a region of higher water potential to a region of lower water
potential through a selectively permeable membrane. Water potential is a measure of the capacity or tendency
of water molecules to move from one solution to another. Distilled water has the highest water potential. The
more concentrated a solution becomes, the less its water potential becomes. A selectively permeable membrane
can allow water molecules to pass through because of their small size but cannot allow solute molecules to pass
through because of their big size. The following diagram illustrates what occurs during osmosis.

13
Experiment to Demonstrate Osmosis
Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram

Mark the initial level of liquid in each of the three glass tubes. Record what happens to the liquid level in each
glass tube after five minutes.
Observations
In A the liquid level drops. In B the liquid level stays the same. In C the liquid level rises.

Conclusion
During osmosis, water molecules move from a less concentrated solution to a more concentrated solution
through a selectively permeable membrane until a dynamic equilibrium is reached. Equilibrium is a state where
the number of water molecules moving to either side of the selectively permeable membrane is equal.
Osmosis is important in living organisms mainly in movement of water into and out of cells (absorption of
water by plants, movement of water from cell to cell e.t.c)

Effects of Osmosis in Living Organisms

The cells, tissues, organs and systems of living organisms are always exposed to body fluids or solutions of
different concentrations. There are three types of solutions an organism may be exposed to, namely hypotonic,
isotonic and hypertonic solutions. A hypotonic solution is one whose concentration is lower than the
concentration inside a living cell. An isotonic solution is one whose concentration is equal to the concentration
inside a living cell. Isotonic solutions have no net osmotic effects in living organisms because a dynamic
equilibrium exists between them and the living cells. A hypertonic solution is one whose concentration is higher
than the concentration inside a living cell.

a) Effects of Osmosis in Animals

When an animal cell such as a red blood cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water by osmosis
because the water potential of the hypotonic solution is higher the water potential inside the cell. As a result, it
swells and eventually bursts. The bursting of an animal cell due to osmotic gain of water is called celllysis.
When an animal cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, it loses water by osmosis because the water potential
inside the cell is higher than the water potential of the hypertonic solution. As a result, it shrinks and
crinkles/wrinkles. The shrinking and crinkling of an animal cell due to osmotic loss of water is called
crenation. Osmotic loss of water by animal tissues leads to dehydration of the animal. The following diagrams
illustrate cell lysis and crenation.

Cell lysis and crenation in a red blood cell

14
b) Effects of Osmosis in Plants
When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water by osmosis because the water potential of the
hypotonic solution is higher than the water potential inside the plant cell. As a result, its protoplasm swells and
eventually starts pressing against the cell wall. The condition where the protoplasm of a plant cell presses
against the cell wall due to osmotic gain of water is called turgidity. A plant cell that is undergoing turgidity is
said to be turgid. Why does the plant cell not burst? (Refer to structure of cell wall). When a plant cell is placed
in a hypertonic solution, it loses water by osmosis because the water potential inside the cell is higher than the
water potential of the hypertonic solution. As a result, its protoplasm shrinks and pulls away from the cell wall.
The condition where the protoplasm of a plant cell pulls away from the cell wall due to osmotic loss of water is
called plasmolysis. A plant cell that is undergoing plasmolysis is said to be plasmolysed. The following
diagrams illustrate turgidity and plasmolysis.

When a plant tissue such as a peeled potato tuber is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water by osmosis
and becomes bigger and more firm. The presence of water in plant tissues forms a hydrostatic skeletonwhich
renders mechanical support to the entire plant When a plant tissue such as a peeled potato tuber is placed in a
hypertonic solution, it loses water by osmosis and becomes flaccid/flabby (smaller and weaker). In a living
plant, this leads to a condition called wilting. Wilting is the sagging of delicate plant parts such as leaves,
flowers and young stems due loss of water.Temporary wilting is one which can be reversed by supplying a
plant with water.Permanent wilting can not be reversed even if a plant is supplied with water the plant tissues
have already died. Suggest why it is not advisable to apply too much fertilizer on plants.

Active Transport
The movement of particles against a concentration gradient using energy from ATP. It is the main process by
which mineral ions move into and out of cells (e.g. ion uptake by root hairs and uptake of glucose by epithelial
cells of the villi).

ENZYMES

Enzymes are defined as biological catalysts. A catalyst is any substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical
reaction without itself being changed by the reaction. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions in living organisms.
15
Those that work inside of living cells are called intracellular enzymeswhile those that work outside living cells
are called extracellular enzymes. The substances on which enzymes act to form products are called substrates.
The part of an enzyme where the substrate fits during an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is called the active site
while the other parts of the enzyme are called allosteric sites. A typical enzyme-catalyzed reaction may be
represented as follows:
Enzyme + Substrate Enzyme-substrate complex Enzyme + Product

Characteristics of Enzymes
 Most of them are protein in nature
 They are catalysts
 They catalyze both forward and reverse reactions. That is why the reactants, intermediates and
products in the equation above are linked by half arrows pointing forwards and backwards.
 They are specific. This means each enzyme acts on only one substrate or a narrow range of related
substrates. Enzyme specificity is discussed latter in this booklet.
 Their activity is affected by temperature, PH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, inhibitors
and cofactors (coenzymes and activators).Memory aid: SEPTIC

Explanation of Enzyme specificity

One of the theories used to explain enzyme specificity is called the lock-and-key mechanism. This theory
states that each substrate fits into the active site of a particular enzyme in the same way a key fits into a specific
lock because the two have complementary shapes. The following diagram illustrates the lock-and-key
mechanism.

Factors that Affect Enzyme Activity

(i) Temperature
Enzyme activity increases with increase in temperature up to the optimumtemperature. This occurs because
an increase in temperature results in increase in the kinetic energy of both the enzyme and the substrate, leading
to increased interaction between enzyme and substrate and formation of enzyme-substrate complex. At
temperatures lower than the optimum, the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction doubles with every increase of
10 o C. The optimum temperature is the temperature at which an enzyme works best. The activity reduces after
the optimum temperature because the enzyme gets denatured and loses its catalytic function. Enzyme
denaturation is the disturbance of the shape of an enzyme and its active site such that the substrate no longer fits
in the active site. Hence the enzyme can no longer carry out its catalytic function. The following graph shows
how enzyme activity is affected by temperature.

16
 (ii)pH
PH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a substance is. PH values range from 1 to 14. A PH value of 7 is said to
be neutral. PH values lower than 7 a said to be acidic while values higher than 7 are said to be alkaline. This
means that acidity increases as PH values get lower than 7 and alkalinity increases as PH values get higher than
7. The following diagram illustrates the PH scale.

The PH value at which a given enzyme works best is

called the optimumPH. Values lower or higher
than the optimum PH lower enzyme activity. The
optimum PH varies from enzyme to enzyme,
depending on the enzyme‟s natural occurrence. For
instance, the digestive enzymes of the stomach
work best at acidic PH values while those of the
duodenum work best at alkaline PH values. A graph
of enzyme activity against PH is always
symmetrical and has its peak at the optimum PH, as
illustrated by the following diagram.

(iii) Enzyme Concentration

The rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction increases with increase in the concentration of the
enzyme and remains constant when there are no more free substrate molecules for the enzyme
to act on.

(iv) Substrate Concentration

The rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction increases with increase in the concentration of the
substrate and levels off (remains constant) when all the enzyme active sites are occupied by the
substrate molecules. Additional substrates have no where to fit on the enzymes.

17
(v) Inhibitors
An enzyme inhibitor is any substance that slows down or completely stops enzyme activity.
Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme and block the substrate from
binding there. Non-competitive inhibitors bind to allosteric sites of an enzyme and cause the
shape of the active site to change so that the substrate fails to bind. All metabolic poisons are
examples of enzyme inhibitors.

(vi) Cofactors
An enzyme co-factor is any non-protein substance whose presence makes an enzyme active.
Organic cofactors are called co-enzymes e.g. vitamins. Inorganic cofactors are called
activators e.g. mineral salts.

Naming of Enzymes
One way of naming enzymes is using the first part of the substrate name and the suffix –ase,
as illustrated by the following table.

Name of Substrate Name of Enzyme

Carbohydrates Carbohydrase
(i) Starch (amylose and amylopectin) (i) Amylase
(ii) Maltose (ii) Maltase
(iii) Sucrose (iii) Sucrase
(iv) Lactose (iv) Lactase
Proteins Protease
(i) Peptide (i) Peptidase
Lipids Lipase

NB: Most protease enzymes have names ending with –in e.g. pepsin, trypsin and rennin.

Some Industrial Applications of Enzymes

Enzymes have applications in many industries and professions. A few examples are discussed
below.

(i) Making of Biological Detergents

Enzymes are included in biological detergents so that they can hydrolyze stains of biological
origin. The most commonly used enzymes are proteases which breakdown protein stains such
as blood and chlorophyll stains, forming colourless amino acids as products. Lipases and
carbohydrases may be used to get rid of lipid and carbohydrate stains, respectively, but these
are easy to wash even with ordinary detergents.
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(ii) Brewing and Baking
Baking and brewing both make use of the enzyme zymase which is found in yeast.
When baking, flour, water, sugar and yeast are mixed to make dough. Yeast secretes zymase
which breaks down sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide forms
bubbles which cause the dough to rise.
When brewing cereal seeds are soaked until they start germinating. During the process of
germination, starch is broken down to maltose by the enzyme amylase. Maltose is broken
down to glucose by maltase. The seeds are dried and ground to form a powder. The powder is
boiled in hot water to form a paste. After the past cools, yeast is added. The enzyme zymase
from yeast acts on sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide. The alcohol is removed from the
mixture by distillation.

(iii) Making Sweeteners for Food and Drinks

In sweetening of confectioneries, glucose is converted into fructose by the enzyme glucose
isomerase because fructose is sweeter than glucose.

(iv) In the Dairy Industry

In the dairy industry, the enzyme rennin is used to coagulate milk during the making of yoghurt
and cheese.

(v) Tanning of Leather

Tanning is a process by which leather is made soft and pliable. Trypsin is utilized to digest
proteins in the leather during tanning.

(vi) Extraction and Processing of Fruit Juice

When extracting juices from fruits enzymes known as cellulases and pectinases are used to
increase the juice yield and prevent jellying of the juices, respectively.

(vii) Tenderizing of Meat

The meat industry makes use of Trypsin to tenderize meat and predigest baby food.

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

Classification is the placing of organisms in groups based on features they have in common. It
involves taxonomy, nomenclature and the construction and usage of identification keys

Taxonomy
The branch of biology where each organism is placed in a series of groups arranged in a
hierarchy is called taxonomy. The groups are called taxa (singular: taxon). A taxon is a group
of organisms that have similar features. The highest taxon an organism can belong to is a
kingdom. Each kingdom is made of related phyla (singular: phylum); each phylum is made of
related classes; each class is made of related orders; each order is made of related families;
each family comprises a number of related genera (singular: genus) and each genus is made of
related species. The species is defined as a group of organisms having similar features and
capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. It is the lowest taxon an organism can
belong to. The above hierarchy of taxa can be remembered using the following memory aid:
Kings Play Chess On Fine Gold Stools. The taxonomies of the human being, lion and maize
plant are given in the following table:

19
Taxon Human being Lion Maize Wolf
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Animalia
Phylum Chordata Chordata Angiospermophyta Chordata
Class Mammalia Mammalia Monocotyledoneae Mammalia
Order Primates Carnivora Commelinales Carnivora
Family Hominid Felideae Poaceas Canidae
Genus Homo Panthera Zea Canis
Species Homo sapiens Panthera leo Zea mays Canis lupus

Nomenclature
Nomenclatureis the naming of organisms with scientific names. The system of naming used is
called the binomial system of nomenclature. In this system, the biological/scientific name of
each organism has two parts. The first part is the name of the genus (generic name) and always
begins with a capital letter while the second part is the name of the species (specific epithet). If
printed, the name is italicized (e.g. Homo sapiens) but if hand-written, the name is under-lined
(e.g. Homosapiens). This is to indicate that the name is scientifically accepted world-wide. The
names are normally in Latin because it was the original scientific language and is universally
accepted. When written for the first time, the name must be written in full (e.g. Panthera leo)
but if mentioned afterwards, only the first letter of the generic name is written followed by the
full specific epithet (e.g. P. leo).

Kingdoms
There are five kingdoms of living organisms, namely Kingdom Prokaryota(the prokaryotes or
bacteria), Kingdom Protoctista(the protoctists or protists such as Amoeba, Plasmodium and
Trypanosoma), Kingdom Fungi(the fungi such as yeasts, mushrooms, toadstools and
Penicillium), Kingdom Plantae(the plants) and Kingdom Animalia(the animals). Viruses are
not assigned a kingdom because they are considered to be on the border-line between living
and non-living things. When independent, they behave like non-living particles because they
do not metabolize or self-regulate. But once inside a host, they behave like living things by
carrying out reproduction.

Kingdom Prokaryotae
No nucleus; no double-membraned organelles; unicellular; includes all bacteria
(singular=bacterium)

Kingdom Protoctista
Have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned organelles; mainly unicellular (single-
celled) or with a cellular level of organization; includes protozoa and algae.
Examples of protists are Plasmodium, Amoeba and Trypanosoma.

Kingdom Fungi
Multicellular; Have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned organelles; cell wall of
chitin; non photosynthetic (no chloroplasts); saprophytic nutrition; examples are yeasts,
moulds, mushrooms and toadstools.

Kingdom Plantae
Multicellular; Have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned organelles; cellulose cell
walls; photosynthetic (presence of chloroplasts); includes mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering
plants.
Flowering Plants

20
They have well developed roots, stem, vascular system and leaves; they bear flowers; they bear
seeds which are enclosed in fruits. There are two classes: monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous plants.

Monocotyledoneae Dicotyledoneae
Each seed has one cotyledon Each seed has two cotyledons
Have fibrous root system Have taproot system
Leaves are long and narrow and have Leaves are broad and have branched veins
parallel veins
Dull-coloured flowers having three floral Brightly coloured flowers having four or more floral
parts parts
Vascular bundles are scattered in the stem Vascular bundles arranged in a circle in the stem
Examples include all grasses Examples include all legume plants

Kingdom Animalia
Multicellular; have well defined nucleus; have double-membraned organelles; no cell walls;
heterotrophic nutrition; presence of nervous system; presence of anterior and posterior ends;
presence of dorsal and ventral surfaces; presence of two lateral surfaces; presence of either
radial or bilateral symmetry; includes invertebrates and vertebrates.

Invertebrates
These are animals without backbones. They include the following phyla:
 Cnidaria (e.g. sea anemones, corals, hydras and jellyfish): have radial symmetry; have
tentacles.
 Mollusca (e.g. snails, slugs, squids, limpets, mussels and octopus): soft-bodied with a
muscular foot; slimy covering; two pairs of tentacles, one with eyes and the other with
smell receptors; usually have shells
 Nematoda (unsegmented roundworms): often microscopic, parasitic and extremely
common.

21
 Platyhelminths (flatworms such as tape worm and liver fluke): flat, unsegmented and
bilaterally symmetrical; mouth present but no anus.
 Annelida (truly segmented worms e.g. earthworms): long cylindrical bodies; bristle
(chetae); clitellum
 Echinodermata (sea urchins and starfish)
 Arthropoda (Crustaceans, insects, myriapods and arachnids): theses are animals with
jointed appendages, Exoskeleton, Bilateral symmetry, segmented body, Ventral
notochord and dorsal heart. (Can be summarized JEBSVD).
 Crustaceans (e.g. crabs, lobsters, crayfish and woodlice): aquatic or found in
damp places; cephalothorax present; two pairs of antennae; three pairs of jaws;
exoskeleton not water proof.

 Insects: 3 body regions (head thorax and abdomen), 2 pairs of wings, compound
eyes, 3 pairs of legs, tracheal system for respiration.

 Myriapods (centipedes and millipedes): terrestrial; herbivorous; one pair of

antennae; one pair of jaws; many legs; centipedes have flattened bodies and one
leg per segment; millipedes have cylindrical bodies and 2 pairs of legs per
segment.
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  Arachnids: 2 body regions (cephalothorax and abdomen); 4 pairs of legs;
powerful jaws; spinneret (used for spinning webs in spiders); wings absent;
simple eyes; antennae absent; one pair of appendages; one pair of sensory
appendages.

Identification Keys for the Kingdoms of Living Organisms

An identification key is a series of statements about characteristics of organisms which, if

followed step by step, makes it possible for identification or classification of organisms. The
type of key normally used in Biology called the dichotomous key. In this type of key, there is
a series of paired contrasting statements or a branching tree diagram, leading to the
identification of the organisms covered by the key. When constructing an identification key,
one must always begin by listing the characteristics of the organisms they are trying to identify
and then proceed with construction of the key based on the listed characteristics.
This presentation attempts to give some practice in the use of an identification key to place
organisms in their kingdoms.

Exercise
You are provided with three specimens labelled A, B and C.

23
Use the identification key provided below to write down the scientific name of each of the
three specimens.

Identification Key for Specimens A, B and C

1. Organism has simple eyes (go to 2)
Organism has compound eyes (Glossina fuscipes)
2. Organism has four pairs of limbs (Euscorpius carpathicus)
Organism has more than four pairs of limbs (Scolopendra subspinipes)

DRAWING, MEASURING AND CALCULATION OF MAGNIFICATION

Observations made on specimens may be reported in the form of fully labelled drawings,
depending on the nature of the specimen. The following considerations should be made when
drawing specimens and labelling diagrams:

Drawing
The drawing must be bigenough. This means it must be at least 6.0cm at its longest point or
occupy about one-third of an A4 page. However, it must still fit within the space provided on
the answer sheet and leave space for labels. The drawing must be clean (no dirty rubbings),
clear (no double or disconnected lines and no shading) and realistic (a true reflection of the
specimen provided and not a mere replica of a text book diagram)

Labelling
Label as many parts/structures on the diagram as possible. For this reason, is advisable to draw
the specimen from the view/side that gives as many details as possible. Pointer lines must
touch the part or structures being labelled on the diagram and must never cross each other or
else the labels concerned are rejected. Arrowheads are not required on pointer lines.

Measurements
Unless otherwise instructed, measurement of the specimen size must be taken along the longest
part. For circular specimens, the longest line passing through the centre must be used. A line
must be drawn along a corresponding part on the drawing/diagram.Measurements must be
24
recorded to one decimal place if in centimetres or no decimal place if in millimetres e.g. it is
correct to record 6.0 cm or 60 mm but wrong to record 6 cm or 60.0 mm.
The following diagram illustrates a drawing of a transverse section of an orange, taking into
account the principles discussed above.

Magnificationmarks:
The formula must be correctly stated as:

Magnification = Size of Image/Drawing

Size of Object/Specimen

The substitution must be correctly done with identical units in the numerator and denominator.
A substitution where size of specimen is swapped with size of drawing is wrong and makes the
rest of the calculation wrong. When the units in the numerator and denominator are not
identical, the substitution is rejected along with the rest of the calculation e.g. if an individual
measures the specimen size as being 6.4 cm and the corresponding measurement on the
diagram is 7.2 cm, the substitution will be correct if written as:
7.2 cm/6.4 cm or 72 mm/64 mm but will be wrong if written as: 7.2/6.4 or 72/64 or 7.2cm/64
mm or 72 mm/6.4 cm.

The final answer for magnification must be written to one decimal place with a multiplication
sign (X) or the word „times‟ either before or after the magnification and without units.
e.g. the answer for the substitution given above is 1.125 but should be written as:
X1.1 or 1.1X or times 1.1 or 1.1 times.

In summary, the magnification for the above given situation would be calculated as follows:

Magnification = Size of Image = 7.2 cm = X 1.1

Size of Object 6.4 cm

Exercise:
a) Measure the length of the orange cross section
specimen:..............................................................................................................

25
 b) Measure the length of the orange cross section
drawing:................................................................................................................
c) Calculate the magnification of the drawing

NUTRITION

This is the process by which living organisms obtain food.

Modes of Nutrition
The following diagram gives a summary of the main modes of nutrition living organisms.

There are two main modes of nutrition namely autotrophic and heterotrophic. Autotrophic
nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism makes its own food. Organisms that carry out
autotrophic nutrition are called autotrophs. Those that use energy from sunlight to make food
are called phototrophs or photoautotrophs (e.g. green plants) while those that use energy
from chemical reactions to make food are called chemotrophs or chemoautotrophs (e.g.
nitrifying bacteria). Heterotrophic nutrition is where an organism takes food present in the
bodies of other organisms. It includes parasitic, saprophytic and holozoic nutrition.
Organisms that carry out heterotrophic nutrition are called heterotrophs.

Parasitic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism known as the parasite lives and
feeds off another organism called the host, often causing harm such as disease, physical injury
or even death in the process. The parasite is always smaller than the host. There are two types
of parasites which are exoparasites (those that live on external surfaces of the body e.g. lice)
and endoparasites (those that live inside the body e.g. tapeworms and roundworms)

Saprophytic nutrition is a type of nutrition where an organism called the saprophyte feeds
on dead and decaying organic matter known as the substrate. The saprophyte feeds by
secreting extracellular digestive enzymes from its hyphae. These enzymes hydrolyze the
substrate and the saprophyte absorbs the end products. Examples of saprophytic organisms are
mould fungi such as Mucor and Rhizopus.

Structure of Mucor and Rhizopus

26
The bodies of Mucor and Rhizopus are made of threads called hyphae.A mass of hyphae is
called a mycelium. Horizontal hyphae are called stolons; root like hyphae are called rhizoids
while those that bear spore cases (sporangia) are called sporangiophores. Each spore case
contains numerous spores. Spores are microscopic structures produced asexually which are
capable of germinating under favourable conditions. Saprophytes are important in the
following ways:
 They decompose dead organic matter, thereby preventing accumulation of dead bodies
 They play a role in the recycling of nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen
 Some saprophytes are used as food e.g. mushrooms.
 Some saprophytes such as yeast are important in brewing and baking

Holozoic Nutrition is a type of nutrition which occurs in animals in a specialized tube called
the alimentary canal and involves five stages namely ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion. Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth; digestion is the
breaking down of food; absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream;
assimilation is the usage and incorporation of food in living cells; egestion is the removal of
undigested foods from the body through the anus.

Symbiosis/Mutualism: This is an association between two different species of organisms

where each species benefits the other. Examples of mutualism are:
 The association between ruminants and the microbes which are found in their guts. The
ruminants provide a habitat and gather food which is used by the microbes.
 The association between legumes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobiumsp). The
legumes provide a habitat to the Rhizobium while the Rhizobium fixes nitrogen into the
legume plant.

Nutrients
A nutrient is any substance which provides the body with any or all of the following:
 Energy
 Material for growth
 Protection against diseases
 Proper functioning of the body

Classes of Nutrients
There are seven classes of nutrients namely: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, mineral
salts, vitamins and roughage. Memory aid: CaliproWamiviro.

Carbohydrates
These are nutrients that are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are a source of energy.
Lack of carbohydrates in diet leads to marasmus.They are commonly obtained from plants.
There are three classes of carbohydrates, namely monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.

(i) Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and make up the building blocks of
carbohydrates. They are also called simple sugars. Groups of monosaccharides include trioses,
tetroses, pentose, hexoses, heptoses and so on. The hexoses are the most famous and include
fructose, glucose and galactose (memory aid: FGG). The common name, occurrence and use
of each of them are given in the following table.

Monosaccharide Common Natural Uses

27
 name occurrence
Glucose Blood In honey and Main substrate of respiration
sugar blood
Fructose Fruit In fruits, nectar Attracts and rewards to animals that
sugar and honey pollinate flowers and disperse seeds
Galactose In milk Source of energy for young mammals

(ii) A disaccharide is made of two monosaccharide units chemically combined by

condensation. Well-known disaccharides include lactose, maltose and sucrose (memory aid:
LMS= Lusaka Music Society). The following table summarizes the common names, natural
occurrence and uses of each of them.
Disaccharide Common Natural occurrence Uses Constituent
name monomers
Lactose Milk sugar Milk Source of Glucose and
energy for Galactose
young
mammals
Maltose Malt sugar Germinating seeds Source of Glucose units
energy for only
germinating
seeds
Sucrose Cane/table Stored in sugar cane, beet Form in which Glucose and
sugar root and onions plants transport fructose
carbohydrates

NOTE: All monosaccharides and disaccharides are collectively called sugars. A sugar is a
carbohydrate which has the following characteristics:
 soluble in water
 has a sweet taste
 is crystalline
Some of the sugars are also known as reducing sugars. This is because they can reduce Cu2+
ions to Cu+ ions. All monosaccharides and disaccharides except sucrose are reducing sugars.
Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.
(iii) Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made of more than two monosaccharides
chemically combined by condensation. Common polysaccharides include starch, glycogen and
cellulose.
Starch is the main storage of carbohydrates in plants. Excess glucose in plants is converted
to starch and stored in cell structures called amyloplasts. Starch is suited for the role of storage
molecule in the following ways:
 It is insoluble in water; hence it cannot be lost from storage cells;
 It has no osmotic effects
 It is relatively unreactive
 It is compact and does not take up much space;
 It is easily hydrolysed by enzymes when glucose levels are low. The main sources of
starch are cereal seeds and tubers, though all plants generally are a source of starch.

Glycogen is the main storage carbohydrate in animals. In humans, when there is excess
glucose in the blood, the hormone insulin produced by the pancreas causes cells in the liver
and muscles to convert the excess glucose into glycogen which is stored in the liver and
muscles. The human body can store about 400g of glycogen (roughly 300g in the muscles and
100g in the liver). When glucose levels are low in the blood, the hormone glucagon produced
28
by the pancreas causes muscle and liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose. Glycogen is
sometimes called animal starch because its characteristics are similar to starch. It differs from
starch by being more branched, making it less dense and easier to digest than starch. This is
one reason why animals have a faster metabolic rate than plants.

Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate found in cell walls of plants. It has a high tensile
strength (does not stretch easily), thereby protecting plant cells and preventing lysis when
there is excessive osmotic inflow of water. Animals cannot digest cellulose on their own
because they do not secrete the enzyme cellulase which digests cellulose.Those that depend on
plant diets have symbiotic relationships with microbes which secrete cellulase. However,
cellulose is still useful as roughage which stimulates peristalsis and prevents constipation.

Lipids
These are nutrients made of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However the amount
of oxygen in lipids is less than the one found in carbohydrates. They are insoluble in water but
soluble in alcohol and organic solvents such as acetone, benzene and chloroform. Edible lipids
include oils and fats. Oils are liquid at room temperature while fats are solid at room temp.
The building blocks of lipids are glycerol and fatty acids. Each molecule of a fat comprises
one molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids.

Uses of Lipids
 Water proofing- certain organisms such as ducks secrete lipids which prevent their
bodies from getting wet with water
 Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat loss from
the body
 Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called phospholipids
which can be synthesized from fats and oils
 Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the supply of
carbohydrates in the body is low. In fact lipids store twice as much energy as an equal
amount of carbohydrates.
The uses of lipids can be summarized by the mnemonic WIFE.
Sources of lipids include vegetable oils and animal fats.

Proteins
All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Most of them also contain
sulphur or phosphorous and a small number of them contain metals such as iron (haemoglobin)
and magnesium (chlorophyll). The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. There are
twenty amino acids commonly found in living organisms and theses may be divided into two
groups namely essential and non-essential amino acids. Essential amino acids are those that
the body cannot synthesize but must be part of the diet. Non-essential amino acids are those
that the body can synthesize and so are not required in the diet.
Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to make molecules known as peptides. A peptide
molecule which consisting of two amino acids is called a dipeptide while one with more than
two is called a polypeptide. Most proteins are polypeptides. Seources of proteins include meat,
fish, milk, eggs and legume seeds such as beans, ground nuts, peas etc.

