Q 1 What are Ocean Currents?

 Ocean currents are the continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater.

It is a massive movement of ocean water that is caused and influenced by various
forces. They are like river flows in oceans.
 Ocean water moves in two directions: horizontally and vertically.
o Horizontal movements are referred to as currents, while vertical changes are
called upwellings or downwellings.
 Ocean currents impact humankind and the biosphere due to their influence on
climate.
Q2. Which are the Factors that Influences Ocean Current?
 Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
o Primary forces:
 Heating by solar energy: Heating by solar energy causes the water to
expand. That is why, near the equator the ocean water is about 8 cm higher
in level than in the middle latitudes. This causes a very slight gradient and
water tends to flow down the slope.
 Wind: Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move.
Friction between the wind and the water surface affects the movement of
the water body in its course.
 Gravity: Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient
variation.
 Coriolis force. The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move
to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere.

 These large accumulations of water and the flow around them are
called Gyres.
 These produce large circular currents in all the ocean basins.

o Secondary forces:

 Differences in water density: It affects vertical mobility of ocean currents.

 Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the
same way cold water is denser than warm water.
 Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.
 Temperature of water: Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold
water at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards the equator.
  Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface,
flowing towards the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
Q3 What are the Types of Ocean Currents?
 The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth:
o Surface currents: Large-scale surface ocean currents are driven by global
wind systems that are fueled by energy from the sun.
 These currents transfer heat from the tropics to the polar regions,
influencing local and global climate.
 It constitute about 10% of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the
upper 400 m of the ocean.
o Deep water currents: Differences in water density, resulting from the
variability of water temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline), also cause
ocean currents. This process is known as thermohaline circulation.
 It makes up the other 90% of the ocean water.
 These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the
density and gravity.
 Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the
temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.
 This starts' the global conveyor belt, a connected system of deep and
surface currents that circulate around the globe on a 1000 year time span.
 This global set of ocean currents is a critical part of Earth’s climate system
as well as the ocean nutrient and carbon dioxide cycles.
 Ocean currents can also be classified based on temperature:
o Cold currents: It brings cold water into warm water areas. These currents are
usually found on the west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes
(true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere.
o Warm currents: It brings warm water into cold water areas and is usually
observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
both hemispheres).
 In the northern hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents
in high latitudes.
Q4 What are the Characteristics of Ocean Currents?
 Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses exerted by the
prevailing winds and coriolis force. The oceanic circulation pattern roughly
corresponds to the earth’s atmospheric circulation pattern.
 The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly
anticyclonic (more pronounced in the southern hemisphere than in the northern
hemisphere). The oceanic circulation pattern also corresponds with the same.
 At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic
circulation follows this pattern.
 In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the monsoon winds influence the
current movements.
 Due to the coriolis force, the warm currents from low latitudes tend to move to
the right in the northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern
hemisphere.
 The oceanic circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to another in a
manner similar to the heat transported by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
 The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer
water in tropical and equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower
latitudes move polewards.
Q5 What are the Various Ocean Currents?
 Equatorial Currents System: Every ocean, except the Arctic Ocean, has a North
Equatorial Current, a South Equatorial Current and an Equatorial Counter Current.

o The North and South equatorial currents flow from east to west.
 Equatorial Counter Current: It is located between the North and South equatorial
currents and flows in opposition to them, that is, from west to east.
 Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC): The ACC is an ocean current that flows
clockwise from west to east around Antarctica. An alternative name for the ACC is
the West Wind Drift.
 Humboldt or Peruvian Current: This low-salinity current has a large marine
ecosystem and serves as one of the major nutrient systems of the world.

o Flows from the southernmost tip of Chile to northern Peru, along the west coast
of South America.
 Kurile or Oyashio Current: This sub-arctic ocean current circulates in a
counterclockwise direction.
 o It originates in the Arctic Ocean flows south via the Bering Sea in the western
North Pacific Ocean.
o It is a nutrient-rich current.
o It collides with Kurioshio off the Japanese eastern shore to form the North
Pacific Drift.
 California Current: It is the extension of the Aleutian Current along the west coast
of North America in a southward flowing direction.

o It is a part of North Pacific Gyre.

o Region of strong Upwelling.
 Labrador Current: It flows from the Arctic Ocean towards the south and meets the
warm northward moving Gulf Stream.

o The combination of cold Labrador Current and warm Gulf Stream is known for
creating one of the richest fishing grounds of the world.
 Canary Current: Low salinity current extending between Fram Strait and Cape
Farewell.

o It connects the Arctic directly to the North Atlantic.

o Major freshwater sink for the Arctic.
o It is a major contributor to sea-ice export out of the Arctic.
 Benguela Current: Branch of West Wind Drift of the Southern Hemisphere.

o Eastern portion of South Atlantic Ocean Gyre.

o Low salinity, presence of upwelling- excellent fishing zone.
 Falkland Current: It is a branch of Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

o It is also known as Malvinas Current.