29
Uses of proteins
 growth and repair of body tissues
 they are important for making body chemicals such as hormones, enzymes, antibodies,
antitoxins, haemoglobin, keratin, melanin, collagen, actin and myosin
Water
It is an inorganic molecule made of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, its chemical formula is
H2O.

Uses of Water
 It is a universal solvent- where substances needed by the body are dissolved and
transported
 Thermoregulation- water is a coolant when the body gets hot and also helps distribute
body heat from active organs
 Digestion- involved in chemical breaking down of large molecules into smaller ones-
also called hydrolysis.
 It is a component of body fluids- saliva, blood, lymph etc.
 It is a participant in metabolic reactions such as photosynthesis.
 It makes up the hydrostatic skeleton in some organisms.
If water is lacking in the body, an organism suffers from dehydration. In humans insufficient
water can also lead to constipation.

Mineral Salts
These are inorganic substances and are required by the body in small amounts and their
absence causes serious deficiency diseases. They are absorbed into the body in the form of ions
(charged particles formed when an atom gains or loses electrons). They function as enzyme
activators. Examples of mineral salts are calcium and iron.
Calcium
This is a mineral salt important in the following ways:
 formation of strong bones and teeth
 conduction of nerve impulses
 contraction of muscles
 an activator of certain enzymes
Sources of calcium include milk, eggs, meat and bones. Calcium deficiency leads to a
condition known as rickets (the formation of weak and deformed bones)
Iron
It is a mineral salt which is important in the formation of haemoglobin. Iron deficiency leads
to Anaemia. Sources of iron include meat, green vegetables and fruits.

Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules required by the body in small amounts and their absence leads
to deficiency diseases. They function as co-enzymes. There are two groups of vitamins, namely
water soluble (those that dissolve in water i.e. B and C) and fat soluble vitamins (those that
dissolve in fats i.e. A, D, E and K)
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
This is a water-soluble vitamin important for the formation of connective tissues of the body.
Vitamin C deficiency leads to a disease called scurvy (characterized by swollen and bleeding
gums, poor healing of wounds and painful muscles). Sources of vitamin C include fresh
vegetables and fruits. Vitamin C tends to get destroyed by over-cooking and long periods of
storage.
Vitamin D

30
It is a fat soluble vitamin which is required in the absorption and metabolism of calcium and
phosphorous. Deficiency of vitamin D leads to rickets. Sources of vitamin D include fish liver
oil, milk and eggs. The skin is also able to synthesize this vitamin when exposed to sunlight.

Roughage
This is the indigestible part of the diet made of cellulose. It adds bulk to faeces and stimulates
peristalsis along the alimentary canal, thereby preventing constipation. Lack of roughage leads
to constipation (difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces). The other name
for roughage is dietary fibre.

Exercise: Write a short essay about the uses, benefits and health hazards associated with food
additives including colourings.

Food Tests

1. The Iodine Test for Starch

(a) If the sample is in solid /powder form
 Place a small amount of sample on a white tile
 Add a few drops/2 drops of iodine solution to the sample; then observe and
record what happens.
(b) If the sample is in solution/suspension form
 Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
 Add a few drops/2 drops ofiodine solution to the test tube and shake;
Then observe and record what happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the table below:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains yellowish-brown Starch absent
Solution turns blue-black Starch present

2. The Benedict’s test for Reducing Sugars

This test requires the sample to be in solution form and may be performed on suspensions. If
the sample is in solid form, it will first need to be ground /crushed/cut into very small pieces
and to be shaken with distilled water for extraction of reducing sugars if they are present. Filter
and then proceed with the following test method on the filtrate:
 Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
 Add 2 cm3/anequal volume ofBenedict’s solution to the sample solution and shake.
 Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Reducing sugars absent
*Solution turns green/yellow/orange/brick red Reducing sugars present

*Only state the final colour observed and not all the colours mentioned in the table. The extent
of the colour change indicates the quantity of reducing sugars present i.e. green and yellow
colours indicate that little/traces/small amounts of reducing sugars are present, orange indicates
that reducing sugars are present and brick red indicates high concentrations of reducing sugars
present.
3. The Benedict’s test for Non-reducing Sugars
 First carry out the Benedict‟s test for reducing sugars. If the colour of the solution
remains blue, proceed with the next steps.
31
  Place another 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
 Add 1 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric, heat in water bath for 3 minutes and cool.
 Add sodium hydrogen carbonate solution or sodium hydroxide solution to the
mixture, a little at a time until fizzing stops.
 Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solutionto the mixture.
 Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then observe and record what happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Non-reducing sugars absent
Solution turns green/yellow/ orange/brick red Non-reducing sugar present

4. The Biuret Test for Proteins

This test also works best for solutions and suspensions. Extraction by grinding and shaking
with distilled water is therefore necessary where samples are in solid form. The filtrate will
then be tested as follows:
 Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
 Eitheradd 5 drops ofsodium hydroxidesolution to the sample solution followed by a
few/2 drops ofcopper (II) sulphate solution, drop by drop, shaking and observing
after each drop.
 Or add an equal volume of Biuret solution; then observe and record what happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Proteins absent
*Solution turns purple/violet/lilac/mauve Proteins present
Only one of these options needs to be mentioned. Candidates are advised to use colour names
which are commonly used e.g. it is better to use the name purple or violet instead of mauve or
lilac.

5. Testing for Lipids (Fats and Oils)

(a) The Emulsion Test
 Shake a small sample/a drop of sample solution with 2 cm3absolute ethanolin a test
tube.
 Add a few drops of distilled water to the test tube; then observe and record what
happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains clear Fats/oils absent
Emulsion formed/solution turns cloudy Fats/oils present

(b) The Grease Spot Test

 Place a drop of sample/sample solution on filter paper or brown paper.
 Place a drop of distilled water next to the drop of the sample.
 Hold the paper against light until the drop of water disappears; then observe and record
what happens to the sample spot.

32
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:
Observation Conclusion
Sample spot disappears Fats/oils absent
Permanent translucent/oily/greasy spot Fats/oils present
formed

PLANT NUTRITION

Photosynthesis
This is the process by which green plants manufacture their own food by using sunlight energy
to combine carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is produced as a by product. This process takes
place in leaves and may be summarised by the following word and chemical equations:

Word Equation

Chemical Equation

The products for photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The oxygen is released out of the
plant while some of it is used for respiration. The glucose formed is metabolically active and
takes part in the following reactions:
 Some of it is used for respiration
 Some of it is converted to cellulose and becomes part of cell walls
 Some of it is combined with nitrogen and used to synthesise amino acids
 Some of it is converted to sucrose in order to be transported
 Some of it is converted to fats and oils
 Some of it is converted to nucleic acids
 The excess is converted to starch for storage

To determine whether photosynthesis has taken place, the leaves of plants are tested for starch.
The steps involved in testing a leaf for starch are:
 Boil the leaf in water (to kill the protoplasm and make it permeable to Iodine solution)
 Boil the leaf in alcohol using a water bath. This is to extract the chlorophyll so that it
does not interfere with colour changes; a water bath is used because alcohol is highly
flammable. However the alcohol also makes the leaf brittle.
 Place the leaf in warm water to soften it.
 Spread the leaf on a white tile and add a few drops of Iodine solution. If the Iodine
solution turns blue-black, starch is present and if it remains yellowish brown, starch is
absent.

Requirements for Photosynthesis

These factors that need to be present for photosynthesis to take place are carbon dioxide,
water, sunlight and chlorophyll. Those that also affect the rate of photosynthesis are called
limiting factors of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide enters the plant by diffusing through small
openings in the leaf called stomata (singular = stoma). Water enters the plant through the roots
by osmosis and moves up the plant through xylem vessels. Light energy (mainly solar energy)
33
is captured/trapped and stored by a green pigment called chlorophyll found in the chloroplasts.
During photosynthesis, this solar energy is transformed into chemical energy. Since
photosynthesis is an enzyme-catalysed reaction, its rate gets affected by all factors that affect
enzyme activity.

Experiment to show that Carbon Dioxide is necessary for Photosynthesis

 Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours.
During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
 Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:

 Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours.

 Test leaves A and B for starch
Leaf A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while leaf B turns yellowish
brown (showing the absence of starch). This shows that carbon dioxide is necessary for
photosynthesis.
Exercise: What are the uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate, distilled water and soda lime in
this experiment?

Experiment to show that light is necessary for Photosynthesis

 Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours.
During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
 Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:

 Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight, draw the
selected leaf showing the exposed parts and the covered parts.
 Test parts A (exposed part) and B (covered part) for starch
Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns yellowish brown
(showing the absence of starch). This shows that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Experiment to show that Chlorophyll is necessary for Photosynthesis

34
  Destarch a well-watered potted plant which has variegated leaves by placing it in the
dark for at least 24 hours. During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is
used up.
 Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight, draw a
selected leaf showing the green parts and the white parts so that they can easily be
identified even after chlorophyll has been removed from the leaf. Label the green parts
as A and the white parts as B.
 Test the parts A (green part) and B (white part) for starch.
Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns yellowish brown
(showing the absence of starch). This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Measuring the Rate of Photosynthesis

This can be measured by counting the number of oxygen bubbles produced by an aquatic plant
(e.g. pondweed/Elodea sp) per unit time. A typical setup for such an experiment is shown in
the following diagram.

Leaf Structure
External Structure

Internal Structure (Cross Section)

35
Adaptations of the Leaf for Photosynthesis
 Thin lamina for easy penetration of light
 Large surface area to capture as much light as possible
 Presence of veins/vascular bundles to supply the leaf with water (the xylem) and to
transport end products of photosynthesis (the phloem)
 Presence of stomata for entry of carbon dioxide and exit of oxygen
 Presence of chloroplasts to trap sunlight for photosynthesis. The highest concentration
of chloroplasts is found in the palisade cells, followed by the spongy cells and finally
the guard cells.
The Importance of Photosynthesis
 It produces food for all organisms directly or indirectly
 It maintains the balance (equilibrium) of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
by using carbon dioxide from animals and producing oxygen for animals.
Applications of photosynthesis in Greenhouses
A greenhouse is an enclosure with walls of transparent glass or plastic where plants are grown.
By having transparent walls, light and heat are allowed to reach the plants. In some green
houses, plants are supplied with artificial light from electric bulbs. The walls minimize escape
of heat from the greenhouse thereby keeping temperatures high inside the greenhouse for
optimum enzyme activity. Sometimes the greenhouse is artificially supplied with carbon
dioxide. These factors make a green house more productive than an open piece of land.
Plant Storage Organs
The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are
mainly stored in seeds e.g. in groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified
plant organs, some of which are discussed below.
(i) Root tuber: This a fibrous root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potato (Ipomea batatas)
tuber
(ii) Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potato
(Solanum tuberosum)
(iii) Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g. onion
(Allium sp)
(iv) Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger
(v) Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem e.g. Crocus sp.
(vi) Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store protected
by a testa.

Mineral Nutrition in Plants

36
Plants require several elements in order to grow properly. These elements are absorbed by the
roots from the soil in the form of mineral ions. There are two groups of elements needed by
plants for proper growth namely major elements and minor elements. Major elements are
required by plants in large quantities. Three examples of major elements are nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium (NPK). Minor elements are needed by the plant in small quantities.
Examples of mineral ions needed by plants are magnesium and nitrates.
Magnesium
This forms part of the chlorophyll molecule. Deficiency causes chlorosiswhich is characterised
by yellowing of leaves beginning from the bottom of the plant.
Nitrogen
This is absorbed from the soil in the form of nitrate ions (NO-3) or ammonium ions (NH+4). It is
important for synthesis of proteins. Deficiency leads to stunted growth, weak stems and
yellowing of leaves.
Potassium
Potassium is important for flowering and fruit formation and is absorbed in the form of
potassium ions (K+). Deficiency of potassium causes poor flowering and fruit formation.
Phosphorous
It is absorbed in the form of phosphate ions (PO3-4). It is important for the formation of Nucleic
acids and ATP. Deficiency leads to purple leaves and poorly developed roots.

Effects of Sulphur dioxide Pollution on Plant Nutrition

Sulphur dioxide is emitted in industrial and exhaust fumes which are released into the
atmosphere. It dissolves in rain water forming sulphuric acid which falls as acid rain. The
effects of acid rain on plant growth are:
 It dissolves away the waxy cuticle, thereby increasing the rate of transpiration and
causing the leaves to wilt and die. This stops or reduces the rate of photosynthesis,
leading to death of the plants.
 It damages the root hairs, thereby reducing the rate of water and mineral uptake.
In certain European countries, entire forests were wiped out after the industrial revolution due
to increased emission of sulphur dioxide.
ANIMAL NUTRITION

Animals carry out holozoic nutrition. This is a type of nutrition which occurs in animals in a
specialized tube called the alimentary canal or digestive system and involves five stages
namelyingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth.
Digestion is the breaking down of food. There are two types of digestion, namely physical
digestion and chemical digestion. Physical digestion is the break down of large pieces of food
into smaller ones. In humans, this process is carried out by teeth in the mouth. It increases the
surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and makes food easy to swallow.
Chemical digestion is the break down of large molecules of food into smaller ones by
enzymes. It makes absorption of food more efficient
Absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream.
Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of absorbed food in living cells.
Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the body through the anus.

The Human Alimentary Canal

37
Digestion of Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins
Digestion of food substances occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum and jejunum.
Digestion in the Mouth
The following events occur after food has been ingested into the mouth:
(i) Chewing: Also called mastication, this is the break down of large pieces of food into
smaller ones by teeth. It increases the surface area of the food for more efficient enzyme
activity and makes food easy to swallow.
(ii) Secretion of Saliva: This is carried out by salivary glands. Saliva is a mixture of water,
mucus, the enzymes salivaryamylase and lysozyme in a slightlyalkalinemedium. The water
helps in cooling food that is too hot and warming up food that is too cold so that its
temperature is favourable for enzyme action. It also softens food for easy chewing e.g. it is
easier to chew biscuits after they have been moistened by saliva. The mucus lubricates food for
easier swallowing. The slightly alkaline PH is favourable or optimum for the activity of
salivary amylase. Salivary amylase starts the digestion of cooked starch to produce maltose.
However, only small amounts of starch are converted to maltose in the mouth because food
stays for a short time in the mouth. Amylase does not work in the stomach because the PH there
is acidic.
(iii) Mixing Food with Saliva and formation of Bolus
While food is being chewed, the tongue mixes it with saliva. Later, the tongue works with the
palate (top of the mouth) to roll the chewed food up into a round semi solid mass called abolus,
in readiness for swallowing.
Swallowing and Peristalsis
Swallowing is the passage of food or liquids from the mouth to the stomach through the
oesophagus. During swallowing, the food bolus moves by a process known as peristalsis.
Peristalsis is the alternate contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles in a
wave-like manner in order to move food along the alimentary canal. Peristalsis is illustrated in
the following diagram:

38
Behind the bolus, circular muscles contract while longitudinal muscles relax. Ahead of the
bolus, circular muscles relax while longitudinal muscles contract.
Digestion in the Stomach
The stomach is an elastic bag with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. The entrance of the
stomach is guarded by the cardiac sphincter. The exit is guarded by the pyloric sphincter. The
following events take place in the stomach;
Secretion of gastric juice: Gastric juice is a mixture of pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric
acid and mucus. Pepsin breaks down proteins to form peptides. Rennin coagulates
milk by converting the soluble protein caesinogen into an insoluble form called casein.
This delays the passage of milk to the duodenum giving chance for pepsin to digest
milk protein. Both pepsin and rennin are secreted in inactive forms called pepsinogen
and prorennin, respectively. Hydrochloric acid activates them into active enzymes and
sets an acidic pH which is optimum. It also kills some bacteria and hydrolyses sucrose
to glucose and fructose. Mucus protects the lining of the stomach against the acid and
pepsin.
Churning: This is the mixing of food by rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the
wall of the stomach to form a paste called chyme.
Temporal Storage of Food: Liquids can stay in the stomach for up to 30 minutes;
carbohydrates are kept for about one hour; proteins and lipids stay up to 2 hours.
Digestion in the Duodenum
The duodenum receives digestive juices from the liver and the pancreas. The liver secretes bile
which is temporarily stored in the gall bladder and carried to the duodenum by the bile duct.
Bile contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, bile salts and bile pigments. Sodium hydrogen
carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline pH for the enzymes
of the duodenum. The bile salts emulsify fats thereby increasing the surface area for the action
of lipase. Emulsificationis the break down of large drops of fats into small droplets. Bile
pigments have no digestive function but add colour to the faeces.
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, trypsin,
lipase and pancreatic amylase. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and
then sets an optimum alkaline pH for the enzymes of the duodenum. Trypsin breaks down
proteins to form peptides. Lipase breaks down fat molecules to fatty acid and glycerol.
Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch to form maltose.

Digestion in the Jejunum

This secretes IntestinalJuice (succus entericus) which contains Lactase, maltase, sucrase and
peptidase. Lactase breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose. Maltase breaks down
maltose to glucose. Sucrase breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose. Peptidase breaks
down peptides to amino acids. Digestion is completed in the jejunum.
The ileum and Absorption
The ileum carries out absorption of digestive end products and is adapted for this function in
the following ways:
 The ileum is very long thereby providing a large surface area for absorption.
39
  It has a thin epithelium for more efficient diffusion of food.
 It has finger like projections called villi (singular: villus) and microvilli which
further increase the surface area for absorption.
 Each villus has a network of capillaries for absorption and transportation of
monosaccharides and amino acids
 Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty acids and glycerol.

Diagram of a Villus

Assimilation of Digestive end Products

After absorption, the digestive end products are transported in the blood to the liver by the
hepatic portal vein. The food is then assimilated as follows
a) Assimilation of Monosaccharides (Glucose, Fructose and Galactose)
Glucose is mainly used as a substrate for tissue (cellular) respiration. If it is in excess, the
excess is converted to glycogen which is stored in themuscles and the liver. However the
human body stores limited amounts of glycogen i.e. about 400g (300g in the muscles and 100g
in the liver). If there is still some excess glucose, it is converted to fat and stored in the adipose
tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the brain, heart, liver, kidneys
and intestine. These processes are influenced by a hormone calledinsulin which is secreted by
the pancreas. Fructose and galactose are assimilated in the same way as glucose.
b) Assimilation of Amino Acids
Amino acids are assembled to make the proteins required by the body. Excess amino acids are
deaminated by the liver. Deamination is the process by which the amino group of an amino
acid is removed and eventually converted to urea by the liver. Ammonia is an intermediate
during deamination and is highly toxic. It is quickly converted to urea which less toxic. The
remaining part of the amino acid known as the carbonskeleton may be converted to glucose
by a process called gluconeogenesis. Urea is toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body. It is
carried from the liver by blood and is removed from the body by the kidneys by the process of
excretion.
c) Assimilation of Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Glycerol and fatty acids are chemically combined to make fats which have the following uses
in the body:
 Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat loss from
the body
 Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called phospholipids
which can be synthesized from fats and oils

40
  Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the supply of
carbohydrates in the body is low. In fact lipids store twice as much energy as an equal
amount of carbohydrates.
Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs
such as the brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine. The fat under the skin is responsible for
insulation while the fat around delicate organs cushions the organs against shocks.
Large Intestines
These are made of the caecum, the colon and the rectum. The caecum is the point where the
ileum is linked to the large intestines. It has a projection at the base known as the appendix,
which has no known use in the human body and is considered a vestigial organ. The colon
carries out absorption of water from the faeces while the rectum stores faeces temporarily
before they are egested and continues the absorption of water.
Functions of the Liver
The liver is the largest internalorgan in the human body and performs a wide range of
functions including the following:
 Destruction of old red blood cells resulting in formation of bile which is important in
emulsification of fats.
 Deamination of excess amino acids resulting in formation of urea.
 Detoxification of poisons and alcohol by converting them to less toxic substances e.g.
hydrogen peroxide is broken down to water and oxygen by the enzyme catalase in the
liver. Excess intake of alcohol frequently can lead to a condition called cirrhosis
(hardeningliver tissue, leading to loss of function)
 Conversion of excess glucose to glycogen and storage of glycogen, thereby
regulating the levels of blood sugar.
 Manufacture of red blood cells in babies
 Transamination (the conversion some amino acids to others)
 Synthesis of plasma proteins such as prothrombin, fibrinogen, globulins and albumin.
 Storage of some vitamins (e.g. vitamin A) and some mineral ions (e.g. iron)
 Production of heat through a wide range of exothermic/exergonic reactions.
Common Ailments of the Liver
Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver which may result from infection hepatitis viruses.
Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver.
Cirrhosis: Hardening of liver tissue resulting from poisoning or excessive intake of alcohol.
Common Ailments of the Alimentary Canal
Diarrhoea: The passage of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and loss of mineral ions from
the body. It is caused by intake of food or drinks that are contaminated with pathogens. The
pathogens cause inflammation of the intestinal lining leading to diarrhoea.
Constipation: Difficult defaecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces, resulting from
insufficient roughage and water in diet. It may also result from keeping the faeces in the rectum
for too long which causes the rectum to absorb too much water, making the faeces hard and
dry.
Stomach Ulcers: An ulcer is defined as an open sore that produces toxic matter. Stomach
ulcers may result from over-production of pepsin and hydrochloric acid or when the mucus
layer in the stomach is not sufficiently thin. This causes the lining of the stomach to be
destroyed by the action of pepsin or hydrochloric acid.
Piles (haemorrhoids): This is a condition where the veins in the rectum become swollen and
eventually burst causing pain and blood-stained stool. It may be caused by frequent
constipation.

DENTITION

41
Dentition refers to the types, numbers and arrangement of teeth in the mouth of an animal. On
the other hand, the term dentalformula refers to the numbers and arrangement of teeth
according to type on the upper and lower jaw in one half of the mouth.
Each tooth has a part that grows above the gum called the crown. The outer part of the crown
is covered with a substance called enamel. Enamel is the hardest substance in the body of an
animal. The part of the tooth found in the gum region is called the neck while the part that
grows below the gum is called the root.

Types of Teeth
There are four types of teeth namely incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
Incisors: These are chisel-shaped teeth used for cutting and biting. Each incisor only has one
root.
Canine: These are dagger-shaped (pointed) teeth used for tearing flesh, suffocating prey and
carrying young ones. Each canine only has one root. In carnivorous animals, the canines are
very long and pointed.
Premolars: these are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or crushing food. Each usually
has two roots.
Molars: these are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or crushing food. Each molar has
from two to four roots. The projections on top of the crowns of premolars and molars are called
cusps or ridges

Internal Structure of a Tooth

An Incisor A Molar

Functions of tooth parts:

Enamel
This is the hardest substance in the body of an animal. It‟s made of Calcium and Phosphate
salts and its functions are:
 Preventing wearing away of the tooth
 Protecting the tooth from damage
 It is used as a biting and grinding surface
However the enamel can be corroded (dissolved) by acids.
Dentine
This is a bone-like tissue below the enamel which is made of calcium and phosphate salts,
collagen fibres and cytoplasmic strands. It contains fine canals which link the pulp cavity to the
enamel.
Pulp Cavity
This is a space within the dentine which is made of tooth-producing cells, nerves and blood
vessels. The nerves make the tooth sensitive to stimuli such as temperature, pH and pressure.
The blood vessels supply the tooth with food and oxygen
42
Cement
This is a bone-like tissue with fibres that anchor the tooth to the jawbone.

Dental Formula (Plural: Dental Formulae)

The dental formula is the number and arrangement of teeth according to type on the upper and
lower jaw in one half of the mouth of an animal. Examples of dental formulae are:
Human being Cat
2 1 2 3
i  c  pm m  i  c  1 pm 3 m  1
3
2 1 2 3 3 1 2 1

Cow Rat
0 0 3 3 1 0 0 3
i  c  pm m  i  c  pm m 
3 1 3 3 1 0 0 3
Where i=incisors, c=canines, pm=premolars and m=molars

Note that the dental formulae only show the number of teeth present in one half of the mouth.
To get the total number of teeth, the numbers in the dental formula must be multiplied by two.

Relationship between Dentition and Type of Diet

a) Dentition in Carnivore
Carnivores are animals that feed predominantly on flesh e.g. lions. Their dentition is
specialised in the following ways:
 Canines are very long and pointed to enable them to tear flesh and suffocate their
prey.
 Presence of carnassial teeth (the last upper premolar and first lower molar) which
work like the blades of a scissors to slice meat and shear flesh away from bones.
b) Dentition in a Herbivore
Herbivores are animals that feed predominantly on vegetation e.g. sheep. Their dentition is
specialised in the following ways:
 Upper incisors are absent and replaced by a horny pad which works in conjunction
with lower incisors to grip vegetation and wrench it.
 There is a space between the incisors and premolars called the diastema. It is used to
manipulate food by separating the freshly eaten food from the one that is already being
chewed.
c) Dentition in an Omnivore
Omnivores are animals that feed on both flesh and vegetation e.g. human beings. Their
dentition is not specialised for any kind of diet.

Tooth Decay
Also called dental decay or dental caries, this is a condition where the enamel of teeth is
dissolved (corroded) by organicacids produced by fermentation of sugars by bacteria in the
mouth forming cavities in the teeth. When cavity reaches the dentine, the tooth starts getting
painful. The pain increases further when the cavity reaches the pulp cavity. At this stage, the
tooth pains each time the patient takes very hot or very cold foods, becomes infected and may
even start having a bad smell due to accumulation of abscess (pus). The condition may be
treated by filling the tooth in with cement or having a tooth extraction.
Prevention of Tooth Decay
 Brushing teeth with fluoride toothpaste after every meal
 Avoiding intake of sugary foods
 Regular visits to the dentist i.e. at least twice every year (once every six months)
 Taking foods that are rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamins C and D

43
  Using dental floss to remove food particles from teeth
 Using teeth properly by avoiding using them for opening bottle tops and the like as this
may crack the enamel.

TRANSPORT IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Plants need a transport system for the following reasons:

 To carry water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant
 To transport manufactured foods from the leaves to other parts of the plant
 To transport hormones from sites of synthesis to sites of usage
The transport system in flowering plants is called the vascular system. This consists of xylem
and phloem which are closely associated with a meristematic tissue called cambium. Xylem
conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant and supports the
plant mechanically. Phloem transports manufactured foods from the leaves to other parts of
the plant. Cambium carries out cell division to produce new cells, including xylem and phloem
cells.

Arrangement of Vascular Tissues in Dicots and Monocots

(a) Cross-section of a Dicot Root

 Xylem is located in the centre and is star-shaped

 Phloem is located between the „arms‟ of the xylem

(b) Cross-section of a Monocot Root

(c) Cross-section of a Dicot Stem

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(d) Cross-section of a Monocot Stem

Uptake/Absorption of Water and Mineral Salts

Water and mineral salts are absorbed by roothairs which are found near the tips of roots. Root
hairs are elongated outgrowths of epidermal cells of the roots. A root hair cell absorbs water by
osmosis and mineral salts by activetransport and is adapted for absorption in the following
ways:

 Has an elongated outgrowth which increases the surface area for faster diffusion during
absorption.
 Absence of chloroplast to create more room for absorption.
 High concentration of mitochondria to provide energy for active absorption/transport of
mineral salts. In addition, root hair cells are numerous which further increase their
surface area.
Structure of a Root Hair Cell

Movement of Water from the root hairs to the xylem

After being absorbed, water moves from the root hair cell to the xylem using three possible
routes namely apoplast (from cell wall to cell wall), symplast (from cytoplasm to cytoplasm)

45
and vacuolarroute (from vacuole to vacuole). The movement of water from cell to cell is due
to osmosis and transpirationpull.

Movement of water up the Plant

Water moves up the plant through xylem vessels in a continuous stream known as the
transpiration stream. The forces responsible for movement of water in the transpiration
stream are transpiration, capillarity, root pressure and guttation.

Transpiration (the diffusion of water vapour from plant leaves to the atmosphere through
stomata). This creates a suction force that pulls water up the xylem vessels.

Capillarity: This is the movement of water into narrow tubes or openings as a result of
cohesion (attractive forces between molecules of the same kind) and adhesion (attractive forces
between molecules of different substances).

Root Pressure: This is the pressure created in xylem vessels due to osmotic gain of water by the
roots. This pushes water up the xylem vessels.

Guttation: the loss of water drops from the tips and margins of leaves through openings called
hydathodes. This creates a suction force that pulls water up the xylem vessels.

The following diagram summarises the transpiration stream.

Transpiration

This is the diffusion of water vapour from leaves to the atmosphere through stomata. In leaves
of most plants, there are more stomata on the under-side than on the upper-side. The water
moves from the xylem vessels to the mesophyll cells by osmosis then it evaporates from the
surfaces of the mesophyll cells into the air spaces and finally diffuses out of the air spaces to
the atmosphere through the stomata.

Excessive transpiration can lead to plasmolysis of plant cells causing wilting of the plant.
Wilting is the sagging of delicate plant parts such as leaves, flowers and young stems due loss
of water. Temporary wilting is wilting that can be reversed by supplying a plant with water.
Permanent wilting can not be reversed even if a plant is supplied with water but leads to death
of the plant. A plant undergoes wilting when the rate of transpiration is higher than the rate of
water uptake.
46
Factors that affect the rate of transpiration

These include temperature, humidity, light intensity and wind.

Temperature: this is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. The higher the
temperature, the higher the transpiration rate. This is because high temperatures increase the
kinetic energy of the water molecules making them diffuse faster out of the leaf.

Humidity: this is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. The higher the humidity, the
lower the transpiration rate because high humidity lowers the concentration gradient between
the leaf and the atmosphere.

Light Intensity: This is the brightness or dimness of light. The higher the light intensity, the
higher the transpiration rate because high light intensity causes opening of the stomata.

Wind: wind is moving air. The higher the wind speed, the greater the rate of transpiration.
When the air is still, a layer of water vapour forms over the leaf and reduces the transpiration
rate. But when there is wind, this layer of vapour is blown away thereby increasing the
diffusion rate.

Plants can be adapted to reduce the rate of transpiration by having xeromorphic features
which include the following:

 Presence of a thick waxy cuticle

 Sunken stomata
 Reduced size of leaves (needle-shaped leaves).
 Presence of hairs on the lower side of the leaf
 Leaves can roll up when water is scarce
Measuring the Rate of Transpiration

This can be measured using an instrument called the potometer.

Diagram of potometer

When using the potometer it is assumed that water uptake is equal to water loss through
transpiration. The distance moved by the air bubble/meniscus, the cross sectional area of the
capillary tube and the time taken need to be known in order to calculate the transpiration rate
using the following formula:

Rate of transpiration = Distance moved by meniscus X Cross sectional area of tube

47
 Time taken

Example

A student used a potometer to measure the transpiration rate of a leafy shoot of a plant. The
water meniscus moved 30 cm in 30 minutes. If the cross-sectional area of the capillary tube
was 0.25 cm2, what was the transpiration rate of the shoot?

Solution

Rate of transpiration= Distance moved by meniscus X Cross-sectional area of tube

Time taken

= 30 cm X 0.25 cm2 = 0.25 cm3/ minute

30 minutes

Translocation

This is the movement of manufactured food from the source (point of origin/ manufacture) to
the sink sites (the sites of usage or storage) through phloem. The organic solutes mainly
include sucrose and amino acids dissolved in water. In most cases the leaves are the sources.
In some cases, storage sites may also act as sources e.g. when food from a tuber is being
translocated to points of growth.

Evidence for Translocation

Using feeding aphids

When a feeding aphid is anesthetised, a chopped off leaving the mouth part attached to the
plant, a drop of liquid is seen oozing out of the mouth part. Tests on the liquid reveal that it
contains sucrose and amino acids. When a section of the plant is cut, the mouth part is found to
be inserted in the phloem.

Ringing experiment

When a ring of bark is removed from a tree, phloem is removed together with the bark. If the
tree is left to grow for several weeks, the bark above the ring swells because it continues
receiving food coming from leaves through the phloem while the part below the ring stays the
same. This shows that food is translocated through phloem.

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Using Radioactive Carbon

When plants are supplied with radioactive carbon dioxide and allowed to photosynthesise, they
form radio active sugars. Using photographic film, the path used by sugars moving from the
leaf is found to be phloem.

Plant Storage Organs

The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are
mainly stored in seeds e.g. in groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified
plant organs, some of which are discussed below.

 Root tuber: This a lateral root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potato (Ipomea
batatas) tuber

 Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potato
(Solanum tuberosum)

49
  Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g.
onion (Allium sp)

 Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger

 Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem e.g. Crocus sp.

 Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store
protected by a testa.

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS

Animals need transport systems for the following reasons:

50
  To transport dissolved food substances from the intestines to the tissue cells.
 To transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissue cells.
 To transport hormones from endocrine (ductless) glands to target organs.
 To carry metabolic wastes from tissue cells to excretory organs.

The transport systems of mammals are:

 The blood circulatory system (cardio-vascular system).

 The lymphatic system.

The Blood Circulatory System

This system is made of the heart, blood vessels and the blood.

a)The Heart

This is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body through blood vessels. The type
of muscle found in the wall of the heart is known as cardiac muscle.

The heart is divided into left and right side by a middle wall called the septum. Each side has
an upper chamber known as an atrium (plural:atria) and a lower chamber known as a

51
ventricle. The atria receive blood form the veins which they pump to the ventricles. The
ventricles receive blood from the atria and pump it out of the heart through the arteries.

The heart receives blood from blood vessels called veins. These include the venacava (which
carries blood from the rest of the body to the right atrium) and the pulmonary vein (which
carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium). The heart pumps blood out through blood
vessels called arteries. These include the aorta (which carries blood from the left ventricle to
the rest of the body) and the pulmonary artery (which carries blood from the right ventricle
to the lungs). The wall of the heart receives from the coronary artery which branches from
the aorta.

The heart also contains valves which are responsible for keeping blood flowing in one
direction by preventing back flow. The valves found between the atria and ventricles are called
atrio-ventricular valves. The one on the right side is called the tricuspid valve while the one
on the left is called the bicuspid (mitral) valve. Those found between the ventricles and
arteries are called semi lunar valves. The semi-lunar valve found at the beginning of
theaortais called the aortic semi lunar valve while the one found at the beginning of the
pulmonaryarteryis known as the pulmonary semi lunar valve.

Diagram of the Mammalian Heart

Functioning of the heart

The wall of the heart is made of a type of muscle called cardiac muscle which has the
following characteristics, among others:

 It is myogenic (it is self-stimulating, meaning that the stimulus for its contraction
comes from the muscle itself). The stimulus for contraction originates from a special
patch of cardiac muscle called the pacemaker or sinoatrial node (SAN) found in the
right atrium.
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  It does not develop fatigue
 Its cells are branched and have a single nucleus each.
Contraction of cardiac muscle is called systole while relaxation of cardiac muscle is called
diastole. The sequence of events that occur during a single heart beat are called the cardiac
cycle. The events of the cardiac cycle are summarised as follows:

 Atrial Systole (contraction of the walls of the atria)

 Pause
 Ventricular Systole (contraction of the walls of the ventricles)
 Diastole (relaxation of the walls of the entire heart)
Note that there is a pause between atrial systole and ventricular systole.

The following table gives the details of each event of the cardiac cycle:

Event Atria Ventricles Bicuspid and Semi Blood flow

lunar
Tricuspid Valves
Valve

Atrial Contract Relax Open Close From the atria to the

Systole ventricles

Ventricular Relax Contract Close Open From the ventricles

Systole to the arteries

Diastole Relax Relax Open Close From veins into the

atria

Double Circulation (Dual Circulation)

This is a type of circulation where blood passes through the heart twice during one circulation
around the body. It involves two types of circulation, namely the pulmonary circulation and
systemic circulation.

(i) Pulmonary Circulation

This is the flow of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary artery and
from the lungs to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein. In this circulation, blood is
pumped over a short distance and at a low pressure. As a result, the walls of the right ventricle
are relatively thin compared to those of the left ventricles. The purpose of this circulation is to
oxygenate the blood and to remove carbon dioxide from the blood in the lungs.

(ii) Systemic Circulation

This is the flow of blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body through the aorta and
from the rest of the body to the right atrium through the venacava. In this circulation, blood is
pumped over a long distance and at a high pressure. As a result, the walls of the left ventricle
53
are relatively thick compared to those of the right ventricles. The purpose of this circulation is
to distribute oxygen around the body and to collect carbon dioxide from the body tissues.

The following diagram summarises double circulation.

Heart Rate and Pulse Rate

The term heart rate refers to the number of heart beats per minute. It can be measured using
an instrument called the stethoscope. The heart rate of a normal adult human being at rest is
about 72 beats /minute. Factors that affect and modify the normal resting heart rate are
sleeping, emotional excitement, illness (e.g. fever) and physical exercise, as illustrated in the
following table:

Factor Heart Rate (beats per minute)

Rest 72

Sleeping

Fever

Emotional Excitement

Physical Exercise

Reference: Environmental Science Grade 8

A pulse is a wave of pressure created in the arteries by a heart beat. The number of pulses per
minute is called the pulse rate. Measuring the pulse rate is an indirect way of measuring the
heart rate. A pulse can be located using the index and middle fingers on any part of the body
where arteries are very close to the skin surface such as

 on the wrist just near the base of the thumb

 on the sides of the head just next to the ears
 on the neck just below the jaws
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

This is the occlusion (blockage) of coronary arteries with fatty material, mainly cholesterol.
There are several conditions associated with coronary heart disease. Some of them are:
54
  Atheroma This is an accumulation of fatty material in the walls of the coronary
arteries.
 Sclerosis This is the hardening of the walls of coronary arteries due to the presence of
fatty material
 Thrombosis this is the blockage of the coronary arteries by a mixture of blood clots,
fatty material and fibres. A blood clot within the blood vessels is called a thrombus.
 Angina This is a sharp pain experienced in the heart and left arm after exertion due to
the presence of an atheroma or thrombus in the coronary artery.
 Embolus This is a moving clot that results when a thrombus is pushed out of place by
heart beat. If it reaches the brain, it may cause bursting of blood vessels, resulting in
stroke. An embolus in the lungs leads to pulmonary embolism which is characterized
by sharp pains in the lungs.
 Heart Failure (myocardial infarction)This is a condition where the heart fails to pump
blood due to a limited supply of blood caused by blockage of the coronary arteries. The
patient may black-out, collapse and die.
Causes of Coronary Heart Disease

Factors that increase the risk of coronary heart disease include the following:

 Excessive intake of fatty foods. Fatty foods are easily converted to cholesterol which
in turn blocks the coronary arteries.
 Smoking. Cigarette smoke contains a stimulant called nicotine which tends to
promote the accumulation of cholesterol in the blood.
 Emotional stress. The body secretes high levels of adrenaline during emotional stress.
This also tends to promote accumulation of cholesterol in the blood stream.
 Lack of exercise

Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease

 Avoid excessive intake of fatty foods

 Avoid smoking
 Avoid emotional stress
 Exercise regularly

(b) Blood Vessels

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These are tubes through which blood moves around the body. There are three types of blood
vessels. These are Arteries, veins and capillaries.

(i) Arteries

These are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart to other parts of the body. They
have the following characteristics:

 They carry blood away from the heart

 They carry blood at high pressure
 They have thick walls and narrow lumens. The thick walls help them withstand the
pressure from the heart.
 They have no valves since the pressure from the heart is enough to keep blood moving
in one direction.
 They all carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery.
 They appear round in cross-section
 They are located deeper under the skin than the veins.
(ii) Veins

These are blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart from other parts of the body. The
have the following characteristics:

 They carry blood towards the heart.

 They carry blood at low pressure
 They have thin walls and wide lumens.
 They have valves to keep blood moving in one direction by preventing back flow.
 They all carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein.
 They appear irregular in cross-section
 They are located nearer to the skin surface than the arteries.
The following diagram illustrates the structure of an artery and a vein.

(iii) Capillaries

These are the smallest blood vessels. They form a link between arteries and veins. As
arteries approach the organs of the body, they branch into smaller arteries called arterioles.

56
The arterioles keep on subdividing until they form the capillaries. The capillaries have direct
contact with the tissue cells. This makes it possible for substances to be exchanged between
the blood and tissue cells. In addition, the walls of the capillaries are very thin (just one cell
thick) for easy diffusion of materials between the blood and the tissue cells. The network of
capillaries in the tissue cells is called the capillary bed. The following diagram illustrates the
structure of a capillary.

The exchange of materials between blood and the tissue cells is illustrated by the following
diagram of the capillary bed.

Diagram of Capillary bed

When blood from the arterioles reaches the capillary bed, the plasma is filtered out of the
capillaries into the spaces around the tissue cells. The fluid around the tissue cells is called
tissue fluid. Tissue fluid has the following functions:

 Bathing the tissue cells

 Thermoregulation of the tissue cells
 Facilitating exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells. Dissolved food
and oxygen diffuse from the tissue fluid into the tissue cells while carbon dioxide and
urea diffuse from the tissue cells into the tissue fluid.
The formation of tissue fluid from blood is caused by the following factors:

 The pressure of blood coming from the arterioles is higher than the pressure in the
venule.
 The walls of the capillaries are very thin (one cell thick)
Red blood cells are not filtered out of the capillaries because they are large and rigid. However,
phagocytes are able to change shape and squeeze out of the capillaries.
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Names of Selected Blood Vessels

Name of Organ Names of Blood Vessels

Heart Coronary artery

Lungs Pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein

Liver Hepatic artery, hepatic vein and hepatic

portal vein

Kidneys Renal artery and renal vein

(c) Blood

This is a tissue made of red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma and platelets.

Red blood cell (Erythrocytes)

These are biconcave discs responsible for transportation of oxygen and small amounts of
carbon dioxide. They are made in the bone marrow in adults but can also be made by the liver
in babies. One milliliter of blood contains 5 to 6 million red blood cells. They have a lifespan
of about 120 days and are destroyed by the liver. They are adapted for transportation of oxygen
in the following ways:

 Biconcave disc shape to increase the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.
 Presence of a red pigment called haemoglobin which has a high affinity (attraction) for
oxygen. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin when oxygen
concentrations are high (e.g. in the lungs). When oxygen concentrations are low e.g. in
the muscles, oxyhaemoglobin dissociates forming haemoglobin and oxygen.

 Absence of nucleus makes more room for haemoglobin

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White Blood Cells (Leucocytes)

These are cells that defend the body against infection (diseases) and are made in the bone
marrow, lymphoid tissue, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus and spleen. Two examples of white
blood cells are phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Phagocytes

Functions

 These defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting germs (foreign
bodies).
Adaptations

 Lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of germs easy.

 Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move towards germs.
 They have no fixed shape but can change their shapes, making engulfing of foreign
bodies possible.

Cell membrane

Cytoplasm

Lobed Nucleus

Lymphocytes

Functions

 To defend the body against infection by producing antibodies and antitoxins.

Antibodies are proteins that destroy germs/foreign bodies while antitoxins are proteins
that neutralize poisons from germs.
Adaptations

 Presence of a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.

Cell membrane

59
 Thin Cytoplasm

Nucleus

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

These are fragments formed during the manufacture of red blood cells. They are important for
blood clotting. The steps involved in blood clotting are described below:

 When platelets are exposed to damaged/injured body tissues, they release an enzyme
called thromboplastin/(thrombokinase).
 Thromboplastin acts on a plasma protein called prothrombin changing it to an active
form called thrombin.
 Thrombin acts on another plasma protein called fibrinogen changing it into an
insoluble form called fibrin. This reaction occurs in the presence of calcium ions. The
fibrin forms a mesh (net) over the wound. This mesh traps red and white blood cells,
leading to the formation of a clot over the wound.
The following diagram summarizes the mechanism of blood clotting.

Blood clotting is important in the following ways:

 It prevents excessive loss of blood

 It prevents entry of germs into the body

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  It is the first step in the healing of wounds. The clot eventually hardens, forming a scab.
The scab eventually falls off, leaving behind a scar.

Blood Plasma

This is the liquid part of blood. It is made of water and dissolved substances. The dissolved
substances include the following:

 dissolved food (monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and
mineral salts)

 dissolved metabolic wastes (urea and carbon dioxide in form of hydrogen carbonate
ions)

 dissolved chemical substances such as hormones, antibodies, antitoxins and plasma

proteins)

Plasma proteins include prothrombin, fibrinogen and albumin. The roles of plasma proteins
include maintaining blood viscosity, causing blood clotting, maintaining a constant blood PH,
maintaining osmotic balance e.t.c. The functions of blood plasma are:

 Transportation of dissolved food

 Transportation of metabolic wastes
 Transportation of hormones, antibodies and antitoxins
 Distribution of heat around the body. Most of the body heat is generated by the liver
and muscles.
Note: The functions of blood may be summarised as transport and defence.

Blood Groups

The type of blood group in a human being is determined by the type of antigen present in the
cell membrane of the red blood cell. There are two antigens, namely IAandIB, while the
absence of either antigen is represented as IO. This is called the ABO blood group system.
There are four possible blood groups, namely group A, group B, group AB and group O. The
lymphocytes in each type of blood produce antibodies against non-self antigens (antigens that
are not present in the cell membranes of their red blood cells). These antibodies are released
into the blood plasma. The following table shows the antigens and antibodies present in each of
the four blood groups:

Blood Groups Type of antigen(s) present Type of antibody present in

in the cell membranes of red the blood plasma
blood cells

Group A antigen A (IA) Anti B

Group B Antigen B (IB) Anti A

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GroupAB Both antigens A and B (IA None
and IB)

Group O None Anti A and anti B

Blood Transfusion

This refers to the transfer of blood from one individual called the donor to another one called
the recipient. For a blood transfusion to be successful the blood of the donor has to be
compatible with the blood of the recipient. Blood compatibility refers to the capacity of a
blood recipient to receive the donor‟s blood without leading to agglutination or clumping of
the blood received. Agglutination occurs when antibodies in the recipient‟s blood attack non-
self antigens present in the donor‟s blood causing the red blood cells from the donor to stick
together. This may cause blockage of blood vessels, kidney failure and stroke. Therefore, any
blood groups that have different antigens are incompatible.

The following points must be noted when carrying out a blood transfusion:

 Blood group O can be given to any blood group because it has no antigens that can be
attacked by antibodies in the recipient‟s blood. For this reason, blood group O is called
the universal donor. However, blood group O can not receive blood from any other
blood group.
 Blood groupAB can receive blood from all other blood groups because it has no
antibodies to attack the antigens in the donor‟s blood. For this reason, it is called the
universal recipient. However, blood group AB can not give blood to any other blood
group.
 A person can receive blood from another person of the same blood group without
complications arising.
 Before a donor‟s blood is given to a recipient, it has to be screened. Blood screening is
the testing of blood in order to determine the following: the blood group, the rhesus
status and to check for infections such as hepatitis and HIV.

Rhesus Factor

This is a blood antigen first discovered in monkeys of the genus called Rhesus. A person
whose blood has this antigen is said to be rhesus positive (Rh+ or Rh positive), while a person
whose blood does not have this antigen is said to be rhesus negative (Rh- or Rh negative).
The rhesus status of a child depends on the status of its two parents as described below:

 If both parents are Rh+, all their children will be Rh+.

 If one parent is Rh+ and the other is Rh- all children will be Rh+.
 If both parents are Rh-, all their children will be Rh-.
Having a rhesus negative mother and a rhesus positive father can cause serious complications
in a foetus or baby. If some of the blood of the foetus enters the mother‟s blood stream during
pregnancy or birth, the mother‟s blood begins making the anti-rhesus antigens. If the woman
conceives another rhesus positive foetus, these antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the
blood of the foetus. At the time of birth, the baby will suffer from haemolytic disease
62
(erythroblastosis foetalis), which leads to death if the baby does not receive a comprehensive
blood transfusion soon after birth. Any subsequent pregnancies are miscarried and fail to thrive
up to the time of birth.

Blood Disorders

Examples of blood disorders in humans include sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia and leukemia.

Sickle Cell Anaemia: This is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal haemoglobin.
As a result, the red blood cells become sickle-shaped, especially when oxygen levels are low in
the body. The disease reduces the capacity of the body to transport oxygen.

Haemophilia: This is an inherited disease where a person bleeds for longer periods than normal
due to poor clotting of blood. It is caused by absence of blood clotting proteins known as
factor VIII and factor IX.

Leukemia: This is defined as cancer of the white blood cells. The patient makes an abnormally
high number of immature white blood cells.

The lymphatic System

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This is a transport and defence system made of the following components:

 Lymphatic vessels (a network of vessels that have blind ends in the tissue cells)
 A fluid called lymph (derived from tissue fluid but having more glycerol, fatty acids, white
blood cells, antibodies and antitoxins than tissue fluid)
 Glands and organs such as the spleen, adenoids, tonsils, thymus, lymph nodes and
appendix. The largest organ of the lymphatic organ is the spleen. The thymus is a gland
located on top of the heart and is large in infants but keeps getting smaller and eventually
degenerates during early childhood.
The smallest vessels of the lymphatic system are called lymphatic capillaries and lacteals (in
the villi of the small intestines). These small vessels join up to form bigger vessels called the
lymphatics or lymphatic vessels. The lymphatics join up repeatedly to make bigger lymphatic
vessels. The biggest lymphatic vessels are called thoracic ducts. Each thoracic duct drains
lymph into a subclavian vein near the junction of the neck and the arm.

Two prominent features found along lymph vessels are valves and lymph nodes. Valves keep
the lymph flowing in one direction by preventing backflow. The flow of lymph is assisted by
contraction of muscles and breathing movements of the thorax and abdomen. Lymph nodes are
important in the following ways:

 They produce and store lymphocytes which are added to the lymph as it passes through on
its way to the subclavian vein.
 They filter foreign bodies, bacteria and dead tissue from the lymph before it joins the
blood.
 They become very active when the body is invaded by foreign bodies, becoming swollen
and tender in the process.
The functions of the lymphatic system may be summarised as follows:
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 It drains excess tissue fluid and takes it back to the blood
 It adds lymphocytes to the blood
 It absorbs and transports cholesterol, fatty acids and glycerol to the blood.

RESPIRATION

Respiration is defined as the release of energy from food substances in living cells. This
definition strictly applies to tissue respiration which is also called cellular respiration or
internal respiration. However the term respiration is sometimes loosely applied to other
processes that help make oxygen available to living cells. These are breathing (ventilation)
and gaseous exchange. In this case, the term external respiration is used.

The following diagram summarises the terms associated with respiration.

Internal Respiration

Internal respiration occurs inside living cells in organelles called mitochondria (singular:
mitochondrion). The main substrate for internal respiration in most organisms is glucose.
There are two types of internal respiration, namely aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration

This is the release of energy from food in living cells in the presence of oxygen. This process
releases a relatively high amount of energy (about 2880 KJ from one mole of glucose) and
the by products produced are carbon dioxide and water. This type of respiration occurs in
tissue cells of animals and plants when there is a sufficient supply of oxygen. The word and
chemical equations for aerobic respiration are given below:

Word Equation

Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide +Water +Energy

65
Chemical Equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (2880KJ)

Anaerobic Respiration

This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen.
Types of anaerobic respiration include alcoholic fermentation and lactic fermentation.

Alcoholic Fermentation

This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen,
producing alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide as by products. This process releases a
relatively low amount of energy (about 210KJ from one mole of glucose). The reaction is
catalysed by an enzyme called zymase which is naturally found in yeast. The word and
chemical equations for alcoholic fermentation are given below:

Word Equation:

Zymase

Glucose Carbon dioxide + Alcohol + Energy

Chemical Equation:

Zymase

C6H12O6 2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + Energy (210 KJ)

Alcoholic fermentation takes place in yeast.

Alcoholic fermentation is important in brewing and baking. In both cases yeast is the
organism that is used to carry out the alcoholic fermentation.

When brewing, germinating seeds are used because they contain the sugar maltose. The seeds
are dried and ground to form a powder. This powder is then boiled in water to form a paste.
The paste is cooled and yeast is added. Yeast contains an enzyme called zymase which
converts glucose to carbon dioxide and alcohol, releasing energy in the process. The glucose is
formed from the action of maltase on maltose. The alcohol is removed from the mixture by
simple distillation.

When baking, flour is mixed with water, salt, sugar and yeast to form a paste called dough.
When there is insufficient oxygen, zymase from yeasts acts on sugars to form carbon dioxide
and alcohol. But if oxygen is sufficient, yeast carries out aerobic respiration. The carbon
dioxide begins to form bubbles in the dough causing it to rise. The dough is often placed in a

66
warm place to provide an optimum temperature for enzyme activity. After this the dough can
be baked.

Lactic Fermentation

This is the release of energy from food substances in living cells in the absence of oxygen,
producing lactic acid as the only by product. The amount of energy released is very little
(about 150 KJ from one mole of glucose).

Word Equation:

Glucose lactic acid + energy

Chemical Equation:

C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 + Energy (150 KJ)

This process takes place in the muscles of animals during exercise. This is because the extra
energy required by the animal during exercise cannot all be generated by aerobic respiration
since there is a limited supply of oxygen. This energy is therefore generated by lactic
fermentation. However the lactic acid formed has harmful effects on the body such as causing
fatigue, muscle cramp and fainting. Blood flowing through the muscles carries some lactic acid
with it to the brain and the brain detects its presence. It then sends impulses to the ribcage (to
increase the breathing rate and depth) and to the heart (to increase the heart rate). This
increases oxygen supply to the muscles. This oxygen is needed to break d own lactic acid to
water and carbon dioxide. The total amount of oxygen needed to break down the lactic acid
produced during exercise is called the oxygendebt.

ATP and its Significance

Energy from respiration is not used directly by organisms but is used to produce ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) by combining adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate
(Pi). Energy from ATP is then used by living organisms. When the energy is needed, ATP
breaks down to ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing energy in the process. The formation
and breakdown of ATP can be illustrated as follows:

ATP is important in the following ways:

 It makes it possible for energy to be stored and transported

 It makes energy available when and where it is needed.
Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Germinating Seeds

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Materials: two thermal flasks, two thermometers, cotton wool, two sets of bean seeds.

Method

 Soak one set of seeds until they start germinating and boil the other set of seeds
 Soak both sets of seeds in disinfectant to kill micro organisms and place each set in a
separate thermal flask.
 Set the experiment as shown in the following diagram.

 Read the initial temperature from each of the two thermometers.

 Leave the setup for four days and read temperatures from the two thermometers again.
Exercise: Suggest why the seeds need to be soaked in a disinfectant before being put into the
flasks.

Observations

 The temperature in the flask containing boiled seeds will remain the same while the
temperature in the flask containing germinating seeds will increase.
Conclusion

Energy is produced during respiration. Germinating seeds carry out respiration while boiled
seeds do not.

Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Soil Organisms

Materials

Two large bottles, wire gauze, sodium hydroxide solution, two capillary tubes, two glass tubes,
two petri dishes, two samples of soil, two screw valves.

Method

 Heat one of the soil samples and leave the other one without heating.
 Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram

68
  Leave the setup for five hours and observe what happens to the position of the drop in
the capillary tube.

Observations

 The oil drop in the container having heated soil remains at the same position while the
one in the container having unheated soil moves inwards
Conclusion

Soil contains living organisms that carry out respiration and use up oxygen in the process.

Experiment to Demonstrate Respiration in Green Plants

Materials

A large bottle, sodium hydroxide solution, a capillary tube, a glass tube, a petri dish, a potted
plant, a screw valve.

Method

 Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram and place the setup in a dark
place.

 Leave the setup for five hours and observe what happens to the position of the drop in
the capillary tube.

Observations
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 The oil drop in the capillary tube moves inwards
Conclusion

The plant carries out respiration and uses up oxygen in the process.

Experiment to Show that Carbon Dioxide is Produced During Respiration

Materials

Three large bottles, lime water, glass tubes and a small mammal e.g. a rat.

Method

 Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram.

 Observe and record what happens to the lime water in containers A and C.
Observation
The lime water in the container C turns milky earlier than the one in A.
Conclusion
Exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled air. That is why the lime water in C
turns milky earlier than in A.

The Importance of Respiration

The energy released during respiration is used in the following processes: maintenance of a
constant body temperature, reproduction, cell division, active transport and growth
/synthesis of macromolecules (memory aid: MR. CAG).

Breathing and gaseous Exchange

Breathing in terrestrialanimals (such as human beings) is defined as the movement of air into
and out of the lungs. In aquaticanimals such as fish, breathing is the movement of water into
and out of the gillchamber. Another term used to refer to breathing is ventilation. Breathing
involves two stages known as inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation).

Gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out the blood
across a gaseous exchange surface. In humans the gaseous exchange surfaces are the alveoli

70
found in the lungs while the gaseous exchange surfaces in fish are the gills. Gaseous exchange
surfaces have the following characteristics:

 Large surface area to maximise the exchange of gases

 Moist surface because gases need to dissolve before they can diffuse across a surface.
 Thin surface to minimise the distance of diffusion so that there is faster diffusion
 Close association with a transport system to transport the gases to and from the gaseous
exchange surface, thereby maintaining a constant diffusion gradient for the gases
 Well-ventilated to maintain a constant diffusion gradient.

Breathing in Humans

The following diagram illustrates the breathing system (respiratory system) of a human being.

The events associated with breathing in human beings are summarised in the following table:

Inspiration Expiration
Diaphragm Contracts and moves Relaxes and moves upwards
downwards (flattens) (becomes dome-shaped)
External intercostal Contract Relax
muscles
Internal intercostals Relax Contract
muscles
Ribcage Moves upwards and outwards Moves downwards and inwards
Volume of lungs Increases Decreases
Pressure in lungs Decreases lower than Increases higher than atmospheric
atmospheric pressure pressure
Air flow Into the lungs Out of the lungs

Terms Associated with Breathing in Humans

Breathing Rate
This refers to the number of breaths taken by an individual per minute. The normal breathing
rate of an adult human being at rest is about 18. However, this can be altered by factors such as
71
sleeping, illness (e.g. fever), emotional excitement and physical exercise. Sleeping lowers the
breathing rate, while the other factors mentioned increase it.
Tidal Volume/Tidal Air
This is the volume of air breathed in or out in one breath when resting. The tidal volume in
humans is about 0.5 dm3(500 cm3).
Vital Capacity
This is the maximum volume of air breathed out after forced inspiration. The vital capacity in
humans is about 3.5 dm3(3500 cm3). The vital capacity can be measured using an instrument
called the spirometer. When using a spirometer, a person must first completely fill the lungs
with air and then breathe out through a tube connected to a spirometer as shown in the
following diagram until no more air can be exhaled. The vital capacity is equal to the volume
of water displaced

Residual Volume
This is the volume of air that never comes out of the lungs after forced expiration. It keeps the
lungs from collapsing. It has a value of about 1.5 dm3.

Exercise
The following diagram shows the pattern of breathing in an animal over a period of nine (9)
seconds.

5.0

3.5

3.0 A B
E F
Lung Volumes /dm3

1.5

C D

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Time (seconds)
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1.5 Time/seconds
(a) What do the letters A, B, C and D stand for?
(b) What was the animal‟s breathing rate between 0 and 3 seconds?
(c) What would happen to distance EF if the animal undergoes a period of physical exercise?
Composition of inspired and expired air

Gases Inspired air Expired air

Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water vapour Variable Saturated
Other gases Traces Traces

Gaseous Exchange in Humans

In humans, gaseous exchange is the diffusion of oxygen from the lungs into the blood and
carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs across the walls of the alveoli. The following
diagram illustrates gaseous exchange in humans.

Effects of Smoking on the Respiratory System

Cigarette smoke contains three major toxic substances, namely nicotine, tar and
carbonmonoxide. Tar is responsible for causing respiratory diseases such as bronchitis,
emphysema and lung cancer.

Bronchitis: This is the inflammation of the air passages. Tar immobilizes (stops movement of)
the cilia, causing mucus to accumulate in the air passages. This gives chance to the germs in
the mucus to infect the lining of the air passages, causing coughing. The overall effect of
bronchitis is that it reduces the amount of oxygen reaching the lungs.

Emphysema: This is the weakening and bursting of the alveoli. When tar reaches the alveoli it
weakens them and irritates them. The irritation causes coughing which makes the alveoli burst.
Emphysema reduces the surface area available for gaseous exchange.

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Lung Cancer: This is the uncontrolled or abnormal division of cells in the lungs. Smoking
increases the risk of lung cancer because tar which is present in cigarette smoke is a
carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent)

Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Insects

Insects breathe in using the trachealsystem. The tracheal begins with spiracles which are
located in the thorax and abdomen. The spiracles are joined to tubes known as tracheae
(singular= trachea). The tracheae are divided into smaller tubes called tracheoles. Gaseous
exchange occurs across the walls of the tracheoles. Small insects normally do not make any
breathing movements. However, large and active insects such as grasshoppers and bees make
breathing movements by pushing their abdomens in and out. Note that insects do not use blood
to transport gases since gases diffuse from the atmosphere to the tissue cells and vice versa
through the tracheal system.
The following diagram illustrates the tracheal system of an insect.

Breathing and Gaseous Exchange in Fish

Gaseous exchange in bony fish occurs across the surfaces of the gills. The gills of bony fish
are attached to structures known as gill bars (gill arches). There are four gill bars on each side
of the gill chamber of a bony fish. There is a series of gill filaments attached to each gill bar.
Each gill filament has structures known as gill lamellae (singular=gill lamella) where gaseous
exchange takes place. The other side of the gill bars has structures known as gill rakers whose
function is to remove solid particles from the water before it passes across the gills.
Water enters the gill chamber of a fish through the mouth (buccal cavity) and comes out
through the operculum when it opens (note that there is an operculum on each side of the
head).
The following table summarises the events associated with inspiration and expiration in fish.
Inspiration Expiration
1 Floor of mouth Lowered Raised
2 Mouth Open Closed
3 Operculum Closed Open
4 Volume of mouth and gill chamber Increases Decreases
5 Pressure in mouth and gill chamber Decreases Increases
6 Water movement Enters the gill chamber Leaves the gill chamber

Structure of Bony Fish Gills

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Gaseous exchange in plants

Gaseous exchange in plants occurs in the spongy layer of the leaf. When photosynthesis is
actively taking place e.g. during day time), a plant leaf takes in carbon dioxide and releases
oxygen. Note that during such periods, respiration also takes place. When respiration is the
only process taking place (e.g. at night), the plant leaf takes in oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide. The changes in amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide used by the plant at different
times of the day may be illustrated as follows:

The following diagram illustrates gaseous exchange in the leaf of a plant.

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EXCRETION
This is the removal of toxic metabolic waste products from the bodies of living organisms.
The products of excretion are called excretory products while the organs used to remove them
are called excretory organs.

Excretion in Mammals (e.g. Humans)

The main excretory organs and products of a mammal are summarised in the following table:
Excretory Organs Excretory Products
Kidney Urea, excess salts and excess
water
Skin Urea, salts and water
Lungs Carbon dioxide
Liver Bile pigments

The sources of the major excretory products in the human body and the organs used to remove
them are summarised in the following table.

Excretory Product Excretory Organ Source of Excretory

Product

Urea Kidneys and skin Deamination in the

liver

Carbon dioxide Lungs Cellular respiration

Bile pigments Liver Destruction of old red

blood cells

a) The Kidneys
The kidneys are a pair of bean shaped organs found in the lower abdomen. They are part of a
system called the excretory system or urinary system or renal system.
Structure of the Urinary System

76
Functions of parts of Renal System
Aorta: Carries oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the body.
Venacava: Carries deoxygenated blood from different body organs towards the heart.
Renal Vein: Carries deoxygenated blood away from the kidneys towards the venacava.
Renal Artery: Carries oxygenated blood from the aorta to the kidneys.
Ureter: This transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder: Temporal storage of urine.
Urethral Sphincter: This is a ring of muscle found at the exit of the urinary bladder. It
controls the flow of urine out of the urinary bladder. When closed, it prevents urine from
coming out; when open, it allows urine to flow out of the bladder.
Urethra: It is a passage through which urine leaves the body. In males, it is also the outlet for
semen.
Kidney: Removes urea, excess salts and excess water from the blood and forms urine.

Structure of a Kidney

The basic functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.

Structure of a Nephron

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How the Kidney Functions
Excretion in the kidney nephron occurs in four stages, namely, ultrafiltration (pressure
filtration) selectivereabsorption, osmoregulation and secretion.
Ultrafiltration
This is the filtration of small molecules such as water, mineral salts, glucose and urea from the
glomerulus into the Bowman‟s capsule of a nephron. It is caused by a build up of pressure in
the glomerulus. The pressure builds up due to the following reasons:
 The afferent end of the glomerulus is wider than the efferent end.
 Blood from arteries is under high pressure.
During ultrafiltration, the red blood cells and large molecules such as plasma proteins remain
inside the glomerulus. The liquid that collects in the Bowman‟s capsule is called the
glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate is drained from the Bowman‟s capsule by the
renal tubule.
Selective Reabsorption
This is the reabsorption of useful substances from the glomerular filtrate in the renal tubule into
the blood stream. It occurs mainly in the folded regions (convolutions) of the tubule where the
tubule is entangled with blood vessels to facilitate reabsorption. The first (proximal)
convolution reabsorbs allglucose, some water and somesalts. The second convolution
reabsorbs salts and water. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis; glucose by diffusion and mineral
salts by active transport.
Osmoregulation
This is the regulation of water levels in body fluids. Osmoregulation takes place in the loop of
Henle. If the body has little water in it, a hormone called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also
called vasopressin is secreted by the pituitary gland in the brain. It causes water to be
absorbed from the glomerular filtrate into the surrounding cells. This results in the production
of small volumes of concentrated urine. But if the body has enough water, ADH is not
secreted and huge volumes of dilute urine are produced.
Secretion
The removal of urine from the kidney through the collecting duct and ureter. Urine is a
mixture of urea, excess salts and excess water. The urine is passed on to the urinary bladder
where it is temporarily stored before being passed out.
Kidney Failure and Treatment
Kidney failure may be caused by poisoning, accidents (injuries to the kidneys), infection and
drug abuse.
Kidney failure may be treated in two ways:
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  Kidney transplant: This is a surgical operation during which a normal kidney from
another person called a donor is added to an individual experiencing kidney failure. The
transplanted kidney must be compatible with the recipient; otherwise there will be
tissue rejection.

 Using the dialysis machine (kidney machine).

Diagram of a Dialysis Machine

A kidney machine is made of a thin coiled tubule called the dialysis tubule through which a
patient‟s blood passes. The tubule is long and coiled in order to increase the surface area for
diffusion. The tubule is also thin and selectively permeable. Thus it allows small molecules
such as glucose, urea, salts and water to pass through but prevents large ones from doing so.
The dialysis machine also contains dialysis fluid which is a solution of salts and glucose in
water and its concentration is equal to the normal concentration of blood.
The patient‟s blood is drawn from a vein on the patient‟s arm and taken into the dialysis
machine through a tube with the help of a pump. After passing through the machine, blood is
returned to a different point on the same patient‟s vein. The dialysis fluid is introduced into the
machine using an inlet and removed using an outlet at a different location. The flow of the

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dialysis fluid through the machine is opposite to the flow of the patient‟s blood through the
dialysis tubing. This is called counter-current flow and helps make diffusion faster by
maintaining a constant diffusion gradient.
Normally, only urea, excess salts and excess water diffuse from the patient‟s blood into the
dialysis fluid. A patient needs to be on the machine at least twice a week and each session lasts
about 8 hours.
Exercise:
1. Does active transport take place in the dialysis machine? Give reasons for your answer.
2. An anticoagulant called heparin is added to the blood as it enters the machine during
the early stages of dialysis. Why is this important? Why is the addition of heparin
discontinued towards the end of a dialysis session?
Excretion in Plants
Plants excrete a wide range of metabolic waste products. These are removed from plants
through different parts of the plant such as leaves, flowers, the barks of stems and roots. The
method of excretion varies according to the nature of the metabolic waste products. Examples
plant excretory products are discussed below:
 Alkaloids such as morphine (in opium plants), quinine (in cinchona plants) and
cocaine (in coca plants). Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in plants.
 Tannins which are reddish and are usually deposited in the barks of trees e.g. Acacia
and red mangrove.
 Anthocyanins. These wastes are red and blue in colour and are deposited in the petals
and are responsible for the red, blue and purple colours of the petals. They are removed
from the plant when petals are shed off.
 Oils are deposited in fruits and seeds and are got rid of when the fruit or seed is
dispersed from the plant. Sugar compounds in fruits also are removed when the fruits
fall off from the plants.
 Latex is a milk-like whitish liquid which is excreted by plants such as Euphorbia and
Ficus elastica.
 Resins, gums and mucilages.
 Carbon dioxide produced during respiration and released from the plant through the
stomata in the leaves.
 Oxygen produced during photosynthesis and released from the plant through the
stomata in the leaves.
 Water may be released from pores on the margins or tips of leaves in liquid form by a
process called guttation.

HOMEOSTASIS
This is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment. It involves the
regulation of body temperature (thermoregulation), regulation of the amount of water in body
fluids (osmoregulation), regulation of blood sugar and removal of toxic metabolic wastes
(excretion).
Thermoregulation
This is the maintenance of a constant body temperature. The temperature of the human body
must be kept around 37oC because that is the optimum temperature for its enzymes. If the
temperature goes lower than 37oC, the enzymes become less active and if the temperature is
too high, the enzymes become denatured.
Body heat is normally generated by metabolic reactions in the liver and through shivering in
the muscles. Body heat may be lost through the following processes: expiration (heat is lost
from the surfaces of the lungs), sweating, conduction, radiation, excretion and egestion.
The regulation of body temperature is mainly carried out by the skin under the control of the
hypothalamus, which is found in the fore brain.
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Structure of the Skin

Mechanism of Thermoregulation by the Skin

In Cold Temperatures
The skin reduces loss of heat in the following ways:
 Erector muscles contract, pulling the hairs upright. The erect hair traps a layer of air
which insulates the skin against heat loss. The contraction of hair erector muscles leads
to development of goose bumps on the skin in cold weather.
 Vasoconstriction (narrowing of skin arterioles) occurs to reduce the amount of blood
passing through the skin. This reduces heat lost.
 Shunt vessels open, reducing the amount of blood passing through superficial vessels
near the skin surface. This reduces heat loss.
 Sweat glands become less active or inactive to minimise loss of heat which might
occur through sweating.
In Hot Temperatures
The skin promotes loss of heat in the following ways:
 Erector muscles relax, causing the hair to lie on the skin. This increases heat loss
from the body by conduction since no layer of still air forms
 Vasodilation (widening of skin arterioles) occurs, increasing the amount of blood
passing through the skin. This allows more heat to be lost from the blood by
conduction.
 Shunt vessels close, allowing more blood to pass through superficial vessels near the
skin surface. This increases heat loss from the body.
 Sweat glands become more active and produce more sweat. The water in sweat
absorbs heat from the body in order to evaporate, thereby cooling the body.

Blood Sugar Regulation

The term „blood sugar‟ refers to glucose. The maintenance of constant glucose levels in blood
is carried out by the pancreas. It has cells known as the Islets of Langerhans which produce
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hormones involved in blood sugar regulation. These cells are of two types, namely alpha cells
(α-cells) and beta cells (β-cells). Alpha cells secrete a hormone called glucagon. Beta cells
secrete a hormone called insulin.

When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas secretes insulin which lowers the
levels of glucose in the following ways.
 It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen which
is stored in the liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of glycogen
(about100g in the liver and 300g in the muscles).
 It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats are
stored under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys,
intestines and brain.
 It enables body cells to absorb and use glucose from the blood.
Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetesmellitus whose
signs and symptoms include the following:
 High levels of glucose in blood (hyperglycaemia)
 Glucose in urine (glucosuria)
 Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
 Drastic loss of weight
 Loss of sensation in some body parts.
When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas secretes glucagon which increases
glucose levels in blood in the following ways:
 It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.
 It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so that
they are utilised for energy production.
(For more details, refer to notes on the pancreas under the endocrine system)

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth is defined as a permanent increase in size, mass, number of cells and complexity of a
living organism. Growth of multicellular organisms involves life cycles. A life cycle is a
sequence of stages that an organism passes through during its development from the embryonic
stages to maturity.

Growth in Plants
Plants undergo two types of growth, namely, primary growth and secondary growth.
Primary growth is the increase in the length of the shoots and roots while secondary growth is
the increase in the width or girth of shoots and roots. Primary growth enables the roots to
penetrate the ground and the shoots to grow towards sunlight.
Plant growth involves three stages. These are cell division, cell vacuolation (cell elongation)
and cell specialisation (celldifferentiation) which may be described as follows:
Cell division: The process by which new cells (daughter cells) are formed from cells that are
already existing (parent cells). The type of cell division involved in growth is called mitosis.
This is a type of cell division where one parent cell produces two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell. Immediately after cell division, all cells look alike.
Regions of active cell division are known as meristems, or meristematic tissues. There are
two types of meristematic tissues in plants, namely apical meristems and cambial meristems
(or simply cambium). Apical meristems occur at the tips of shoots and roots and are
responsible for primary growth. There are two types of cambium, namely, vascular cambium
and cork cambium; both are responsible for secondary growth.
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Cell Elongation: This is a process by which cells grow bigger and develop their vacuoles by
absorbing a lot of water. The greatest increase in length occurs in the region of cell elongation
during growth. After being vacuolated all cells still look identical.

Cell Differentiation: This is a process by which cells become suited for specific functions by
developing specific shapes and undergoing specific chemical changes in their cytoplasms.
After specialisation, plant cells may develop into any of the following cell types: collenchyma,
parenchyma, sclerenchyma, cambium, phloem or xylem.

Growth at the Apices (Tips) of Roots and Shoots

There are three regions of growth at the apices of shoots and roots in plants. These are
 Region cell division
 Region of cell elongation or vacuolation
 Region of cell differentiation or specialisation.

Diagram Illustrating Regions of Growth at the Shoot Apex

Diagram Illustrating Regions of Growth at the Root Apex

Germination
This is the process by which seedlings develop from seed embryos. To fully understand
germination, it is important to first understand the structure of seeds in monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous plants.
Structure of a Monocot Seed e.g. Maize Seed.

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Structure of a Dicot Seed e.g. Bean Seed

Functions of Seed Parts

Testa (seed coat): This is the outer-most layer of seed and is responsible for protecting the
seed against physical damage and infection. It is also responsible for dormancy in certain
seeds where it prevents imbibition (entry of water into the seeds)
Plumule: This is the embryonicshoot. It develops into a shoot after germination
Radicle: This is the embryonicroot. It develops into roots after germination
The plumule and radicle together make up the embryo of the seed. The region of the embryo
next to the plumule is called the epicotyl while the region next to the radicle is called the
hypocotyl.
Cotyledons: These store food and enzymes in non-endospermic seeds, mainly dicot seeds. In
most monocot seeds, food is stored in another tissue known as the endosperm. Seeds, which
have the endosperm, are called endospermic seeds while those without the endosperm are
called non-endospermic seeds. The main forms of foods stored in seeds include starch, oils
and proteins.
In some monocot seeds such as maize, the plumule is protected by a sheath called the
coleoptile while the radicle is protected by a sheath called the coleorrhiza. These prevent
damage during germination.

Types of Germination
There are two types of germination, namely epigeal and hypogeal germination.
Epigeal Germination
This is a type of germination where the cotyledons are pushed above the ground by elongation
of the hypocotyl. The plumule is covered by cotyledons and comes out of the ground with a
hooked shape in order to protect the delicate shoot. The cotyledons also carry out
photosynthesis during the first few days before the leaves develop fully. Examples of seeds
that carry out this type of germination are beans (Phaseolusvulgaris), sunflower, castor oil and
groundnut seeds. This type of germination is commonly associated with dicotyledonous seeds
but there are exceptions such as the broad bean.
Diagram Illustrating Epigeal Germination

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Hypogeal Germination
This is a type of germination where the cotyledons remain underground, due to elongation of
the epicotyl. The plumule is covered with a sheath called the coleoptile to protect it from
abrasion as it pushes out of the soil. Examples of seeds which undergo this type of germination
are monocotyledonous seeds such as maize, sorghum and millet seeds.

In non-endospermic seeds the cotyledons are the food store. However, the function of the
cotyledon/scutellum in endospermic seeds is to a) synthesise GA and b) absorb the digested
products of the endosperm and pass them on (via vascular tissue) to the embryo.

Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy is the state/condition during which a seed carries out minimum metabolism
and does not germinate. Seed dormancy is important in the following ways:
 It gives time for seeds to reach full maturity.
 It prevents the seed from germinating when conditions are harsh. Hence it is a survival
mechanism

Causes of Seed Dormancy

 Hard Testas: In some seeds, the testas are hard and impermeable to water and oxygen,
thereby preventing germination of the seeds.
 Chemical Substances: Some seed embryos have hormones, such as abscicic acid
(ABA) which keep them from germinating
 Physiological Conditions: Some plant seeds can only germinate if first exposed to
certain conditions of the environment such as cold temperatures, light or darkness.
Dormancy may be broken in the following ways:
 Scarification: This is the physical destruction of hard testa so that a seed becomes
permeable to water and oxygen. It can be done manually or by the action of digestive
juices or gizzards of some animals.
 Soaking Seeds in Water: This softens hard testas in some seeds
 Fire: The resistant testas of some seeds are only made permeable to water and oxygen
through burning them.
 Exposure to appropriate environmental conditions such as light, darkness and cold
temperatures.
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  Exposure to appropriate chemical substances which reverse the effects of chemical
inhibitors of germination e.g. gibberellic acid is thought to reverse the effects of ABA
in some cereals.
Seed Viability
Seed viability is the ability of a seed to germinate into a seedling. It may be reduced by
prolonged periods of storage, high temperatures, physical damage, parasites and pests.

Conditions Necessary for Germination

The conditions necessary for the germination of seeds include oxygen, water (moisture) and a
suitable temperature.

Experiment to Show that Oxygen is Necessary for Germination of Seeds

Suggested materials:
Soaked maize seeds, cotton wool, two conical flasks, alkaline pyrogallol, two strings and two
stoppers.
Method:
 Label two conical flasks, A and B
 Put 10 cm3 of water in flask A and 10 cm3 of alkaline pyrogallol in flask B
 Wrap two sets of maize seeds in moist cotton wool
 Hang one set of seeds in flask A and the other in flask B as shown below
 Leave the seeds for about seven days.
The set up of the experiment is shown in the following diagram:

Conical flask A Conical flask B

Observation
The seeds in flask A germinate. However, the seeds in flask B fail to germinate because the
alkaline pyrogallol absorbs oxygen from the air inside the flask. As such, the seeds lacked
oxygen for respiration.
Conclusion
Oxygen is necessary for germination of seeds. It is required for respiration which provides
energy for germination.

Experiment to Show that Water is Necessary for Germination

Suggested Materials:
Soaked maize seeds, dry maize seeds, cotton wool, three petri dishes
Method:
 Label the petri dishes A, B, and C
 Put five soaked seeds in petri dish A
 Put another five soaked seeds on top of moist cotton wool in petri dish B
 Put five dry seeds in petri dish C
 Cover the seeds in dish A completely with water
 Keep the cotton wool in petri dish B moist all the time by sprinkling it with water.
 Leave the seeds for at least seven days.
Observation:
Seeds in petri dish A do not germinate; seeds in petri dish B germinate while those in petri dish
C do not germinate.
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Conclusion
Seeds require suitable amounts of water (moisture) in order to germinate. The water is imbibed
(absorbed) by the seed and is important in the following ways:
 It softens the testa so that it can split to release the plumule and radicle.
 It activates enzymes and provides an aqueous medium for metabolic reactions to take
place.
 It is involved in hydrolysis of complex nutrients in a seed e.g. hydrolysis of starch to
maltose.
Too much water makes the seeds rot. For this reason the seeds in dish A do not germinate.
Seeds in dish C do not germinate because no water is provided for them to soften the testa and
activate enzymes.

Experiment to Show that a Suitable/Favourable Temperature is Necessary for

Germination of Seeds
Suggested Materials:
Soaked seeds, cotton wool, 3 pyrex beakers, a fridge and an oven.
Method
 Label the beakers A, B, and C
 Wrap three sets of five seeds in moist cotton wool.
 Place one set in beaker A, one in B and the other in beaker C
 Put beaker A in a refrigerator at a temperature of 0oC, beaker B at room temperature
(about 25oC) and beaker C in an oven at a temperature of 50oC
 Leave the set up for at least seven days ensuring that the cotton wool remains moist.
Observation
The seeds put in the refrigerator at 0oC (in beaker A) and those put in the oven at 50oC (in
beaker C) fail to germinate while those left at room temperature (in beaker B) germinate.
Conclusion
Very low and very high temperatures are not favourable for seed germination. Seeds at very
low temperature fail to germinate because the enzymes in the embryo become inactive or less
active and as such they do not catalyse the metabolic reactions necessary for germination.
High temperatures (temperatures above optimum) denature the enzymes and as such no
metabolic reactions take place. Hence seeds require a favourable temperature in order to
germinate.

Growth in Animals
1. Life cycle of a Mosquito
The mosquito undergoes complete metamorphosis. This is a type of life cycle where the
different stages of the cycle have different body forms (morphologies) from each other and
different behaviours and nutritional requirements. The stages of a mosquito life cycle are egg,
larva, pupa and adult (imago) as summarised in the following diagram.

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Eggs are laid in water by female mosquitoes after mating and they hatch into larvae (singular:
larva). Larvae can swim and they feed on phytoplankton and zooplankton. They eventually
develop into pupae (singular: pupa) which are a less active stage that continually undergoing
internal changes. After some time, the adult insect emerges out of the pupa case (puparium).
The adult flies and feeds mainly on plant juices. However, when female mosquitoes are
carrying fertilized eggs, they develop a desire for animal blood which they need for egg
development.
Because of blood sucking, the female Anopheles mosquito is a vector for malaria in humans.
A vector is any organism that transmits parasites from one host to another. Mosquitoes are
said to be biological vectors. A biological vector is one that carries parasites inside its body
systems and the parasite undergoes part of its life cycle inside the vector.
Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria) can be targeted against the different stages
of the life cycle in the following ways:
(i) Draining all stagnant pools of water to eliminate eggs, larvae and pupae
(ii) Spraying stagnant water with insecticides and/or oil. Insecticides such as DDT kill
the eggs, larvae and pupae directly. Oil blocks the oxygen supply from the eggs,
larvae and pupae, thereby killing them.
(iii) Biological control (the use of one type of organism called the control agent to get
rid of another – called the target organism – which is a nuisance). The control
agent must be a natural enemy (predator or parasite) of the target organism.
Biological control may also involve interfering with reproduction by use of
radiation or chemicals and the artificial synthesis of chemical substances normally
produced by the target organism to be used in traps. Examples of biological control
against mosquitoes include:
 Use of a bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis which infects and kills
mosquito larvae.
 Use of insectivorous fish from the Genus Gambusia that feeds on mosquito
pupae and larvae.
(iv) Use of insecticide – treated mosquito nets to trap and kill adult mosquitoes
(v) Clearance of bushes and tall grass where adults normally live before entering
houses
(vi) Physical killing of adult mosquitoes

2. Life Cycle of a House Fly

Like the mosquito, the housefly also undergoes complete metamorphosis during its life cycle.
Its life cycle is summarised in the following diagram:

88
The female housefly lays eggs in rotting material after mating. The eggs normally hatch into
larvae (commonly called maggots) 8-24 hours after being laid. The larvae feed on rotting
material by sucking the nutrients and move using pads on the lower side of their bodies. After
4-5 days, the larvae develop into pupae which are immobile and do not feed. Although the
pupae are immobile, a lot of metabolism occurs inside of them and the imago takes shape
within the pupa case known as the puparium. 3 to 4 days later, the imago breaks out of the
puparium. It takes an imago 14 days to reach sexual maturity and the cycle starts all over again.

Importance of Houseflies
Houseflies are vectors for pathogens that cause cholera, dysentery and typhoid among others.
The adult stage is able to fly. This makes it a very efficient vector. A housefly is a mechanical
vector. A mechanical vector is a vector that carries pathogens on the external surface of its
body.
Control of Houseflies
Houseflies may be controlled using the following methods;
 Sanitary disposal of refuse and faeces (this reduces the breeding sites for houseflies)
 Spraying with insecticide (to kill adult flies)
 Use of fly traps e.t.c.
 Covering the „mouths‟ of pit latrines.

RESPONSES

A response is an action or process that occurs in an organism due to the presence of a stimulus
(plural – stimuli). A stimulus is any substance or factor that causes a response from an
organism. Examples of responses in living organisms are tropic responses (tropisms) and
taxic responses (taxism).
The following table compares tropic and taxic responses:
Tropic response Taxic response

Occurs in plants Occurs in invertebrates

Involves growing either towards or away Involves moving either towards or away
from the stimulus from the stimulus

Only part of the plant responds The entire organism responds

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Slower Faster

1. Tropic Responses
A tropic response or tropism is the response of a plantpart to a stimulus by either growing
towards or away from the stimulus. When a plant part grows towards a stimulus, the response
is called a positive tropic response, but when a plant part grows away from a stimulus, the
response is called a negative tropic response. The name of a tropic response depends on the
type of stimulus causing it.
Examples of tropisms, corresponding stimuli and the plant parts involved are given in the
following table:
Tropism Stimulus Positively Tropic Part Negatively Tropic Part
Geotropism Gravity Roots Shoots
Phototropism Light Shoots Roots
Hydrotropism Water Roots –––––
Chemotropism Chemicals Roots, pollen tube –––––
Phototropism
This is the response of a plant part to light by growing either towards or away from the light.
Growth towards light is called positive phototropism while growth away from light is called
negative phototropism. Generally, plant shoots are positively phototropic while roots are
negatively phototropic.
Experiment to Investigate the Effect of Light on Growth of Maize Coleoptiles
Materials:
Maize seedlings, cardboard box with a hole on one side and two tins.
Method:
 Select seedlings with straight coleoptiles and place them in two separate tins.
 Place one tin of seedlings in the box with a hole on one side and put the box in the
sunlight.
 Leave the other tin of seedlings in sunlight to act as a control.
 Observe and record what happens after four days.
Observations:
The coleoptiles placed in the box with a hole on one side grow towards the source/direction of
light; those placed in sunlight continue growing straight upward as illustrated by the following
diagram:

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Conclusion:
Plant shoots are positively phototropic
Significance of Phototropism
Positive phototropism in plant shoots ensures that the leaves are exposed to sunlight in order
for photosynthesis to take place.

Geotropism
This is the response of a plant part to gravity by growing either towards or away from the
gravity. Growth towards gravity is called positive geotropism while growth away from gravity
is called negative geotropism. Generally, plant roots are positively geotropic while shoots are
negatively geotropic.

Experiment to Investigate the Effect of Gravity on Growth of Roots and Shoots

Materials:
Germinating bean seeds, petri dish, moist cotton wool and clinostat
Method:
 Place three or more germinating bean seeds on moist cotton wool in a still petri dish,
making sure that their radicles and plumules are horizontal.
 Place another set of germinating bean seeds on a petri dish and mount it on a rotating
clinostat
 Observe what happens to each set of bean seeds after one week.
Observation:
For the seedlings placed on a still petri dish, the radicles grow towards gravity and the
plumules grow away from gravity. For those where the petri dish is placed on a rotating
clinostat, both the plumules and radicles continue growing straight. This is illustrated in the
following diagrams:

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Conclusion:
Plant roots are positively geotropic while plant shoots are negatively geotropic.
Significance of Geotropism:
Positive geotropism in the roots makes it possible for roots to grow towards water and nutrients
in the ground.

Hydrotropism
This is the response of a plant part to water by growing either towards or away from the water.
Growth towards water is called positive hydrotropism while growth away from water is
called negative hydrotropism. Plant roots are generally positively hydrotropic. This ensures
that the roots absorb the water the plant needs.

Experiment to Investigate the Effect of Water on the Growth of Radicles

Materials:
Germinating bean seed, petri dish and cotton wool
Method:
Wrap the seed in wet cotton wool and place it on a tilted petri-dish with water on one side.
Observation:
The radicle grows towards water as shown the following diagram:

Conclusion:
Plant roots are positively hydrotropic
Chemotropism
This is the response of a plant part to chemicals by growing either towards or away from the
chemicals. Growth towards chemicals is called positive chemotropism while growth away
from chemicals is called negative chemotropism. Plant parts grow towards chemicals relevant
to them e.g. the pollen tube grows towards the ovary in response to chemicals secreted in the
ovary to bring about fertilization.

The Role of Auxins in Tropisms

Tropisms in plants are controlled by growth substances called auxins that are produced by the
tips of shoots and roots. Auxins promote growth in shoots while they inhibit growth in roots.

Experimental Evidence to Show that Auxins Promote Growth of Shoots

In one experiment, the tips of maize coleoptiles were cut off. After a few days, the shoots
stopped growing because of the absence of auxins. In another experiment, a piece of mica was
placed between the cut tip and the rest of the coleoptile and growth stopped after a few days
because mica is impermeable to auxins. In yet another experiment, an agar block was placed
between a cut tip and the rest of the coleoptile and the tip continued growing because auxins
are able to diffuse from the cut tip to the rest of the coleoptile through the agar block. The
results of these experiments are illustrated in the following diagrams:
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Homework: Suggest what would happen if the tips of the coleoptiles are covered with
aluminium foil (which is opaque) and the coleoptiles are exposed to unilateral light.

The Role of Auxins in Phototropism

When a plant shoot is exposed to diffuse light (light from all directions), the auxins are
evenly/uniformly distributed all round the shoot tip. As a result, growth is uniform all round
the shoot tip, causing the shoot to grow straight. But when a plant shoot is exposed to unilateral
light (light from one direction), the auxins are more concentrated on the darker side than the
illuminated side. Since auxins promote growth of in shoots, growth is faster on the darker side
than the illuminated side, causing the shoot to grow towards the light. This is illustrated in the
following diagrams:

The Role of Auxins in Geotropism

When germinating bean seeds are placed on moist cotton wool in a dark place, with their
plumules and radicles horizontal, the following observations are made after several days:
 The plumules grow away from gravity
 The radicles grow towards gravity

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The above observation may be explained as follows:
 Gravity pulls the auxins to the lower side of the radicle and plumule; hence the
concentration of auxins is higher on the lower sides than the upper sides.
 In the plumule, growth is faster on the lower side than the upper side, causing it to grow
upwards (away from gravity)
 In the radicle, growth is faster on the upper side than the lower side, causing it to grow
downwards (towards gravity)

Taxic Responses
A taxic response is a response of an invertebrate animal to a stimulus by moving either
towards or away from the stimulus. Movement towards the stimulus is called positive taxism
(positive taxic response) while movement away from the stimulus is called negative taxism
(negative taxic response). Examples of taxic responses in invertebrates are:
 Woodlice are positively hydrotaxic and negatively phototaxic
 Earthworms are positively hydrotaxic and positively geotaxic
 Cockroaches are negatively phototaxic

COORDINATION AND RESPONSE IN ANIMALS

Coordination is the process by which different organs and systems of the body work together
efficiently.
There are two main systems of coordination in animals. These are the endocrine system and the
nervous system.

The Endocrine System

This is a system of coordination that is made of ductless glands that produce hormones. A
hormone is a chemical secreted by a ductlessgland, transported by blood and has effects on
one or more targetorgans before being destroyed by the liver. A target organ is any organ that
carries out an appropriate response to a stimulus under the influence of hormones. Any
hormone can only have effects on an organ that has receptor sites for it.
The following diagram illustrates the main endocrine glands of the human body.

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Human Endocrine System

Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is also called the master gland of the endocrine system. This is because it
secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to function. These hormones include
the following:
 Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): This stimulates the thyroid gland to function
 Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH): This stimulates the adrenal cortex to
secrete hormones
 Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) : This stimulates the tests to function
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This stimulates formation of follicles in the
ovaries.
 Luteinising Hormone (LH): This causes ovulation and formation of the corpus
luteum.
There are other hormones produced by the pituitary gland which are not involved in
stimulating other endocrine glands. These include:
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Also called vasopressin, this hormone stimulates re-
absorption of water from the renal tubule and loop of Henle in the kidneys when the
body has little water. Insufficient or lack of ADH leads to diabetes insipidus (a
condition where an individual passes out large volumes of dilute urine)
 Growth Hormone: This stimulates growth by stimulating synthesis of macromolecules
such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Too much secretion of growth hormone
leads to giantism/gigantism and acromegaly. Gigantism or giantism is a condition
where an individual is abnormally tall and huge. Acromegaly is enlargement of bones
often accompanied by protrusion of the lower jaw. Little secretion of growth hormone
leads to dwarfism, a condition where an individual has physically stunted growth and
appears too small for their age.
 Oxytocin: This causes rhythmic contractions of the uterus wall during child birth and
also stimulates release of milk from mammary glands in the breasts.
 Prolactin: This stimulates milk production by the mammary glands in the breasts.
The Thyroid Gland
This is an H-shaped gland located in the neck near the larynx. It produces a hormone called
thyroxine. Thyroxine controls the basal metabolic rate (BMR)of the body, stimulates
respiration of glucose and fats as well as cotrolling the growth and differentiation of cells. The
formation of thyroxine by the thyroid gland requires iodine. Over production of thyroxine
causes hyperactivity which is characterised by an increased metabolic and heart rate, loss of
body mass and extreme irritability. Under production of thyroxine causes myxoedema and
cretinism. Myxoedema is a condition where the basal metabolic rate and mental development
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are slow. Cretinism is a condition where the physical, mental and sexual developments of a
child are retarded. A person who suffers from cretinism is called a cretin. Iodine deficiency
causes swelling of the thyroid gland, a condition known as goitre.
The Adrenal Gland
This is a pair of glands, each located just above each kidney. The medulla of the adrenal
glands produces a hormone called adrenaline. This hormone is called the “fight or flight
hormone” and is produced when an individual is angry, scared, emotionally excited or under
stress. It prepares he body for action in the following ways:
 It boosts the changing of glycogen to glucose, thereby increasing glucose levels in the
blood to be used for respiration
 It increases the breathing rate so that more oxygen is taken in to be used for energy
production
 It increase the heart rate so that more blood containing glucose and oxygen can be
carried to the muscles
 It diverts blood from the gut to the muscles by constricting the blood vessels of the gut
and dilating the blood vessels of the muscles.
 It dilates the pupils in the eyes for increased alertness
 It dilates the bronchi and increases the volume of the thorax so that more air containing
oxygen may be taken in
 It increases the sensitivity of the nervous system for faster response to stimuli
 It raises hair in furry animals and causes the appearance of „goose bumps‟.
 It causes shivering.
Pancreas
The pancreas is both an endocrine and exocrine gland. It is considered as an exocrine gland in
the digestive system where it secretes pancreatic juice through a duct called the pancreatic
duct.
In the endocrine system it plays a major role in maintaining normal glucose levels in blood. It
has cells known as the Islets of Langerhans which produce hormones involved in blood sugar
regulation. These cells are of two types, namely alpha cells (α-cells) and beta cells (β-cells).
Alpha cells secrete a hormone called glucagon. Beta cells secrete a hormone called insulin.
When glucose levels are too high in blood, the pancreas detects the change and secretes insulin
which lowers the levels of glucose in the following ways.
 It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert excess glucose to glycogen which
is stored in the liver and muscles. The body can only store about 400g of glycogen
(about100g in the liver and 300g in the muscles).
 It causes the cells of the adipose tissue to convert excess glucose to fats. The fats are
stored under the skin and around delicate body organs such as the heart, liver, kidneys,
intestines and brain.
 It enables body cells to absorb glucose from the blood and use it.
Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetesmellitus whose
signs and symptoms are:
 Abnormally high levels of glucose in blood
 Presence of glucose in urine
 Persistent thirst leading to excessive intake of water
 Drastic loss of weight
 Loss of sensation in some body parts.

When glucose levels are too low in blood, the pancreas detects secretes glucagon which
increases glucose levels in blood in the following ways:
 It causes the cells of the liver and muscles to convert glycogen to glucose.

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  It causes fat to be changed into glucose and may cause proteins to be modified so that
they are utilised for energy production.

Negative Feedback Mechanism

A negative feedback mechanism is a mechanism whereby levels of substances in the body are
brought back to normal. When there are changes in the internal environment, they are detected
by a monitor (detector) which produces a hormone to return the condition to normal. The
following diagram illustrates negative feedback mechanism in the production of insulin and
glucagon by the pancreas.
Figure 1: Negative Feedback Mechanism

The Nervous System

This is a system of coordination in animals made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
The brain and the spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS) while the
nerves make up the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Nerves that are joined to the brain are
called cranial nerves while those that are joined to the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. In
the nervous system messages are transmitted in the form of electric impulses also called nerve
impulses.
Figure 2: Human Nervous System

Neurones
The basic functional units of the nervous system are neurones or nerve cells. Types of
neurones include sensory, relay (connector, intermediate, multipolar, pyramidal) and motor
neurones

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Sensory Neurones
These are neurones that carry impulses from sense organs (receptors) to the central nervous
system. A receptor is any organ that detects a stimulus and converts information about it to
electrical impulses. Characteristics of sensory neurones include the following:
 They carry impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system.
 They have longdendrons and short axons.
 Their cell bodies are not terminally located but are axillary.
Figure 3: Sensory Neurone

Motor Neurones
These are neurones that carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors. An
effector is any part of the body that carries out a response to a nervous impulse. Most effectors
are glands or body organs such as muscles.
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Motor neurones have the following characteristics:
 They carry impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
 They have long axons and short dendrites.
 Their cell bodies are terminally located (located at the end).

Figure 4: Motor Neurone

Relay Neurone
These are neurones that form a link between sensory neurones and motor neurones. They are
located in the central nervous system and are multipolar so as to provide many alternative paths
for impulses.
Figure 5: Relay Neurone

Synapses
A synapse is a junction between two neurones. The neurones at the synapse are not joined to
each other but have gaps between them called synaptic gaps (synaptic clefts).
The following passage describes how a nerve impulse moves across a synaptic gap:
1 An impulse arrives at the synapse
2 At the end plates, there are vesicles (tiny sacs) containing a chemical
(neurotransmitter).
3 The vesicles fuse with the cell membrane (presynaptic membrane) and the chemical is
released into the synaptic gap.
4 The chemical diffuses across the gap and the impulse restarts at the other side.
Reflex Actions
A reflex action is an automatic and stereotyped response to a stimulus. Reflex actions are
often quick, but some of them are slow. Examples of quick reflex actions include:
 Withdrawing of a hand from a hot object
 Jumping up after sitting on a pin
 Blinking when an object approaches the eye
 Knee-jerk reflex
 Shedding of tears when an object enters the eye.

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An example of a slow reflex action is the pupil reflex (iris reflex). Each reflex action has a
survival value which protects an animal from dangerous factors. What is the survival value of
each of the reflex actions stated above? Other examples of reflex actions are sneezing,
salivating, peristalsis, vasoconstriction and vasodilation
There are two types of reflex actions, namely spinal and cranial reflexes. During a spinal
reflex impulses pass through the spinal cord, whereas during a cranial reflex impulses pass
through the brain.
Reflex Arc
The path travelled by a nerve impulse during a reflex action is called a reflex arc.
Figure 6: Reflex Arc

The following diagram illustrates the knee-jerk reflex arc:

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Conditioned Reflex
A conditioned reflex is a response that results from learning or training. The response given
during a conditioned reflex is not related to the stimulus but the animal associates it with a
related stimulus after being trained to do so. This may be illustrated by Pavlov‟s experiment.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Pavlov observed that dogs always salivated when they saw, smelled or tasted food. For some
days, Pavlov would ring a bell each time before giving the dogs food. Eventually, the dogs
started salivating at the sound of the bell alone. In this case, the salivation of the dogs is an
example of a conditioned reflex and the sound of the bell may be referred to as a conditioned
stimulus.
Conditioning is used in training of animals for different tasks. In humans, activities such as
walking, responding to a name, cycling and driving are examples of conditioned reflexes.

The Brain
The brain is the enlarged anterior end of the spinal cord. It is made of three regions which are:
(i) Fore brain (cerebrum, hypothalamus, pituitary gland and olfactory lobe)
(ii) Mid brain (optic lobe)
(iii)Hind brain (medulla oblongata and cerebellum)
Figure 7: The Human Brain

Functions of Brain Parts

Medulla Oblongata: This links the spinal cord and the brain and conducts nerve impulses
between these two parts. It controls automatic processes such as heart rate, breathing rate,
swallowing, salivating, sneezing and coughing.

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Cerebellum: This controls co-ordinated movement, helps maintain posture and also controls
the sequence of activities involved in dancing, acrobatics and playing of musical instruments.
Hypothalamus: Sometimes regarded as the centre of homeostasis, this contains centres which
control thirst, hunger and thermoregulation.
Pituitary Gland: This links the central nervous system and the endocrine system. (Refer to
notes on the endocrine system for the hormones it secretes and their functions)
Cerebrum: This is the largest part of the brain and is the centre of intelligence, memory,
language and consciousness. It has both motor and sensory areas. The motor areas control
voluntary movement. The sensory areas interpret sensations and are linked by association
areas. Injury to the cerebrum lowers intelligence. It occupies three quarters of the brain.
Human beings have got the largest cerebrum of all animals. It is divided into two halves which
are known as cerebralhemispheres. The outer part (cortex) is folded and wrinkled to give a
very large surface area. The cortex is grey in colour because it contains cell bodies of
neurones. The inner part is white in colour as it is made up of axons of neurons.

Differences between Endocrine and Nervous System

Nervous System Endocrine System
Messages are electrical (nerve impulse) Messages are chemical (hormones)
Responses are localised Responses are widespread and affect more than
one target organ
Responses are short-lived (temporary) Responses are either temporary or permanent
Responses are often quick Responses are either quick (e.g. for adrenaline or
slow (e.g. for sex hormones)
Drugs and Drug Abuse
A drug is any externally administered substance which modifies/alters the rate of
metabolic reactions in the body. Drugs may be administered in several ways including
 Ingestion (taking through the mouth).
 Injection (use of needles and syringes to introduce drugs into blood).
 Sniffing (taking a powdery drug in through the nostrils) e.g. snuff
 Inhalation (taking a vaporised drug in through the respiratory)
The term drug refers to useful substances such as medicine as well as harmful substances.
Harmful drugs are also called drugs of abuse and are classified into the following groups,
among others: stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, narcotics and inhalants/solvents.

Some terms associated with drug abuse include:

 Dependency (addiction): A condition where an individual‟s body fails to function
normally in the absence of a particular drug. A person who dependent on a drug is also
said to be addicted. Dependency can be psychological or physiological.
Psychological dependency is where a person believes that they need a particular drug to
function normally.
 Tolerance: This is a condition where an individual needs a higher dosage of a drug to
produce an effect that was initially being produced by a smaller dosage of the drug.
 Withdrawal symptoms: These are the symptoms or signs an individual experiences
when they discontinue using a drug which they are addicted to.
Classes of Abused Drugs
(i) Stimulants: These are drugs that accelerate/increase the rate of impulse transmission in the
nervous system. Examples of stimulants are cocaine, caffeine, nicotine and amphetamines.
Their effects include:
 Increasing alertness
 Increasing heart rate and breathing rate
 Reducing the desire to sleep
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  Reducing the desire for food (lack of appetite)
 Making someone feel energetic
 Euphoria (feeling of well being)
However, stimulants increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and
coronary heart disease. Prolonged use can lead to dependency and liver damage. Overdoses can
cause death.
(ii) Depressants: These are drugs that slow down the rate of impulse transmission in the
nervous system. Examples of depressants are alcohol and heroin. Their effects include:
 Reduced anxiety and tension
 Increased desire for sleep and drowsiness
 In small amounts, some cause an increased desire for food
 Euphoria
 Numbing of pain by inhibiting pain and emotion centres.
The dangers associated with abuse of depressants include the following:
 Overdoses can lead to instant death
 Injectable drugs such as heroin increase the risk of HIV infection resulting from sharing
of needles.
 Addiction/dependency is quickly established
 They have severe withdrawal symptoms e.g. vomiting, diarrhoea and dizziness
 They slow down the time taken to respond to stimuli, leading to accidents
 Damage to vital body organs such as the liver, kidneys and brain
 Social problems such as crime and prostitution committed by addicts who need money
for the drugs.

Harmful Effects of Alcohol

The harmful effects of alcohol can be classified as either short term or long term. Short term
effects are those that are experienced immediately after taking the drug and do not last for a
long time. These include:
 Staggering (loss of coordination)
 Slurred speech
 Anti-social behaviour e.g. shouting
 Slowing down the transmission of nerve impulses, thereby slowing down reactions to
stimuli
 Poor judgment
 Hangover
Long term effects are the effects someone experiences after using a drug for a long time. For
alcohol, the long term effects are:
 Permanent damage to internal organs such as the liver, brain and kidneys. The
hardening of liver tissue resulting from alcohol abuse is called liver cirrhosis.
 Social problems such as poverty, lack of food in homes, failure to sponsor children to
school e.t.c.
 Stomach ulcers
 Uncontrolled shaking (delirium tremens) and hallucinations in some cases.
 Expectant mothers who take alcohol have a risk of giving birth to underweight babies
having foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS). This is a condition where a child is deformed
and mentally retarded.
Note: Some effects of depressants are closely associated with those of sedatives and
tranquillisers.
(iii) Hallucinogens: These are drugs that distort the perception of an individual e.g. marijuana
and LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide).
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The Effects of Tetanus Infection
This is an infection caused by a bacterium called Clostridium tetanus. It is characterised by
sustained contractions of muscles which leads to stiffening of the body and death. Individuals
who have deep cuts with dirty objects on their bodies (e.g. accident victims) are at high risk of
tetanus infection. As a result they are given anti-tetanus injections which contain antibodies
that counter the effects of tetanus toxins.
Sense Organs
A sense organ is any body organ responsible for detecting one or more stimuli. Examples of
human sense organs and the stimuli they detect are summarised in the following table:
Sense Organ Stimulus/stimuli detected
The eye Light/light energy
The skin Touch, temperature, pressure and pain
The nose chemoreceptors Chemicals in air
The tongue chemoreceptors Chemicals in food
The ear Sound energy, balance/posture and pressure
1. The Eye
This is a sense organ responsible for detecting light energy
Figure 8: External Structure of Eye Figure 9: Longitudinal Section of Eye

Functions of Eye Parts

Sclera:
This is the tough fibrous outer coat which maintains the spherical shape of the eyeball protects
the eye against damage and provides attachment for external eye muscles (rectus and oblique
muscles) which move the eye in its sockets. This layer is white and opaque
Cornea:
This is the transparent section of the sclera found in front of the eye. It does most of the
refraction of light rays from an object. This leads to the formation of an inverted and
diminished image on the retina.
Choroid:
This is a dark layer that also contains blood vessels. The dark colour limits internal
reflections so that clear images are formed. The blood vessels provide food and oxygen to the
cells of the retina.
Retina:
This is a layer containing light-sensitive cells where images form and light energy is converted
to nerve impulses. There are two types of light sensitive cells found on the retina, namely
cones and rods. The cones form clear (detailed) colour images when there is high light
intensity (bright light). The portion of the retina having the higher concentration of cones is
called fovea (yellow spot) and forms the most detailed colour images. The rods form blurred,
black and white images at low light intensity (dim light).
Blindspot:

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A portion corresponding to the exit point for the optic nerve, where there are no light-sensitive
cells. Hence, light falling there cannot be detected.
Opticnerve:
A nerve having sensory neurones that transmit nerve impulses from the retina to the visual
centre of the brain.
Vitreoushumour:
It s a jelly-like fluid which keeps the eyeball in shape, refracts light rays, supports the lens and
keeps the retina in place at the rear of the eye.
Aqueoushumour:
It is a watery fluid which supports the cornea and keeps it in shape.
Some Functions of the Eye
 Image formation
 Focusing and accommodation
 Pupil/iris reflex
Formation of Images
The part of the eye where images form is the retina. The images formed have the following
characteristics:
 They are inverted (upside down)
 They are diminished (smaller than the object)
 They are real (can be produced on screens)
Though the images on the retina are inverted, they are seen the right way up because the brain
gives the correct interpretation of the images. Information about the image is carried from the
retina to the brain by the optic nerve.

Focusing and Accommodation

Focusing is the formation of a clear image on the retina. Accommodation is the process by
which the eye forms a focused image on the retina by adjusting the thickness and length of the
lens using suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles in response to the distance of the object
away from the eye.
Accommodation of a Close (Nearby) Object
Rays from close objects are divergent. To focus the images on the retina the following events
take place:
 Ciliary muscles contract
 Suspensory ligaments become slacken
 The lens becomes short and thick
 The light rays are more refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina
Accommodation of a Distant (Far) Object
Rays from distant objects are more or less parallel to each other and do not require much
refraction to be focused on the retina. The following events occur to focus the image on the
retina:
 Ciliary muscles relax
 Suspensory ligaments become taut, making the lens long and thin
 Light rays are less refracted, thereby focusing the image on the retina
Pupil/Iris Reflex
This is the adjustment of the diameter of the pupil by circular and radial muscles of the iris in
response to changes in light intensity.
In Bright Light (High Light Intensity)
Excess light may damage the retina by bleaching it. To prevent this, the following events take
place:
 Circular muscles contract
 Radial relax
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  Pupil constricts (becomes smaller) to prevent bleaching of the retina by excess light.

In Dim Light (Low Light Intensity)

The light reaching the retina is not enough for image formation. To correct this situation, the
following events take place:
 Radial muscles contract
 Circular muscles relax
 Pupil dilates (becomes wider) to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye for
image formation

Defects of the eye

a) Short sight (Myopia)
b) Long sight (Hypermetropia)
c) Blindness

(i) Night blindness

(ii) River blindness
(iii) Blindness due to injury
(iv) Colour blindness

a) Short Sight (Myopia)

This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see close objects but distant objects
appear blurred.
This is because rays from distant objects are brought into focus before (in front of) the retina.
It is caused by an abnormally long eyeball or a permanently thick lens. It can be corrected by
using concave lenses, as illustrated in the following diagrams:
Figure 10: Short Sight and its Correction

b) Long Sight (Hypermetropia)

This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see distant objects but close objects
appear blurred. It is caused by an abnormally short eyeball or a permanently thin lens. In this
case, rays from close objects are focused beyond the retina. Stiffening of the lens in its thin

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position can be caused by old age. Long sight is corrected by using convex lenses, as illustrated
in the following diagrams:
Figure 11: Long Sight and its Correction

c) Blindness
This is defined as lack or loss of visual perception. There are different forms of blindness,
some of which are discussed below.
(i) Blindness due to Injury
(ii) Night Blindness
This is a condition where vision becomes diminished in dim light. It is caused by
deficiency of vitamin A. Vitamin A is required by the eye to form a visual pigment called
rhodopsin that is required for vision at low light intensities. Hence vitamin A deficiency
initially leads to night blindness which may later develop xerophthalmia (a condition
where there is abnormal dryness of the conjunctiva, leading to blindness).
(iii) River Blindness
This is a type of blindness caused by a filarial worm known as Onchocerca volvulus.
Adult worms of this kind produce tiny larvae known as microfilariae that attack the eyes,
causing glaucoma, cataracts and conjunctivitis, thereby causing blindness.
River blindness is common in tropical regions that have rivers and lakes. This is because
the vectors of this worm are flies of the genus Simulium that require aerated fresh water to
breed. The flies transmit the larvae of the worms from one person to another through bites.
These reach their maturity under the skin of the human body. Then they begin mating and
produce large numbers of microfilariae which migrate to the eyes and cause harm.
Methods of preventing and/or treating river blindness are:
 Spraying rivers with insecticides to kill the larval stages of the Simulium flies.
 Application of dimethylphthalane to clothing or the skin in order to repel the flies
for several hours.
 Dosage of diethylcarbamazine to kill the microfilariae
 Injections of suramin to kill adult worms in the body.
 Long clothing to prevent bites by Simulium flies

2. The Ear
This is a sense organ that is responsible for detection of sound. The ear is divided into the
following regions:
 Outer Ear or External Ear (an air-filled cavity made of the pinna/ear lobe and external
auditory meatus)
 Middle Ear (an air-filled cavity made of the tympanum/ear drum, ossicles and
eustachian tube)
 Inner Ear or Internal Ear (a fluid-filled cavity made of the cochlea, semicircularcanals
and vestibules or vestibular apparatus)

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 Figure 12: Structure of the Ear

Functions of Ear Parts

Pinna
This collects sound waves and passes them on to the external auditory canal.
External Auditory Canal (Ear Canal)
 Carries sound waves from the pinna to the tympanum.
 Produces wax to keep the ear drum supple and trap particles that enter the ear
 Contains hair to trap particles entering the ear
Ear Drum (Tympanum)
This is a membrane that vibrates when hit by sound waves in order to transmit sounds to the
ossicles that are found in the middle ear.
Ossicles
This are a set of three small bones found in the middle ear and are responsible for:
 Transmitting sounds from the ear drum to the oval window.
 Amplifying sounds by about 20 times.
The names of the three bones are related to their shapes. The first one after the ear drum is the
malleus (hammer); the next one is the incus (anvil) and the last one is stapes (stirrup).
Eustachian Tube
This is a tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the pharynx. It opens during
swallowing and yawning in order to equalize pressure between the middle ear and the
atmosphere. This prevents the ear drum from bursting when atmospheric pressure changes
drastically e.g. during an aeroplane flight or deep-sea diving.
Oval Window (Fenestra ovalis)
This picks up vibrations from the stapes and transmits them to the perilymph in the inner ear.
Round Window
This relieves the pressure that builds up in the perilymph during vibrations of the oval window.
It moves outwards as the oval window moves inwards and moves inwards when the round
window moves outwards.
Vestibules (Vestibular Apparatus).
This is made of the sacculus (saccule), utriculus (utricle), ampullae (singular=ampulla) and
three semi-circular canals. The sacculus links the rest of the vestibules to the cochlea. The
utriculus contains receptors that are sensitive to gravity and body posture. The semicircular
canals are responsible for balancing the body during rotational movements of the head. Each
semicircular canal is at right angles to the other two. The ampullae are the swollen ends of the
semicircular canals. They contain hair cells that are connected to nerves. When the head twists,
the fluid inside the semicircular canal moves and causes movement of the cupula and bending
of the hair cells. This makes the hair cells generate impulses that are transmitted to the brain to
control balance.
Cochlea

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This is a coiled structure that detects sound intensity and frequency and transduces sounds to
generate nerve impulses. Nerve impulses from the ear are carried to the brain by the auditory
nerve.

Deafness
This is an ear disorder where hearing is impaired or diminished. Causes of deafness include the
following:
 Over-production of wax which leads to blockage of the external auditory canal.
 Exposure to loud sounds which might damage the ear ossicles.
 Inserting hard and sharp objects into the ears, causing damage to the ear drum.
 Infections of the inner ear or the throat. Some throat infections are able to affect the
middle ear by getting transmitted through the eustachian tube.
Proper Care for Ears
 Clean the ears regularly with soft materials to remove excess wax
 Avoid exposure to loud sounds. This can be done by covering the ears when exposed to
loud sounds. Soldiers are advised to keep their mouths open when firing guns; suggest a
reason for this.
 Treat all infections of the inner ear and throat.

LOCOMOTION

Locomotion refers to movement of an entire organism from one place to another. Only
animals can carry out locomotion. Other types of organisms such as trees can only move parts
of their bodies while remaining fixed.
Locomotion in animals is done with the help of skeletons and muscles.
Skeletons
A skeleton is any firm structure that gives mechanical support to the body and provides
protection to the softer parts of the body.
There are three types of skeletons in multicellular organisms. These are hydrostatic
skeletons, exoskeletons and endoskeletons.
1) Hydrostatic Skeleton
This is a type of skeleton made of watery fluids found inside the body. These watery fluids
offer mechanical support and help in movement. This type of skeleton occurs in soft-bodied
invertebrates such as earthworms, hydra, snails, slugs and sea anemones.
Water has three important characteristics that make it suitable to act as a skeleton.
 It is relatively incompressible (cannot be easily compressed)
 It can transmit pressure changes equally in all directions
 It takes up the shape of its container.
Figure 13: Cross-Section of an Earthworm

During locomotion in an earthworm, the circular and longitudinal muscles contract in turns to
produce peristaltic waves along the body, beginning at the front end and working backwards.
2) Exoskeleton
This is a type of skeleton located outside the muscles of the body and occurs in all
arthropods (crustaceans, insects, myriapods and arachnids). In insects, this skeleton is also

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known as the cuticle and is largely made of a polysaccharide called chitin covered with small
amounts of wax outside. The cuticle is made of a waxy thin outer layer called the epicuticle
and an inner layer of chitin called the procuticle. The procuticle is made of two layers called
exocuticle and endocuticle.
Figure 14: Insect Joint Showing Location of Exoskeleton and Muscles

Exercise
1. State the functions of each of the parts labelled in the diagram above.
2. Draw the hind leg of a grasshopper, showing the following parts: femur, spines and claws.

3) Endoskeleton
An endoskeleton is located inside the body and is made of bones and cartilage. This type
of skeleton is found in all vertebrates i.e. fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
The endoskeleton of a vertebrate foetus is largely made up of cartilage while that of an adult
is made of bones with small amounts of cartilage in areas that need flexibility. However,
some adult vertebrates have entire skeletons made of cartilage e.g. cartilaginous fish such as
sharks.
Cartilage
Cartilage is a firm and flexible rubber-like tissue which is made of living cells and collagen
fibres embedded in a matrix of chondrin. The structure of cartilage is illustrated in the
following diagram.
Figure 15: Structure of Cartilage

Cartilage is found in firm but flexible parts of the vertebrate body such as the trachea, the nose,
ear lobes, larynx and at the ends of bones. Some functions of cartilage are:
 It is found between the vertebrae in the spine, allowing bending of the spine.
 It is found in the trachea and allows it to remain open even when the neck bends
 It is found in the pinna and the end of the nose and helps keep them firm.
 It is found at the ends of bones at the joints, where it reduces friction, cushions the ends
of bones and bears loads.
 It is the main skeletal material of vertebrate embryos
Bones
Bone is a tissue made of living cells and collagen fibres in a matrix of calcium phosphate
and magnesium salts. The living cells occur in structures known as lacunae (singular=lacuna).
The matrix is laid up in several concentric rings forming a system known as the
Haversiansystem. The lacunae are linked to each other by channels of cytoplasm known as
canliculi (singular=canaliculus). The central space of the Haversian system is called the

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haversiancanal and contains blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels. A transverse
extension from the haversian canal called the Volkmanncanal links it to the bone marrow.
The long bones of a vertebrate have spongy bone at the ends and compact bone in the shaft.
Figure 16: Structure of a Long Bone

Compact bone is made of a lot of haversian systems grouped together. The following diagram
illustrates the structure of Haversian system in compact bones
Figure 17: Haversian System

The Human Skeleton

Figure 18: Human Skeleton

The human skeleton is divided into two regions, namely axialskeleton and
appendicularskeleton. The axial skeleton is made of the skull, vertebralcolumn (spine), ribs
and sternum while the appendicular skeleton is made of the limbs and girdles. There are two
sets of limbs i.e. two fore limbs (arms) and two hind limbs (legs). The girdles form a link
between the axial skeleton and the limbs. There are two girdles, namely, the pectoralgirdle
and the pelvicgirdle. The pectoral girdle links the fore limbs to the axial skeleton. It is made
of the shoulderblades (scapulas) and collarbones (clavicles). The pelvic girdle links the hind

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limbs to the axial skeleton. It is also called the pelvis and is made of the pubis, ilium and
ischium, among other bones.
Figure 19: Bones of the Forelimb and Hindlimb

Bones of the Spine

The bones that make up the vertebral column (spine) are called vertebrae (singular=vertebra).
Their names, structures and numbers vary depending on the region of the spine in which they
occur. The following table gives the names, locations and numbers of different vertebrae in the
human being.
Name Region where located Number
Cervical vertebrae Neck region 7
Thoracic vertebrae Chest region 12
Lumbar vertebrae Abdominal region or loin 5
Sacral vertebrae Hip region 5
Caudal vertebrae or Coccyx Tail region 4
Figure 20: Generalized Structure of Vertebra

Figure 21: Structures of Some Selected Types of Vertebrae

The functions of the different parts of a vertebra are discussed below:

Neural spine: This is a projection on top of the neural arch that provides a surface for
attachment of muscles and ligaments.
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Neural arch: This is a curved bony structure arising from the centrum and has an opening in
the centre called the neural canal. The neural arch protects the spinal cord while the neural
canal is the passage for the spinal cord.
Transverse process: These are projections on the sides of the centrum that provide surfaces
for attachment of muscles and ligaments.
Centrum: This is the solid central part of the vertebra whose function is to bind to the
intervertebral disc and form a cartilaginous joint with the next vertebra.
The functions of vertebral column are:
 Protecting the spinal cord from mechanical damage
 Providing attachment for ribs and girdles
 Supporting the body trunk
 Imparting flexibility to the body trunk due presence of cartilaginous joints.

Muscles
A muscle is a tissue which contracts to produce movements in parts of the body or the entire
body. There are three types of muscles, namely, cardiacmuscle, smoothmuscle (visceral
muscle) and skeletalmuscle (striated muscle).

Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and has the following characteristics:
 It is myogenic (self-stimulating), meaning that the stimulus for contraction originates
from the muscle itself
 It does not get fatigued
 The muscle cells (muscle fibres) are branched and interconnected forming a net-like
structure
 The muscle cells die easily when deprived of oxygen and food or exposed to toxins.
Smooth muscles (visceral muscles) are made of long, spindle-shaped cells and are found in
the walls of several body tubes and organs. Rings of smooth muscles are called sphincters.
Skeletal muscles are muscles which are attached to the skeleton and play a major role in
locomotion. When viewed under the microscope they look striped (striated) and are therefore
called striated muscles. They are multinucleated (each muscle cell has several nuclei).
Skeletal muscles are voluntary while cardiac and smooth muscles are involuntary. A
voluntary muscle is a muscle whose contraction is consciously controlled by the brain.
Skeletal muscles occur in pairs known as antagonistic muscles. Antagonistic muscles are
pairs of muscles which produce movement in opposite directions at the same joint. The
muscle that causes bending of the joint when it contracts is called a flexor muscle while the
one that causes extending of the joint when it contracts is called the extensor muscle. Skeletal
muscles occur in antagonistic pairs because each muscle can only contract but requires the
contraction of another muscle to relax or lengthen it. Examples of antagonistic muscles are the
biceps and triceps which act on the elbow joint. The biceps are the flexor muscles while the
triceps are the extensor muscles.
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The events involved in bending and straightening the elbow joint are summarised below:
(a) To bend the elbow joint
 The brain sends impulses to stimulate contraction of the biceps and inhibit contraction
of the triceps.
 Biceps contract, thereby pulling the radius upwards and towards the humerus.
 Triceps relax and are stretched by the action of the biceps.
 The lower arm moves upwards thereby bending the elbow joint
Figure 22: Flexing the Elbow Joint

(b) To straighten the elbow joint

 The brain sends impulses to stimulate contraction of the triceps and inhibit contraction
of the biceps.
 Triceps contract and pull the ulna.
 The biceps are stretched by the contraction of the triceps
 The lower arm moves downwards, thereby extending the elbow joint.
Figure 23: Extending the Elbow Joint

Joints
A joint is defined as a point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of
joints, namely fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints. The names of these types of joints
are based on their structures and the type of movement they permit
Fibrous Joints: These are joints where the bones are tightly held together by short and tough
fibres. They permit no movement and are therefore called immovablejoints e.g. the sutures
between the bones of the skull (cranium).
Cartilaginous Joints: These are joints in which bones are held together by cartilage. They
only permit slight movements and are therefore said to be slightly movable joints e.g. the
intervertebraldiscs that hold the vertebrae together in the spine.
Synovial Joints: These are joints made of cavities containing a fluid called synovial fluid and
they allow movement in one or more planes. They are said to be movablejoints. There are
several types of synovial joints. Two examples are ball-and-socket joints and hinge joints.

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  Ball-and-socket joints: These are synovial joints where one bone has a round head
(ball) and another has a depression (socket). These joints allow movement in three
planes e.g. hip joint and shoulder joint.
 Hinge joints: These are synovial joints which allow movement in only one plane,
usually through an angle of 180o e.g. the elbow joint, knee joint, knuckle joints and
joints of thephalanges.
Figure 24: Structure of a Synovial Joint

The main parts of a synovial joint and their roles are summarised in the following table
Structure Main Function Description (where necessary)
Ligament Joins bone to bone and keeps the joint Elastic fibrous tissue made of an
stable by preventing dislocation elastic protein called yellow elastin
Tendons Joins muscle to bone; translate muscle Tough and inelastic fibrous protein
contraction into movement of bone largely made of a protein called
collagen
Joint Capsule Encloses the joint membrane
Synovial fluid Supplies nutrients and acts as a
lubricant that reduces friction
Synovial Secretes synovial fluid
membrane
Cartilage Reduces friction at ends of bones, Firm and flexible rubber-like tissue
absorbs mechanical shocks and spreads made of living cells and collagen
forces fibres embedded in a matrix of
chondrin
Disorders of Joints
(a) Gout
This is a condition characterised by formation of uric acid crystals at the joints. It leads to
swelling and paining of joints. It can be controlled by reducing the intake of meat and meat
products whose amino acids are easily converted to uric acid.
(b) Arthritis
This is inflammation of joints characterised by painful and swollen joints. The inflammation
initially affects the synovial membranes but eventually causes damage to cartilage and bone,
making movement difficult.
(c) Dislocation
This is a condition where one or more bones move out of place at a joint.
(d) Tuberculosis of the Bones: Formation of tubercles in the bones due to infection by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
(e) Bone marrow cancer: the uncontrolled division of cells in the bone marrow.

Importance of the Skeleton

The human skeleton is important in the following ways:
 Supporting the body and providing the frame work of the body
 Movement and locomotion
 Protection of delicate body parts e.g. the brain is protected by the skull (cranium) while
the heart and lungs are protected by the ribcage
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  Production of blood cells i.e. some white blood cells are produced in the yellow bone
marrow while red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow.
 Transmission of sound from the ear drum to the oval window by ear ossicles
 The ribcage contributes to breathing by moving upwards and outwards (during
inspiration) or downwards and inwards (during expiration)

REPRODUCTION

This is the process by which living organisms produce offspring (young ones of the same kind)
There are two types of reproduction, namely sexual and asexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
This is a type of reproduction where one parent produces one or more genetically identical
offspring by mitosis without involving the fusion of gametes.
Advantages of asexual reproduction include:
 A mate is not required for offspring to be produced
 Large numbers of offspring can be produced in a short time
 Desirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
 It makes it possible to grow new plants of certain species even when seeds fail.
 It can take place even in harsh environmental conditions e.g. fungi such as Mucor
switch to asexual reproduction when environmental conditions are harsh.
 No pollination and dispersal agents required for plants
Examples of plants produced using asexual reproduction are sugar cane (using stem cuttings),
bananas (using suckers) and pineapples.
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction include:
 Undesirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged
 Lack of genetic variation makes it difficult to adapt to a variety of habitats.
 It often leads to overcrowding and competition for resources
Examples of asexual reproduction include binary fission, multiple fission, budding,
fragmentation, sporeformation and vegetativepropagation.
Binary Fission
This is a type of asexual reproduction where one parent cell divides into two daughter cells.
The stages involved in binary fission are:
 The parent cell first grows bigger by increasing the amount of cytoplasm
 The DNA replicates and the nucleus undergoes mitosis, resulting in the formation of
two daughter nuclei
 The cell membrane constricts thereby dividing the cytoplasm in two so that each
nucleus is surrounded by its own cytoplasm
 The two daughter cells separate.
This type of reproduction occurs in bacteria and Amoeba.

Figure 25: Binary Fission in Amoeba

Budding
This is a type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell or body of an organism develops an
outgrowth called a bud which increases in size and eventually detaches from the parent to
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become an independent organism. Examples of organisms that carry out budding are yeast and
hydra. A group of undetached buds is called a colony.
Figure 26: Budding in Yeast

Spore formation
This is a type of asexual reproduction where an organism forms spores. Spores are microscopic
round structures produced asexually in very large numbers and are capable of germinating
when conditions are favourable. They are normally produced when conditions are not
favourable for sexual reproduction and are dispersed by wind. Examples of organisms that
produce spores are the fungi Mucor and Rhizopus.

Note: Mucor and Rhizopus can also reproduce sexually by conjugation which results in
formation of zygospores. They only carry out asexual reproduction when environmental
conditions are harsh e.g. when the temperature is extremely low or high and when there is
insufficient moisture.
Fragmentation
This is a type of asexual reproduction where pieces cut from an organism develop into
independent organisms e.g. in Spyrogyra,some flatworms and sponges.

Vegetative Propagation
This term refers to asexual reproduction in flowering plants where new plants are grown from
vegetative parts of a plant such as roots, stems and leaves, without involving seeds.
Vegetative propagation can be either natural or artificial.

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(a) Natural vegetative propagation
A lot of flowering plants can naturally propagate themselves vegetatively using underground
structures called perennating organs which enable plants to survive from year to year. The
features possessed by perennating organs include buds, adventitious roots and stored food.
Each bud can grow to form a single shoot. Buds that are located at the end of the stem are
called apicalbuds while those located on the sides of the stems are called lateral or
axillarybuds. The buds are protected by structures called scaleleaves. Adventitious roots are
either present on the perennating organ or they quickly develop when conditions are
favourable. Examples of perennating organs are roottubers, stemtubers, corms,
suckers,bulbs and rhizomes.

 Root tuber: This is a root that has become swollen because of stored food and is able
to grow into a new plant e.g. sweet potatoes and carrots.

 Stem tuber: This is an underground stem that has become swollen because of stored
food and contains eye buds that are able to grow into new plants e.g. Irish potatoes.

 Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem with apical and
axillarybuds that can grow into new shoots e.g. Crocus sp.

 Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g.
garlic and onion (Allium sp). The fleshy leaves contain food in them.

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 Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger. A rhizome has
adventitious roots and buds that can develop into new shoots at the nodes.

 Suckers: These are underground lateral branches of stems having terminal buds and
adventitious roots e.g. bananas and plantains.

 Runners, stolons and vines: These are horizontal stems growing above the ground and
have adventitious roots and buds at the nodes e.g. lawn grass, sweet potato vines.

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  Leaves: Certain plants such as Bryophyllum have leaves that are swollen with stored
food and have buds and adventitious roots that can develop into new plants.

Exercise: Draw labelled drawings of a root tuber, stem tuber, corm, rhizome, bulb and stolon.
Your drawings must show buds, adventitious roots and scale leaves, where necessary.
(c) Artificial Vegetative Propagation
Examples of artificial vegetative propagation are discussed below:

 Stem Cuttings: These are stems cut just below the node and planted to produce new
plants. Adventitious roots develop from the node and the buds on the stem develop into
shoots, giving rise to new plants. This method is enhanced by applying rooting powder
to stimulate development of adventitious roots. Leaves are also removed from the stem
to reduce the rate of transpiration. If there is a cut end exposed to the air, it is coated
with paint or another substance to reduce water loss. Sugar cane and cassava can be
propagated this way.

 Grafting: This involves bringing together a stock and a scion coming from two closely
related plants i.e. plants of the same species or genus. The stock is the part whose aerial
(upper) parts have been cut off and it provides an already established root system that is
responsible for absorbing water and mineral salts. The scion is the aerial part that bears
buds which later form the shoot. This is the part that has the desired stem, leaves,
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 flowers or fruits. The stock and scion are cut with complementary shapes that fit into
each otherbefore being tied together. The method works well if the stock and scion
have identical diameters. Roses can be propagated using this method.

 Budding: This a type of vegetative propagation where a bud is used as scion and the
bark of an entire plant used as a stock. The bud is cut in such a way that it has some
cambium. A T-shaped cut is made in the scion reaching up to the cambium. Then the
bud (scion) is inserted into the T-shaped part of the stock in such a way that the
cambium from the two parts is in contact. The two parts are tied together and sealed
with wax, leaving the bud exposed. The wax prevents excessive transpiration. Citrus
fruits can be propagated using this method.

 Layering: The involved in layering are:

o Removing a ring of bark from a low-lying branch of plant to expose the
cambium
o Covering the wounded part of the branch with moist soil to stimulate the
development of adventitious roots.
o Separating the branch from the parent plant once it has developed new roots and
shoots.
Bougainvillaea and strawberry plants can be propagated using this method.

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Sexual Reproduction in Plants
The sexual organs of plants are flowers. The following diagram illustrates a generalized
structure of a flower.
Figure 27: Generalized Diagram of Flower

Flowers have male parts (stamens or androecium) and female parts (carpels or pistil or
gynoecium). The male parts of a flower include the filament and anther while the female
parts include the stigma, style and ovary.

Functions of Flower Parts

Pedicel or Flower Stalk: This part links the flower to the stem and conducts water, nutrients
and hormones between these two parts.
Receptacle: This is the swollen end of the pedicel where other parts of the flower are attached.
Sepals: These are leaf-like structures that enclose the flower in the bud stage and protect it
from desiccation (drying up) and damage by pests and harsh weather conditions. A group of
sepals from the flower is called a calyx
Petals: These are structures that are brightly coloured and scented in insect-pollinated
flowers to attract insects. In some flowers, the petals have nectar guidelines that lead to the
nectaries in the flowers.
Stigma: This is the part that where pollen grains are deposited during pollination.
Style: This holds the stigma in position and links it to the ovary. It is also used as a passage for
the pollen grain on its way from the stigma to the ovary through the pollen tube.
Ovary: This is the part that makes and contains ovules. It becomes the fruit after fertilization.
Ovule: Ovules contain female gametes and they develop into seeds after fertilization. Each
ovule has an embryo sac containing eight haploid nuclei as illustrated in the following
diagram:

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 Figure 28: Structure of Embryo Sac

Anther: A structure made of pollen sacs where pollen grains are made and stored.

Figure 29: Structure of Pollen Grain

Filament: This supports the anther and supplies it with water and nutrients.

Pollination
This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma on the same plant or different
plants of the same species. There are two types of pollination, namely self pollination and
cross pollination. Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
on the same plant while cross pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther present
on a given plant to a stigma on another plant of the same species.
Exercise: Most species of plants favour cross pollination.
(a) Suggest the advantages of cross pollination over self pollination.
(b) What mechanisms in plants favour cross pollination?
Agents of pollination include mainly insects and wind. Insect-pollinated flowers are also
called entomophilous flowers while wind pollinated flowers are also called anemophilous
flowers. The following table compares the structures present in insect and wind pollinated
flowers:

Structure Insect-pollinated flower Wind-pollinated flower

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Petals Brightly-coloured, scented, large Dull-coloured, non-scented, small, and
and have nectaries have no nectaries

Anthers Small, firm and enclosed within Large, pendulous and exposed.
petals

Filaments Short and firm Long and dangling outside the flower

Stigmas Short, firm, lobed and enclosed in Long, feathery and exposed so as to
petals to ensure insects brush against easily trap pollen grains from air
them

Pollen Large, few and sticky Small, numerous and smooth

grains

The Pollen Tube and Fertilization

After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs water from the stigma and becomes swollen. Then
the pollen tube nucleus (tube nucleus) germinates to form a pollen tube which grows through
the stigma, style and ovary until it reaches the embryo sac inside the ovule. To form the pollen
tube, the pollen tube nucleus secretes enzymes that break down part of the stigma, style and
ovary. Growth of the tube nucleus towards the ovule is guided by chemicals secreted by the
synergids that are found in the ovule. This is an example of positivechemotropism. After
reaching the micropyle (an opening in the wall of the ovule), the tube nucleus disintegrates.
The generative nucleus follows the tube nucleus behind and divides into two haploid cells
called male nuclei (singular=male nucleus). The first male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to
form a diploid zygote which later developsinto the embryo. The second male nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei to form a triploid cell which later develops into the endosperm. The
function of the endosperm is to act as a food storage tissue. This type of fertilization where one
male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote and the other male nucleus fuses
with two polar nuclei to form a triploid cell is called double fertilization.
Figure 30: Development of the Pollen Tube

After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed while the ovary develops into a fruit. Refer to
notes on plant growth and development for seed structure.

Fruit Structure

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 Figure 31: Generalized Structure of a Simple Fruit

Fruit and Seed Dispersal

This refers to the scattering of fruits or seeds from the parent plant to others places. The
advantages of seed dispersal are:

 It reduces competition for light, space, gases and nutrients

 It allows plants to colonize new areas
 It reduces the chances of extinction in case the plants in one location are destroyed
The adaptations of fruits and seeds to their methods/agents of dispersal are discussed below:
(i) Animal-dispersed Seeds
Animal-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:

 Presence of hooks to cling to the fur of animals e.g. black jack (Bidens pilosa). The
hooks irritate the animal causing it to shake the seeds off some distance away from the
parent plant.

 Succulent (juicy) mesocarps to attract and reward animals e.g. mangoes.

 Brightly coloured epicarps to attract animals to fruits, especially when ripe e.g.
oranges.
 Seeds have hard testas that are resistant to digestive enzymes found in the guts of
animals e.g. guavas.
 Scented fruits to attract animals e.g. oranges.
(ii) Wind-dispersed Fruits
Wind-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:

 „Parachute’ of hairs (pappus) formed from sepals after fertilization causes the fruit to
float thereby delaying landing and encouraging dispersal. An example of a seed that has
a pappus is the dandelion seed.

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  Wing-like Structures that cause the fruit to float thereby delaying landing and
encouraging dispersal. An example of a seed that has wing-like structures is the
sycamore seed as illustrated in the following diagram.

Figure 32: Wind-dispersed Fruits

(iii) Water-dispersed fruits

Water-dispersed fruits have fibrous pericarps that enable them to float in water e.g. coconut
fruits.

(iv) Self-dispersed fruits (Explosive mechanism of Dispersal)

Such fruits have fruit walls that develop tension and split to scatter seeds when dry. Such pods
(fruit walls) are said to be dehiscent pods. This mechanism of dispersal is common in legume
fruits e.g. beans.

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Sexual Reproduction in Frogs

Frogs require water in order to reproduce. This is because their eggs and larval stages are
adapted to obtain their oxygen from water. Mature male frogs attract females for mating by
making croaking sounds. The male mounts the female in water to start the copulation process.
During copulation, the female produces a large number of eggs which are then fertilized by
spermatozoa from the male outside of the female‟s body. This is called external fertilization.
Once the eggs have been laid, there is no parental care but they are left to develop on their
own. Each egg contains egg yolk which is rich in food needed for development of the embryo
until it hatches to produce a tadpole. The tadpole moves through water by propelling itself
using a tail and obtains oxygen from water using gills.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

Human bodies are equipped with sexual organs (gonads) that are used for sexual reproduction.
The male gonads are called testes (singular=testis) while the female gonads are called ovaries.
The female and male gonads occur on separate bodies and are part of the reproductive
system.
Figure 33: Male and Female Reproductive Systems
Male Reproductive System-Side view Female Reproductive System-
Side view

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Functions of Parts of the Male Reproductive System
Testes (singular= testis): These are a pair of structures that produce spermatozoa (sperm) and
secrete the hormone called testosterone. They are found in a sac of skin called the scrotum
located outside the lower abdomen. The scrotum holds the testicles outside the body to keep
them at a temperature slightly lower than that of the body for more effective production of
spermatozoa.
Epididymis: This is made of coiled tubes where sperms are stored.
Sperm duct (vas deferens): This is the tube that carries spermatozoa from the epididymis to
the urethra.
Urethra: This is the tube that carries semen from the sperm duct and urine from the bladder.
Penis: This is an erectile organ that is used to deposit semen into the vagina during sexual
intercourse. The semen is deposited into the vagina by a process called ejaculation.

Functions of Parts of the Female Reproductive System

Ovaries: These are a pair of gonads responsible for formation of eggs and for secretion of
oestrogen and progesterone.
Oviduct: This is the tube through which the ovum travels from the ovary to the uterus. It is
also the sight where fertilization occurs.
Uterus: This is the site for implantation and development of the foetus.
Cervix: This connects the vagina to the uterus and forms part of the birth canal. It is the point
where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse. The cervix also secretes fluids that
lubricate the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Vagina: This is the part where an erect penis is inserted during sexual intercourse. It also forms
part of the birth canal.

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

During sexual development, the human being first develops the primary sexual
characteristics which include the sexual organs and the reproductive systems. To complete its
sexual development, the human body must develop secondary sexual characteristics. These
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 are characteristics that a human body develops after reaching puberty. They make the body
more adapted to carry out reproduction and are influenced by hormones. In males, their
development is influenced by the hormone called testosterone which is secreted by the
testicles. In females, their development is influenced by the hormone called oestrogen which
is secreted by the ovaries.

Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics

 Menstrual cycle commences
 Enlargement of breasts
 Widening of hips
Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics  Development of pubic hair and hair
 Sperm production in the armpits
 Enlargement of testicles and penis  Enlargement of vagina
 Development of pubic hair, beards,  Skin becomes more tender and
hair on the chest and in the armpits supple
 Deepening of voice
 The body becomes more muscular
Note: Females stop their menstrual cycles when they reach a stage of sexual development called menopause (at
45 to 50 years of age)

The Menstrual Cycle

This is a cycle of about 28 days during which a woman experiences ovulation and menstruation, one after the
other. Ovulation is the release of an ovum from the ovary. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterus lining
together with some blood through the vagina which occurs when an ovum does not get fertilized. It lasts three to
five days. Ovulation and menstruation occur approximately 14 days (two weeks) after each other.
The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and the ovaries. The hormones
from the pituitary gland (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone) act on the ovaries while
those from the ovaries (oestrogen and progesterone) act on the lining of the uterus (endometrium). The roles of
these hormones are summarized below:
(i) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes ripening of the eggs in the
ovaries by stimulating the development of Graafian follicles around them.
(ii) Oestrogen is secreted by the Graafian follicle in the ovary. It builds up the lining of the uterus, inhibits
further secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and stimulates secretion of luteinising hormone.
(iii) Luteinising Hormone (LH) is secreted by the pituitary gland. It stimulates ovulation and the development
of the corpus luteum (yellow body) from the remains of the Graafian follicle.
(iv) Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovaries. It maintains the growth of the uterus lining and
increases blood supply to it in readiness for implantation in case fertilization occurs. It also inhibits secretion of
FSH and LH by the pituitary gland. However, the corpus luteum gets progressively smaller until it completely
degenerates and there is no more progesterone being secreted. When this happens, lining of the uterus breaks
down and the pituitary gland starts secreting FSH to begin the cycle all over again. On the other hand, if the egg
gets fertilized, the corpus luteum takes longer to degenerate until the placenta has developed in the uterus.

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 Figure 34: Events of the Menstrual Cycle

Fertilization, Implantation and Foetal Development

Fertilization is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female gamete to form a single
cell called a zygote. It normally occurs in the oviduct. After fertilization, the zygote travels through the oviduct
towards the uterus and divides repeatedly by mitosis to form an embryo. Upon reaching the uterus, the embryo
undergoes implantation. Implantation is the process by which by which an embryo gets attached to the wall of
the uterus (about 11 or 12 days after fertilization). As the embryo develops, it forms temporal organ known as
the placenta. As soon as vital organs begin developing, the embryo‟s name changes to foetus. This occurs 6 to
8 weeks after fertilization.
Figure 35: Ten-week Old Foetus

The Placenta: The placenta performs the roles normally performed by the intestines, kidneys and lungs in adult
human being. These include absorption of food, excretion and gaseous exchange, respectively. The functions of
the placenta are summarized as follows:

 Attaching the foetus to the uterus of the mother

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  Protecting the foetus from the mother‟s immune system, mother‟s blood pressure and pathogens. It does
this by forming a barrier that prevents mixing of the blood of the mother and the blood of the foetus.
 Exchange of materials between foetus and mother by the process of diffusion. Dissolved food and
oxygen diffuse from the mother‟s blood to the blood of the foetus while carbon dioxide and urea diffuse
from the blood of the foetus to the mother‟s blood. The placenta has finger-like projections called villi
that increase the surface area for exchange of substances.
 Secretion of hormones. It secretes progesterone to maintain the thickness of the uterus lining during
pregnancy. It also secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) which prolongs the activity of the
corpus luteum. The presence of HCG in the urine of a woman is a sign that she is pregnant.
Besides the useful materials that cross the placenta from the mother‟s blood to the blood of the foetus, some
harmful substances that are made of small molecules also manage to cross the placenta and affect the baby
negatively. These substances include carbon monoxide from cigarette smoke, drugs such as alcohol and
viruses. Carbon monoxide combines with haemoglobin irreversibly, thereby reducing the amount of oxygen
available to the cells of the foetus. This leads to low birth weights. Alcohol makes a baby be born with a
condition called foetalalcoholic syndrome (FAS) which is characterized by mental retardation and deformation
of the baby.
Umbilical Cord: The umbilical cord contains blood vessels (umbilical artery and umbilical vein) that transport
blood between the foetus and the placenta. The umbilical artery carries blood rich in metabolic wastes (mainly
ncarbon dioxide and urea) from the foetus to the placenta while the umbilical vein carries blood rich in
dissolved food and oxygen from the placenta to the foetus.
Amnion and Amniotic Fluid: The amnion is the membrane responsible for enclosing the amniotic fluid. The
amniotic fluid protects the foetus from mechanical shocks, drying up and also maintains a constant temperature
around the environment of the foetus.
NB:The mucus plug blocks the cervical canal to keep away foreign substances from the uterus during
pregnancy.
Exercise: Write a short essay to describe the special dietary needs of a pregnant woman.

Gestation Period and Birth

Gestation period refers to the period of time between fertilization and birth. In human beings, the gestation
period lasts for about nine months for a boy child and about eight months for a girl child. The process of birth
ismade of three main stages, namely dilation, delivery and afterbirth. Dilation is the first major stage of birth
and involves widening of the cervix in readiness for expulsion of the baby from the uterus. Before dilation, a
woman experiences intermittent contractions of the uterus which are called labour pains. Labour pains are
initiated by a hormone called oxytocin, which is secreted by the pituitary gland. After dilation, the amnion
bursts to release amniotic fluid. This is called the breaking of the waters. The second major stage is delivery
which is the expulsion of the baby from the uterus. This is brought about by strong contractions of the uterus,
coupled with voluntary contractions of the abdominal muscles by the woman. During a normal delivery, the
head of the baby comes out first. If the legs come out first, the birth is called a breach. The third and final stage
of birth is the expulsion of the placenta from the uterus through the vagina. This is called the after-birth.

Birth Control (Family Planning)

This involves limiting the number of children and spacing their births so as to get the following benefits:

 Give the mother time to recover from the effects of giving birth before she can have another child.
 Ensuring each child receives enough nutrition, shelter, clothing, education and attention.
The methods of birth control are also called contraceptive methods because they are used to prevent
conception (fertilization and implantation). Contraceptive methods are divided into two groups, namely natural
methods and artificial methods. Natural methods include the withdrawal method (coitus interruptus) and the
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rhythm (safe period) method. The main advantage of natural methods is that they cost no money. Otherwise,
they are unreliable and require a lot of discipline. Artificial methods include barrier methods (condom,
diaphragm and intra-uterine device), chemical methods (spermicides and hormones such as those found in the
oral contraceptive pill) and surgical methods (vasectomy and tubal ligation or laparatomy)
Withdrawal Method: This is the removal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation. It is an unreliable
method because the fluids that a man releases before ejaculation contain traces of spermatozoa that may still
fertilize an ovum.
Rhythm Method: This is a contraceptive method where a couple only copulates during the safe period of the
menstrual cycle when fertilization is less likely to occur. This method is also unreliable because the length of
the menstrual cycle is modified by factors such as type of diet, stress and physical exercise.
Condoms: A condom is a thin latex sheath that is fitted around an erect penis or inserted into the vagina before
intercourse so as to keep semen from being deposited directly into the vagina. It is the only contraceptive
method that prevents the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STI‟s) such as syphilis, gonorrhoea
and AIDS. However, if expired or not properly used, they can break or leak. Some people complain that they
reduce enjoyment of sex and cannot be used spontaneously.

Diaphragm (cap): This is a thin latex cap fitted over the cervix before intercourse so as to block spermatozoa
from entering the uterus. It is more reliable if used in conjunction with spermicides. Initially, the diaphragm
must be fitted by a doctor.

Intra-uterine Device (IUD): This is a device made of plastic and copper wire that is inserted into the uterus to
prevent implantation by irritating the lining of the uterus. The device can only be fitted by experts and it may
cause discomfort if wrongly placed.

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Spermicides: These are chemical substances that are applied inside the vagina before sexual intercourse in order
to kill spermatozoa. They are normally used together with the diaphragm.
Hormones: Hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone are administered in the form of pills or injections to
prevent ovulation and implantation. They are only reliable if taken according to prescription and may have side
effects such as interfering with the pattern of the menstrual cycle, nausea and weight gain.

Vasectomy: This is the cutting and tying of sperm ducts to block passage of spermatozoa from the testicles. The
man is still able to engage in sexual intercourse but ejaculates seminal fluids that have no spermatozoa. The
method is highly reliable but may be irreversible.

Tubal Ligation (Laparatomy): Oviducts are cut and tied to prevent passage of eggs from the ovaries to the
uterus. This method is also highly reliable and usually irreversible.

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HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE
Health is defined as a state of physical and mental well-being. A disease is any physical or mental disorder that
interferes with normal functioning of the body and has a characteristic set of signs and symptoms. A sign is any
indication of a disease which can be observed or measured e.g. a rash, a high temperature and loss of weight.
A symptom is any indication of a disease that can only be felt and described by a patient e.g. headache and
other kinds of pain, nausea and dizziness.

Groups of Diseases
There are two main categories of diseases which are infectious diseases (transmissible diseases) and non-
infectious diseases (non-transmissible diseases).

Infectious Diseases
Infectious diseases are those diseases that can be transmitted from person to person. They are also called
pathogenic diseases because they are all caused by pathogens. Pathogens are disease-causing organisms,
mainly microorganisms. Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi and worms. Methods by which
infectious diseases spread include the following:

 Through vectors. A vector is an organism that transmits a pathogen from one organism to another.
There are two types of vectors, namely mechanical vectors and biological vectors. A mechanical
vector is one that carries pathogens on its body surface e.g. the house fly is a mechanical vector for the
cholera pathogen. A biological vector is one that carries the pathogen inside its body and the pathogen
undergoes part of its life cycle inside its body. For this reason, the biological vector is considered to be a
secondaryhost of the pathogen. The mosquito is a biological vector for the malaria parasite known as
Plasmodium. Insects tend to be very effective vectors because their capacity to move fast by flying and
their ability to occupy different types of habitats.
 Inhalation of infected air droplets. A number of respiratory diseases are spread when a healthy person
inhales infected droplets released into the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Examples of
such diseases are tuberculosis, pneumonia, influenza, measles and diphtheria.
 Taking contaminated food and water. Transmission by this method occurs for diseases such as
cholera, typhoid, dysentery, intestinal worm infections and hepatitis (A and B).
 Contact with infected water e.g. bilharzia and hook worms.
 Contact with infected organisms e.g. ringworm, athlete‟s foot and thrush.

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  Sexual Intercourse e.g. gonorrhoea, syphilis and AIDS. Such diseases are called sexually transmitted
infections (STI‟s) or sexually transmitted diseases (STD‟s).
The following table summarizes the causative agents, signs, symptoms, methods of transmission and methods
of control for selected pathogenic diseases.

Disease Causative Agent Signs and Methods of Treatment and

Symptoms Transmission Methods of Control
Bilharzia Schistosoma Anaemia, tiredness, Exposure to Sanitary disposal of
(Schistosomiasis) blood in urine and cercaria larvae urine and faeces;
(S. mansoni, in faeces ( in water boiling or treatment of
eggs of water before use;
S. haematobium &
Schistosoma have treatment with drugs
S. japonicum) hooks that damage
blood vessels of
bladder and gut)

AIDS A virus called Loss of weight; Sexual Avoid unprotected

human skin cancer; intercourse with casual sex; be faithful
(Acquired immunodeficiency tiredness; an infected to one sexual partner;
Immune virus (HIV) opportunistic partner; contact avoid sharing piercing
Deficiency infections such as with infected and cutting utensils;
Syndrome) pneumonia, blood; mother screening of blood
tuberculosis and to child before transfusion; no
diarrhoeal diseases transmission cure yet

Malaria A protozoon Headache; fever; Bite from Treatment with anti-

called anaemia; pain in female malarial drugs;
Plasmodium muscles and joints; Anopheles controlling or killing
shivering and mosquito of mosquitoes;
sweating preventing mosquito
bites

Cholera A bacterium Vomiting and Taking Sanitary disposal of

called Vibrio diarrhoea (rice contaminated faeces; boiling or
cholera water like stool) ; food and water; chlorination of
dehydration contact with drinking water;
infected person warming and covering
of food; quarantine of
patients; treatment
with antibiotics and
replacement of salts
and water using oral
rehydration salt (ORS)

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Non-transmissible Diseases
These are diseases that cannot be passed from one individual to another. They are divided into the following
categories:
(i) Nutritional Deficiency Diseases: Diseases caused poor diets lacking one of or more of essential nutrients.
Examples of such diseases are marasmus, kwashiorkor and rickets.

(ii) Genetic (inherited) Diseases: Diseases that are passed through genes from parents to their offspring e.g.
sickle
cell anaemia, haemophilia and down‟s syndrome.

(iii) Degenerative Diseases: Diseases characterized by a gradual decline in the function of an organ as a result
of ageing or too much stress on the organ e.g. arthritis and coronary heart disease.

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 (iv) Environmental Diseases: Diseases resulting from the presence of pollutants in the environment e.g.
bronchitis,
emphysema and lung cancer resulting from the presence of tar in the air.
(v) Mental Disorders: Disorders of the mind caused by chemical or physical factors e.g. schizophrenia.
(vi) Self-inflicted and Social Diseases: These include conditions like drug addiction.

IMMUNITY
This refers to resistance of the body to infection due to the presence of antibodies in the blood. Antibodies are
proteins produced by lymphocytes are responsible for destroying antigens produced by infectious or foreign
bodies. Each type of antibody is only effective against one particular type of antigen. The body can only
produce antibodies against an antigen that it has been exposed to.

Types of Immunity
Immunity is said to be active if the body is involved in the production of antibodies and passive if the body
receives ready made antibodies from an external source. Both active and passive immunity can be natural (if
acquired through natural means such as getting infected, breast feeding or across the placenta from a mother to
an unborn baby) or artificial (if acquired through man-made means such as vaccination or immunization). The
following table gives examples of different types of immunity:

Type of Definition or Description Examples

immunity
Natural Active The body gets naturally infected and gets stimulated A person becomes permanently
Immunity to produce antibodies against the infection immune to measles if they have
suffered from it before

Artificial Introducing dead or weakened (attenuated) germs or BCG vaccination against

Active antigens into the blood stream of a person so as to tuberculosis; polio vaccine;
Immunity stimulate production of antibodies by the body. This cowpox vaccine e.t.c.
process is called vaccination

Natural Passive Ready-made antibodies are introduced into the blood

Immunity stream of a person through natural means such as
breast feeding or across the placenta from a mother to
an unborn baby to give immediate but temporal
protection against particular antigens.

Artificial Immune serum containing ready-made antibodies is Anti-venom or anti-tetanus

Passive injected into the blood stream of a person to give injections
Immunity immediate but temporal protection against a
particular antigen.

Note: The immunity of a person may be determined by determining the levels of antibodies in the blood stream.
In passive immunity, the levels of antibodies shoot up immediately after the person has received them. However
the levels go down with time because the antibodies are destroyed by the spleen and the liver. It takes another
introduction of antibodies to raise the levels again. For active immunity, the immune response that occurs after
being exposed to an antigen for the first time is called the primary response. After the primary response, the
body makes memory cells that produce antibodies more rapidly the next time there is a similar infection. The

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immune response that occurs after being exposed to an antigen for the second time is called the secondary
response. The secondary response is always greater and more rapid than the primary response. The next two
diagrams illustrate passive immunity and active immunity:

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

Figure 36: Changes in Levels of Antibodies with Time in Active and Passive Immunity

Immunity is important for prevention of diseases. Factors that reduce immunity include poor diet,
development of resistant strains of pathogens, repeated invasions by pathogens, intake of immuno-
depressant drugs and infection by HIV that destroys the lymphocytes.

GENETICS
Genetics is the study of the mechanisms involved in the control, transmission and expression of inherited
characteristics.

Variation
This refers to the differences in characteristics among organisms of the same species. There are two types of
variation, namely continuous variation and discontinuous variation.

Continuous variation
Thisis a type of variation where a characteristic has many intermediate forms between twoextremes.
Examples of characteristics that show continuous variation in humans are height, complexion and body
mass/size. The causes of continuous variation include:

 Control by many genes/control by many pairs of alleles/polygenic control

 Influence by environmental factors such as diet, climate e.t.c
When the number of individuals is plotted against a characteristic that shows continuous variation, a normal
distribution curve (bell-shaped curve) is produced, as illustrated in the following diagram:

Figure 37: Graph Illustrating Continuous Variation

Discontinuous variation

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This is a type of variation where a characteristic has clear-cut different groups (distinct groups), with no
intermediate forms. Examples of characteristics which show discontinuous variation in humans are sex, blood
groups and colour of eyes. The causes of discontinuous variation include:
 Control by one or few genes (control by one or few pairs of alleles)
 Lack of environmental influence.
Characteristics which show this kind of variation are normally plotted on histograms, bar-charts or similar types
of graphs, as illustrated in the following diagram:

Figure 38: Chart Illustrating Discontinuous Variation

Chromosomes and Genes

Chromosomes are DNA threads found in the nucleus and responsible for storage of inherited information in the
form of genes. Each chromosome is made of two strands called chromatids which are linked to each other at the
centromere. Chromatids found on the same chromosome are called sister chromatids.

Figure 39: Simplified Structure of a Chromosome

Chromosome Numbers
The number of chromosomes in eachcell of a particular species of organisms is fixed. Note that there are two
kinds of cells in organisms that reproduce sexually, namely somatic cells (body cells) and gametes (sex cells)
The number of chromosomes in each somatic cell is called the diploid numberand its symbol is 2n. The
number of chromosomes in each gamete is called the monoploid or haploid numberand its symbol is n. The
haploid number is always half of the diploid number in a given species.
The following table gives examples of species and their diploid and haploid numbers.

Species Diploid Number (2n) Haploid number (n)

Human being 46 23

Rat 40 20

Fruit fly 8 4

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Onion 16 8

Tomato 24 12

Chromosome Types
There are two types of chromosomes, namely sex chromosomes and autosomes (non-sex chromosomes). Every
somatic cell has two sex chromosomes while every gamete has only one sex chromosome.

Nuclear Division (Mitosis and Meiosis)

Nuclear division or cell division is the process by which new cells (daughtercells) are formed from existing
cells (parent/mother cells). There are two types of nuclear division, namely mitosis and meiosis.

(a) Mitosis
This is a type of cell division that results in the formation of two daughter cells that are diploid and genetically
identical from one diploid parent cell
Figure 40: Simple Illustration of Mitosis

Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis involves four stages, namely prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Prophase
The following events take place during prophase

 Movement of centrioles to opposite poles of the cell

 Appearance of spindle fibres from the centrioles
 Disappearance of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus
 Chromosomes become visible by coiling and shortening
Metaphase
During metaphase the following events take place

 Centromeres of chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell

 Spindle fibres from the centrioles attach themselves to the centromeres of the chromosomes
Anaphase
During anaphase the sister chromatids are separated from each other and pulled to opposite poles, centromere
first.

Telophase

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The following events take place

 The chromatidsarrive at the poles and each of them becomes a complete chromosome
 The spindle fibres disappears
 Chromosomes disappear by unwinding and becoming longer
 The nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear
Importance of mitosis (MR. RAG)

 Growth
 Regeneration
 Asexual reproduction e.g. binary fission in Amoeba
 Maintaining genetic stability
 Replacement of cells
(b) Meiosis (reduction division)
This is a type of nuclear division where one diploid parent cell produce four daughter cells that haploid and
genetically different from the parent cell. There are two divisions that take place during meiosis. These are
meiosis I (first meiotic division) and meiosis II (second meiotic division). Each of the two divisions is made of
prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Figure 41: Simple Illustration of Meiosis

Meiosis I
Prophase I

 Movement of centrioles to the poles of the cell

 Appearance of spindle fibres from the centrioles
 Disappearance of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus
 Chromosomes become visible by coiling and shortening
 Homologous chromosomes pair up. These are chromosome pairs having the same length, same gene
loci and an identical position of the centromere. Each member of this pair comes from a different parent.
 Crossingover takes place between chromatids of homologous chromosomes. This is a process during
which the chromatids of homologous chromosomes get entangled and exchange pieces. The point of
crossing over is called a chiasma (plural=chiasmata). This process contributes to genetic variation. The
following diagram demonstrates crossing over in homologous chromosomes

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Metaphase I

 Centromeres of homologous chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell

 Spindle fibres from the centrioles attach themselves to the Centromeres of the homologous
chromosomes
Anaphase I
During anaphase I the homologous chromosomes are separated from each other and pulled to opposite poles,
centromere first. The chromosomes are separated randomly. This is called randomassortment of chromosomes
and is one of the processes that contributes to genetic variation.

Telophase I

 The chromosomesarrive at the poles

 The spindle fibres disappear
 Chromosomes disappear by unwinding and becoming longer
 The nucleolus and nuclear membrane reappear
Meiosis II
The events that take place during meiosis II are similar to those in mitosis.

Importance of meiosis

 Formation of gametes (sex cells)

 It contributes to genetic variation due to crossing over and random assortment of chromosomes
Monohybrid Inheritance
This is the study of one characteristic controlled by only one gene.

The Language of Genetics

Chromosome: A chromosome is a DNA thread wrapped in protein. Chromosomes carry inherited information
from one generation to the next
Gene: This is a portion/segment of DNA controlling one particular characteristic e.g. the portion of DNA
controlling the inheritance and expression of eye colour is called the gene for eye colour. Note that some
characteristics are controlled by more than one gene. This is called polygenicinheritance. Generally, each gene
controls the synthesis of one polypeptide molecule.
Allele: This is an alternative form of a given gene. Each sexually-reproducing organism has two alleles for each
of its characteristics. The alleles may be similar or different. One of the alleles is inherited from the male parent
while the other one is from the female parent. Alleles which have more than two alternative forms are called
multiple alleles e.g. the gene for blood group in humans has three alleles, namely IA, IB and IO. Even in this
case, each human being can have only two of the alleles.

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Genotype: This is the combination of alleles an organism has for a given characteristic. It is also defined as the
genetic composition of an organism for a particular characteristic. The genotype is normally written using a pair
of letters, each representing one allele e.g. AA, Aa and aa.
Phenotype: This is the out-ward expression of the genotype in the form of physical characteristics of an
organism.
Dominant: A dominant allele is one that gets expressed in the phenotype to the exclusion of another. It is
always represented by a capital letter e.g. A, B, T and so on
Recessive: A recessive allele is one that is over-shadowed in the phenotype by the presence of a dominant
allele. It is always represented by a small/lowercase letter e.g. a, b, t and so on.
Codominance: Codominant alleles are two different alleles which are equally expressed in the phenotype when
present together e.g. the alleles IAand IBfor blood group
Homozygous: This a type of genotype where both alleles are the same i.e. both dominant or both recessive e.g.
AA, aa, BB, bb and so on. Organisms which are homozygous are called homozygotes or pure breeds.
Heterozygous: This is a type of genotype where the two alleles are different, such as one allele is dominant
while the other is recessive e.g. Aa, Tt and Bb. Organisms which are heterozygous are called heterozygotes or
hybrids.

Mendel’s Experiments
Mendel used garden peas because:
(i) They have a short life cycle
(ii) They show contrasting characteristics e.g. short plants are always below 1 meter while tall plants
always grow above 1 meter
Experiment 1
Mendel crossed homozygous tall plants with homozygous short plants. The seeds produced all grew into tall
plants. From this Mendel concluded that the allele for tallness was dominant to the allele for shortness. This
experiment can be explained using the following genetic diagram:
Let T = allele for tallness and t = allele for shortness

Note: The parents used at the beginning of any genetic experiment are called the first parental generation (P1-
generation). The offspring of the P1 generation are called the first filial generation (F1-generation). The
offspring of the F1 generation are called the second filial generation (F2-generation) and so on.

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Experiment 2
Mendel allowed the F1 plants to self pollinate. ¾ of the offspring were tall while ¼ were short. This is
explained by the following genetic diagram:

NB The fractions of the offspring phenotypes (which also represent the chances of each phenotype) may be
converted into ratios or decimal numbers, in this case the ratio is 3:1 while the decimal numbers are 0.75 and
0.25. This information may also be converted into actual numbers e.g. if the total number of offspring is 1000,
the number of short plants will be calculated as follows:
Number of short plants = ¼ X 1000 = 250
Exercise: In garden peas, the allele for smooth seeds (R) is dominant to the allele for wrinkled seeds (r). Use a
genetic diagram to show the result of crossing a heterozygous plant with a homozygous recessive one.

Back Cross (Test Cross)

This is when an organism having a dominant phenotype is crossed with a homozygous recessive one in order to
determine its genotype. The phenotypes of the offspring are used to conclude what the genotype of the tested
organism is. If all the offspring still show the dominant phenotype, it is concluded that the tested organism is
homozygous dominant. If some of the offspring show the dominant phenotype while others show the recessive
phenotype, it is concluded that the tested organism is heterozygous. This is illustrated by the following genetic
diagrams, using height in garden peas.

(a) If the organism is homozygous dominant (TT)

(b) If the organism is heterozygous (Tt)

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Common Crosses and their expected Phenotypic ratios of Offspring

When one of the parents is homozygous dominant all the offspring will have the dominant phenotype,
regardless of the genotype of the other parent.
 When both parents are heterozygous, the phenotypic ratio of the offspring is 3:1
 When one parent is heterozygous and the other homozygous recessive the phenotypic ratio of the
offspring is 1:1
 When both parents are homozygous recessive, all the offspring will have the recessive phenotype.
Type of Cross Phenotypic ratio of Offspring

TT X TT All offspring have dominant phenotype

TT X Tt All offspring have dominant phenotype

TT X tt All offspring have dominant phenotype

Tt X Tt 3:1

Tt X tt 1:1

tt X tt All offspring have recessive phenotype

Exercise:
In maize plants, the allele M, for white seeds is dominant over the allele m for yellow seeds.100 heterozygous
plants were self pollinated and 250 yellow seeds were collected.
(a) What is the expected ratio of white seeds to yellow seeds [1]
(b) What is the expected total number of seeds [2]
(c) What is the expected number of white seeds [2]

Blood Group inheritance in Humans

Blood group inheritance in humans is controlled by three alleles, namely IA,IB and IO.
Both IA and IB are dominant over IO but are codominant to each other. There are six possible genotypes and four
possible phenotypes, as shown in the following table:

Genotypes Phenotypes

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IAIA Group A

IAIO Group A

IBIB Group B

IBIO Group B

IAIB GroupAB

IOIO Group O

Points to take note of

 When one parent is group AB, a couple can never have a group O child.
 When one parent is group O, a couple can never have a group AB child.
 When one parent is homozygous group A (IAIA) or homozygous group B (IBIB), a couple can never have
a group O child.
 Group A and group B parents can have a group O child as long as they are heterozygous (IAIO or IBIO).
 A couple where one parent is heterozygous group A (IAIO) and the other heterozygous group B ( IBIO)
can have a child of any blood group.
Sex Inheritance in Humans
Sex inheritance in humans is controlled by two chromosomes, X and Y, which are called sex chromosomes. The
X chromosome is longer than the Y chromosome. A person with genotype XX is female while a person with
genotype XY is male. At each conception, the chances of having either a male or a female child are equal, as
illustrated by the following diagram.

Sex Linkage
This is the occurrence of a non sex gene on a sex chromosome. A non-sex gene found on a sex chromosome is
said to be sex-linked. If the gene is on the X chromosome, it is said to be X-linked. Examples of X-linked
conditions in humans are haemophilia and red-green colour blindness. These X-linked conditions do not occur
on the Y chromosome because they are found on the extra (non-homologous) portion of the X chromosome.
Haemophilia
This is an inherited disease where a human being bleeds for longer periods than normal due to poor clotting of
blood. It is caused by lack of blood clotting factors known as factor VIII and factor IX. The allele for
haemophilia (h) is recessive while the allele for normal blood clotting (H) is dominant. There possible
genotypes and phenotypes for haemophilia are given below:

 XHXH normal female

 XHXh normal carrier female
 XhXh haemophilic female
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 XHY normal male
 XY h
haemophilic male
Red-green Colour Blindness
This is a genetic disorder where a person can not distinguish between the colours red and green. The allele for
red-green colour blindness(r) is recessive while the allele for normal vision (R) is dominant. There possible
genotypes and phenotypes for red-green colour blindness are given below:

 XRXR normal female

 X X R r
carrier female
 XX r r
colour blind female
 XRY normal male
 XY r
colour blind male
Exercise A red-green colour blind male is married to a woman who has normal vision but carries the allele that
causes red-green colour blindness. Use a genetic diagram to predict their chances of having the following types
of offspring:
(a) a colour blind male
(b) a carrier female
(c) a normal male
(d) a normal female (not carrier)

Mutations
A mutation is a sudden spontaneous change in the structure of a gene or number of chromosomes. A gene,
chromosome or an organism which has undergone a mutation is called a mutant. Any substance that causes a
mutation is called a mutagen or mutagenic factor. All mutagens are also carcinogens (cancer-causing agents).
Examples of mutagens are chemicals, radiation and viruses. There are two types of mutations, namely gene
mutations and chromosome mutations.
Gene Mutation: This is a change in the chemical structure of a gene. Examples of gene mutations in humans
are albinism, sickle cell anaemia, red-green colour blindness and haemophilia.
Albinism: This is an inherited disease where an organism lacks the capacity to synthesize melanin. As a result,
the skin, hair, eyebrows and eyelashes all have a white colour. Even the iris does not contain melanin in albinos.
This causes internal reflections in the eye, making it difficult for albinos to see clearly.

Sickle Cell Anaemia: This is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal haemoglobin, making the red
blood cells sickle-shaped, especially when oxygen levels are low in the body. The disease reduces the capacity
of the body to transport oxygen.

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One advantage of sickle cell anaemia is that it reduces the incidence of malaria. This is because the malaria
parasite fails to reproduce inside abnormal red blood cells due to small amounts of oxygen. The other reason is
that sickle-shaped red blood cells infected with the malaria parasite are destroyed in the spleen.
Chromosome Mutation: This is a spontaneous change in the number of chromosomes. An example of
chromosome mutation in humans is Down’s syndrome. Down‟s syndrome is a genetic disorder where a human
being has 47 chromosomes instead of 46. The signs and symptoms of Down‟s syndrome are:

 Mental retardation
 Round face with squinty eyes, rather like a Mongolian. That is why the disease is sometimes called
mongolism.
 Abnormally short limbs.
 Six digits (toes or fingers) on the limbs.
Chances of having Down‟s syndrome babies are higher in women who have children when they are old (over 35
years).
NB Mutation is a source of variation within a population.

Selection
This is a process by which a selection pressure acts on population, eliminating some individuals while allowing
the fittest individuals to survive. The organisms who survive the selection process pass on their genes to their
offspring, thereby ensuring continuity of their characteristics. There are two types of selection, namely natural
and artificial selection. Natural selection occurs through natural means such as disease, competition, predation
and climatic changes. Artificial selection is carried out by human beings e.g. selective breeding of animals.
Natural selection is a possible mechanism for evolution. An example of evolution brought about by selection is
the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Genetic Engineering
This is the transfer of genes from one organism to another one of the same species or different species. An
organism carrying a modified gene or a gene transferred from another organism is called a
geneticallymodifiedorganism (GMO).An example of the application of genetic engineering is the making of
human insulin using bacteria. In this case, the gene for human insulin is transferred to the bacteria and the
bacteria begin making the human insulin. This insulin is then isolated, purified and put in appropriate containers
for diabetics to utilize.

ECOLOGY
Synopsis
Ecosystem; Community; Populations; Species; Niche (Producers, Consumers and Decomposers); Habitat;
Energy Flow; Food Chains; Trophic Levels; Food Webs; Ecological Pyramids; Nutrient Cycles; Effects of
Human Activities on Ecosystems (Pollution, Deforestation, Desertification and Conservation); Biodiversity;
Populations

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Ecology is the study of interactions of living things with each other and the environment. The following terms
are associated with the study of ecology:

 Ecosystem- a definable area made of communities of living things that interact with each other and their
non living environment e.g. a pond, GamePark.
 Community- a group of populations found in the same area and interact with each other.
 Population- a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
 Species- a group of living things that have similar features and can inter-breed to produce fertile
offspring.
 Habitat- a place where an organism lives. Examples of habitats are aquatic habitats (found in water),
terrestrial habitats (found on land)
 Niche- the specific role a given organism plays in an ecosystem e.g. some organisms such as algae and
green plants are producers; other such as animals are consumers; and other such as bacteria and fungi
are decomposers.

Energy Flow
The principal source of energy for ecosystems is the sun. Energy from the sun is called solar energy. Solar
energy is captured by green plats during the process of photosynthesis and converted to chemical energy (food)
which living organisms are able to use. Because of their capacity to produce food for other living organisms in
an ecosystem, plants are called producers. Animals that feed on plants are called primary consumers or
herbivores. Those that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers and those that feed on
secondary consumers are called tertiary consumers.
The flow of energy from the sun is non cyclic (the energy can never be returned to the sun).
The following diagram illustrates an energy flow chain:

Food Chains and Food Webs

A food chain is a sequence of feeding relationships that begins with the producers and involves at least three
organisms. The feeding level of an organism in a food chain is called the trophic level. In every food chain the
producers occupy the first trophic level; the primary consumers occupy the second trophic level; the
secondary consumers occupy the third trophic level and so on. In a food chain the organisms are linked by a
series of arrows which always point towards the organism that is feeding on another. An example of a food
chain is given below:

Food chains can rarely go beyond the fourth trophic level. This is because only 10% of the energy present in
one trophic level is passed on to the next. 90% of the energy is lost through respiration, egestion and excretion.
By the time a food chain reaches the fourth trophic level there is very little energy available for any higher
trophic level. There is more energy gained by feeding on vegetation than feeding on meat.

Food Webs
This is a group of interlinked food chains. The following diagram illustrates a food web:

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The following table compares a food web to a food chain:

Food chain Food web

One sequence of feeding relationships Several inter-linked sequences of feeding relationships

Each organism occupies only one trophic level Each organism may occupy more than one trophic
level except the producer

Usually involves fewer organisms than a food web Usually involves more organisms than a food chain

Ecological Pyramids
These are diagrammatic ways of showing feeding relationships in an ecosystem. Each ecological pyramid is
made of a pile of rectangular blocks on top of each other. There are three types of ecological pyramids which
are:

 Pyramids of numbers,
 Pyramids of biomass
 Pyramids of energy
Pyramids of numbers
This shows the numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each rectangular
block is proportional to the number organisms at the trophic level it represents. For example the following
pyramid of numbers may represent an ecosystem where there are 5 producers, 10 primary consumers, 150
secondary consumers and 5 tertiary consumers

Pyramids of numbers are not always upright but maybe inverted. This results when a small number of large
organisms is supplying food to a large number of small organisms e.g. Parasites feeding on a host.

Pyramids of Biomass
This shows the biomass of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. Biomass is the total dry mass of an
organism. It is also defined as the total amount of organic matter in an organism. It is measured in kilograms
(Kg). The length of each rectangular block is proportional to the biomass of organisms at the trophic level it
represents.

Example
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Construct a pyramid of biomass for an ecosystem where the producers have a biomass of 1000Kg, primary
consumers 750Kg, secondary consumers 850 Kg and Tertiary consumers 500 Kg.

Pyramids of biomass are usually upright but may sometimes be inverted. This is because the measurements
used for constructing the pyramids are based on the standing crop, rather than the total biomass per growing
season.

Pyramids of Energy
This shows the energy of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each rectangular block
is proportional to the energy of organisms at the trophic level it represents. The units used for measuring energy
are Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ). This is the best way of showing feeding relationships as the pyramids are
always upright.
Food cycles
A food cycle is a food chain or food web that includes decomposers. The decomposers break down complex
organic molecules to simple inorganic molecules that can be used by producers hence completing the cycle.

Nutrient Cycles
A nutrient cycle shows the different forms of a particular element or nutrient in different parts of the
environment and the processes involved in converting it from one form to another.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen occurs in the following parts and forms in the environment:

 Atmosphere (in the form of nitrogen gas)

 Soil (in the form of ammonia/ammonium ions, nitrite and nitrate)
 Plants (in the form of proteins and nucleic acids)
 Animals (in the form of proteins, amino acids, urea and nucleic acids)
Note: Nucleic acids are molecules responsible for storage of genetic information i.e. deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
The processes involved in converting nitrogen from one form to another are summarised in the following
diagram of the nitrogen cycle.

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Bacteria are involved in the following processes of the nitrogen cycle:

 Nitrogen fixation: The process by which nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is converted to absorbable
nitrogen compounds by the action of nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
Clostridium and Anabaena. Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium found in the root nodules of
leguminous plants such as beans, peas, groundnuts and clover. Clostridium and Azotobacter are free-
living in the soil while Anabaena is aquatic. All nitrogen-fixing bacteria contain an enzyme called
nitrogenase which catalyses the reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen to form ammonia.
 Nitrification: The process by which ammonia is oxidised to form nitrite (NO-2) by the bacterium
Nitrosomonas and nitrite is oxidised to form nitrate (NO-3) by the bacterium Nitrobacter. Oxygen is
required in order for nitrification to take place. The bacteria that carry out nitrification are called
nitrifying bacteria.
 Decomposition: The process by which complex organic molecules are broken down into simple
inorganic molecules by the action of micro organisms known as decomposers. Decomposers include
not only bacteria but also fungi. The decomposition of nitrogen-containing organic compounds is also
called ammonification because it leads to the formation of ammonia or ammonium ions.
 Denitrification: The process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria
such as Pseudomonas denitrificans and Thiobacillus denitrificans. The process occurs in water-logged
soils, lacking oxygen. It makes the soil less fertile and adds nitrogen gas to the atmosphere.
Otherprocesses that have an effect on the nitrogen cycle discussed below:

 Lightning: This carries out nitrogen fixation by causing nitrogen to react with oxygen to form nitrogen
oxides. The nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water to form nitric acid which has nitrate that the plants are
able to absorb.
 Harber Process: This is an artificial process where nitrogen gas and hydrogen are made to react with
each other at high temperature and pressure to form ammonia. It reduces the amount of nitrogen gas in
the atmosphere.
 Application of nitrogen-containing fertilisers increases the amount nitrogen-containing compounds in
the soil.

Carbon Cycle
Carbon occurs in the following parts and forms in the environment:

 Atmosphere (in the form of carbon dioxide gas)

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  Plants (in the form of organic molecules)
 Animals (in the form of organic molecules)
 Soil (in the form of fossil fuels and carbonates)
The processes involved in converting carbon from one form to another are summarised in the following diagram
of the carbon cycle.

Water Cycle
Water exists in three states, namely solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour). The processes that take
place during the water cycle are summarised in the following diagram:

Effects of Human Activity on the Environment

Human activities such as agriculture, construction, waste disposal, industrialization and burning of fossil fuels
have produced negative effects on the environment. These negative effects include pollution, deforestationand
desertification. One way humans try to address some of these effects is through conservation.

Agriculture and the Soil

Agriculture
Agriculture may be defined as the use of land for growing crops. The type of agriculture where only one type of
crop is grown is called monoculture. Some advantages of agriculture are:
 It ensures that there is enough food and cash crops for increasing populations of human beings.

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  It makes it possible for newly developed varieties of crops and breeds of livestock to be nurtured with
little competition from wild types.
Some disadvantages of agriculture are:
 It contributes to deforestation as forests are cleared to make room for growth of crops or rearing of
livestock.
 The clearance of forests for agriculture leads to reduction in biodiversity
 Some chemicals used in agriculture e.g. herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers cause pollution of the
environment
 Mechanised agriculture relies on combustion of fossil fuels which cause more pollution.
Soil
Soil is the weathered top layer of the earth‟s crust. The components of soil are divided into two groups, namely
inorganic components and organic components. The inorganic components of soil are:
 Mineralparticles: These are particles formed from surface rocks by the process of weathering and have
diameters ranging from 0.002 mm to 2 mm. They are classified into four types, namely clay, silt, sand and
gravel, depending on their size. The following table shows the diameters of the different types of mineral
particles found in soil:
Type of Mineral Particle Diameter (mm)

Clay < 0.002

Silt 0.002-0.02

Sand 0.02-2.0

Gravel >2.0

 Water
 Air
 DissolvedmineralsaltsandPH
Pollution
This is the contamination of the environment with substances that are harmful to living organisms. Any
substance that causes pollution of the environmentis called a pollutant. There are three types of pollution,
namely land, air (atmospheric) and water pollution.
(i) Land pollution
The following table discusses some pollutants of the land, their sources and effects:

Name of Source(s) Effects

Pollutant

Non- -Disposable -They make the soil less fertile

biodegradable packaging for a
materials: number of man-
materials that made products
can not be
decomposed by
microorganisms
e.g. plastic

Garbage/Refuse/ -Domestic and -Act as breeding sites for pathogens and their vectors
industrial waste

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Rubbish -May contain poisonous substances
-Giving he air an unpleasant smell

Heavy metals: -Industrial -They cannot be excreted by bodies organisms and are
metals with a emissions poisonous when they reach certain levels.
relative atomic
mass higher - Bioaccumulation (a substance becoming more
than 100 e.g. concentrated in higher trophic levels of a food chain)
lead and may result, leading to death of higher predators.
mercury

(ii) Air Pollution

The following table discusses some pollutants of the atmosphere, their sources and effects:

Name of Source(s) Effects

Pollutant
Sulphur dioxide -Burning of fossil Dissolves in rain water forming sulphurous acid and
fuels sulphuric acid. Such rain is called acid rain. The
effects of acid rain are:
-It breaks down the waxy cuticle on plant leaves,
leading to excessive transpiration and leaching of
nutrients. This may lead to death of trees and
destruction of forests.
-It destroys the root hairs of plants, leading to reduced
uptake of nutrients and water.
-It kills or inhibits the activity of soil organisms,
thereby slowing down decomposition of organic
matter
-It mobilises ions that are normally bound to soil
particles, leading to leaching of such ions. When some
of the leached ions flow into rivers, they may
accumulate to toxic levels.
-It corrodes and damages buildings

Carbon dioxide -Burning of fossil -It contributes to the greenhouseeffect i.e. it slows
fuels and organic down the escape of heat (long-wave radiation) from
matter. the atmosphere into space. This has led to an effect
known as global warming i.e. a rise in global
-Deforestation temperatures. Global warming is believed to cause
promotes increase drastic climatic changes, resulting in droughts and
in CO2 floods.
concentrations
because it reduces NB: There are other greenhouse gases besides carbon
the number of dioxide. Examples are methane, water vapour,
plants carrying out chlorofluorocarbons (CFC‟s)and nitrous oxide (N2O)

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 photosynthesis
NB: The gas is
also added to the
atmosphere
naturally by
respiration and
volcanoes

Carbon -Incomplete -When inhaled, it gets into the blood and combines
monoxide combustion of irreversibly with haemoglobin to form
fossil fuels and carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the capacity of
organic matter. the blood to transport oxygen. This may cause
breathlessness, headache and suffocation to death in
humans.
-Babies born from mothers that have been frequently
exposed to the gas have a low birth weight.

Nitrogen oxides -Exhaust fumes -Formation of acid rain (refer to effects of acid rain
under sulphur dioxide)
-Industrial fumes
-Formation of photochemical smog, which reduces
In both cases the visibility and may lead to road and air traffic
nitrogen is initially accidents.
from the
atmosphere, but
reacts with oxygen
under intense heat
to form oxides.
NB: oxides of
nitrogen are
formed naturally
when there is
lightning

(iii)Water Pollution
The following table discusses some pollutants of water, their sources and effects:

Name of Source(s) Effects

Pollutant
Raw (untreated) -Leaking of sewer -Some microorganisms present in sewage are
sewage: This is pipes. pathogenic and may cause diseases such as cholera,
a mixture of dysentery and typhoid
human faeces, -Direct discharge
urine kitchen of untreated -Decomposition of the organic components of sewage
waste and sewage into water leads to high levels of phosphates and nitrates. The
detergents bodies i.e. rivers presence of high levels of phosphates and nitrates in
and lakes. water is called eutrophication. It leads to algal
blooms (the rapid multiplication of algae in water) and
multiplication of water weeds. The algae use up a lot
of oxygen for respiration and during their
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 decomposition after death. This lowers the amount of
oxygen in water and may result in death of fish. In
addition, nitrates are poisonous to both fish and
humans.
-Suspended particles present in the sewage reduce
penetration of light, slowing down photosynthesis in
aquatic plants.
-Detergents in sewage lead to formation of foams
which block oxygen and light from getting into the
water.

Agricultural -Farms located -Fertilisers in water cause eutrophication (see

run-off near water bodies explanation above)
containing
fertilisers, -Herbicides and pesticides are poisonous to aquatic
herbicides and organisms and to humans who may drink the water.
pesticides.

Oil spills: These -Accidental -Oil floats on top of water, thereby blocking oxygen
normally affect spillages from supply to aquatic organisms.
marine water tankers
bodies i.e. seas -It kills aquatic organisms
and oceans -It sticks to the feathers of some aquatic birds, making
it difficult for them to swim.

Deforestation
This is defined as the permanent removal of trees and their undergrowth from a forest.
Some causes of deforestation are:

 Clearance of land for agriculture

 Use of trees in the paper-making industry
 Harvesting timber for construction
 Clearance of land for construction of human settlements, roads, rail lines, and dams
 Destruction of forest trees by acid rain.
 Late forest fires
The effects of deforestation on the environment are:

 Reduction in biodiversity
 It interferes with the carbon cycle because there is reduced photosynthesis, leading to accumulation of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This in turn contributes to the greenhouse effect.
 It interferes with the nitrogen cycle because some of the trees removed are legumes that harbour
nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
 It promotes soil erosion by wind and rain water. The soil eroded by water is often deposited in rivers,
leading to flooding.
 It promotes leaching of nutrients
 It promotes desertification

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Desertification
This is the degradation of arid and semi-arid land to form a desert. Causes of desertification include:

 Deforestation
 Overgrazing
 Trampling of the ground by animals
 Overpopulation
Effects of Desertification

 Land becomes less productive because it cannot support growth of plants. People staying on desert land
are in danger of starvation and famine
 Desert lands are prone to extremes of temperature (very high temperatures during day time and very low
temperatures during night time)
 Very low rainfall
 Low biodiversity
Conservation

Conservation is the protection of species, their habitats and ecosystems from extinction. Extinction is the end
of a species or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last
individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point).

Examples of conservation efforts made by human beings include:

 Creation of game reserves to conserve wild animals

 Creation of forest reserves to conserve forests
 Creation of botanical gardens and zoos
 Fishing and hunting bans during the breeding seasons of animals
 Creation of gene banks, seed banks and sperm banks for endangered species
 Formulation of legislation (laws) that govern the utilization of natural resources
 Recycling of products made from natural resources

Populations
A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
Population size is the number of organisms in a population.
Population density is the number organisms of the same species per unit area.
Population growth rate is the increase in the size of a population per unit time. Population growth of organisms
follows an S-shaped pattern (sigmoid curve). This curve is made of three phases:

 Lag phase (this is when there is very little increase in population size because the organisms are not yet
fully adapted to the environment)
 Exponential/logarithmic phase (this is when the organisms are fully adapted to the environment and
are reproducing at a fast rate)
 Stationary phase (this is when the birth rate equals the death rate). At this point the carrying capacity of
the environment has been reached. The carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms an
environment can support.

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Note: A decline phase may be experienced after the stationary phase if there is an increase in factors like
competition, disease, pollutants/toxins. Such factors limit increase in population size and are called
environmental resistance.

Factors Affecting Population Growth Rate

The growth rate of a population is affected by the following factors:

 Birth rate: the number of births per unit number of adults in a population.
 Immigration: the movement of more organisms into a population.
 Death rate: the number of deaths per unit number of adults in a population.
 Emigration: the movement of organisms out of a population.
These four factors are affected by two sets of factors called biotic factors and abiotic factors. The biotic
factors include food availability, predators, parasites, disease and competition. The abiotic factors include
climate change, availability of water, oxygen, light and pollutants. Suggest how each of these biotic and
abiotic factors affect the four factors mentioned above.
A high birth rate and high rate of immigration leads to a positive population growth rate (increase in the
size of a population per unit time). A high death rate and high rate of emigration leads to a negative
population growth rate (decrease in the size of a population per unit time).

Biodiversity
This refers to the variety of living organisms in an ecosystem.
There are five kingdoms of living organisms. These are:

 Kingdom Prokaryota (The Bacteria)

 Kingdom Protoctista (The Protists)
 Kingdom Fungi (The Fungi)
 Kingdom Plantae (The Plants)
 Kingdom Animalia (The Animals)

1. Kingdom Prokaryota
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:
 They are unicellular (single-celled)
 They have no true nucleus; only naked circular DNA called nucleoid or bacterial chromosome
 They have no double-membraned organelles, but small (70s) ribosomes are present
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission. Some members exhibit conjugation (the transfer of genetic
material from one bacterial cell to another through structures known as pili)
 They carry out heterotrophic nutrition

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  The kingdom includes all bacteria
 Some members are pathogenic i.e. cause diseases e.g. Vibrio cholera, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Treponema, Gonnococus neiserria.
 Some types of bacteria are useful e.g. decomposers, nitrogen fixing bacteria, nitrifying bacteria and
denitrifying bacteria. Others are used in the dairy industry during the making of cheese and yoghurt.

2. Kingdom Protoctista
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:
o Most are unicellular (single-celled), but some are multicellular.
o Cells have a true nucleus with a membrane around it (eukaryotic cells)
o Some are heterotrophic (i.e. the protozoa) while others are autotrophic (i.e. the algae)
o Most reproduce by binary fission
o Examples are paramecium, amoeba, and kelp

3. Kingdom Fungi
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:

 They are multicellular, but a few of them such as yeasts are unicellular.
 They have well-developed nuclei with nuclear membranes around
 They have cell walls made of chitin.
 Most members carry out saprophytic nutrition, but some are parasitic.
 Most reproduce by spores.
Examples are yeast, mushrooms, bread moulds, and lichens

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4. Kingdom Plantae
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:

 They are multi-cellular

They have a well developed nucleus with a membrane around
 Their cells contain chlorophyll in the chloroplasts, hence they are photosynthetic.
 They have cellulose cell walls
 Most reproduce from seeds; some reproduce from vegetative parts such as stems, roots and modified
leaves.
 Examples are mosses, ferns, gymnosperms (conifers) and angiosperms (flowering plants)

5. Kingdom Animalia
Members of this kingdom have the following characteristics:
o They are multicellular
o They have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
o They carry out holozoic nutrition
o They have a nervous system
o Their bodies have symmetry (either bilateral or radial symmetry)
o Their bodies have anterior and posterior ends; dorsal and ventral surfaces; and lateral surfaces
o Examples are bears, fish, frogs, butterflies, and starfish

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