o It is named after the Falkland Islands.
o This cold current mixes with warm Brazil current and forms the Brazil-Malvinas
Confluence Zone which is responsible for the region’s temperate climate.
 Northeast Monsoon Current: Indian North Equatorial Current flows southwest and
west, crossing the Equator.
 Somali Current: Analogous to the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean.

o The Current is heavily influenced by monsoon.

 o Region of major upwelling system.
 Western Australian Current: It is also known as West Wind Drift.

o It is a part of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.

o It is a seasonal current- strong in summer and weak in winter.’
 Kuroshio Current: This west boundary current is also known as Japan current or
Black Current. The term “Kuroshio” in Japanese means “Black Stream ''.

o It is the Pacific analogue of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean.

o The average surface temperature of this current is warmer than the surrounding
ocean.
o This also helps in regulating the temperature of Japan, which is relatively
warmer.
 North Pacific Current: It is formed by the collision of Kurioshio & Oyashio.

o It circulates counterclockwise along the Western North Pacific Ocean.

 Alaskan Current: It results from a northward diversion of a part of the North Pacific
Ocean.
 East Australian Current: Acts to transport tropical marine fauna to habitats in sub-
tropical regions along the southeast Australian coast.
 Florida Current: Flows around Florida Peninsula and joins the Gulf Stream at
Cape Hatteras.
 Gulf Stream: Western intensified current-driven mainly by wind stress.

o It splits into North Atlantic Drift (crossing Northern Europe & southern stream)
and Canary Current (recirculating of West Africa)
 Norwegian Current: This wedge-shaped current is one of the two dominant Arctic
inflows of water.

o It is a branch of North Atlantic Drift and sometimes also considered as an

extension of the Gulf Stream.
 Brazilian Current: Flows along the south coast of Brazil till Rio de la Palta.

o It joins the cold Falkland Current at the Argentine Sea making it a temperate
sea.
 Mozambique Current: Flows between Mozambique and the island of Madagascar
along the African east coast in the Mozambique Channel.
 Agulhas Current: Largest western boundary ocean current.

o Flows south along the east coast of Africa.

 Southwest Monsoon Current: It dominates the Indian Ocean during the southwest
monsoon season (June–October).

o It is a broad eastward flowing ocean current that extends into the Arabian Sea
and Bay of Bengal.
Q6 What are the Effects of Ocean Currents?
 Climatic Conditions: Currents influence the climatic conditions of the regions in
which they flow.

o The warm Equatorial currents raise the temperature of the region in which they
flow. Similarly, the cold currents lower the temperature of the places where they
flow.
o For example, the British Isles would have been extremely cold without the warm
North Atlantic Drift.
o The hot climate of Peru is cooled by the cold Peru Current.
 Rainfall: The winds blowing over warm currents pick up and carry moisture and
bring rainfall like the North Atlantic Drift brings rainfall in some areas located along
the western coasts of Europe.

o On the contrary, cold currents do not bring rainfall and make the region cooler
and drier.
o The Kalahari Desert hardly experiences rainfall due to the cold Benguela
current.
 Fog Formation: The meeting of the warm and the cool currents results in the
formation of fog.

o The ship's face danger due to the fogs caused by the meeting of the warm
currents with the cold currents.
o This has resulted in the wreckage of many ships in the past as they are not able
to view icebergs due to poor visibility.
 Creates Fishing Zone: The mixing of warm and cold currents results in the
deposition of planktons. Therefore, at such places, fishes can be found in
abundance.
 Desert formation: Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in
west coast regions of the tropical and subtropical continents.
 o There is fog and most of the areas are arid due to desiccating effects (loss of
moisture).
 Trade and Commerce: Currents help ships to sail if they follow the directions of the
currents.

o Many warm currents keep the ports of Europe ice free even during the winters.
This helps in trade and commerce.
 Violent Storms: At times the meeting line of a warm and a cold current may result
in a violent storm.

o The hurricanes which occur off the coast of the U.S.A. follow the line where the
Gulf Stream merges with the Labrador Current.
Q7. Explain following currents:

1. Drift

2. Upwelling

3. Gradient

1. Drift: Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long stretches of ocean for long periods.
The frictional effect of the wind, on the sea surface, causes the seasurface to move. However,
Coriolis force deflects the drift current to the right in the northern hemisphere (left in the
southern hemisphere) by about 30° to 45°.

The best examples of drift currents are:

The maximum strength of a drift current is only upto about 2 knots. If, however, there are other
strengthening factors such as gradient, shape of the coast, etc., the drift current can increase
two or threefold and is then called a stream.

2. Upwelling: Whenever a wind blows away from a long coastline for a considerable length of
time, the outflow of water from the coast is replaced by an upward movement (upwelling) of sea-
water, from a depth upto about 150 metres or so. Since this upwelling takes place from below,
the water that comes to the surface is colder than the surrounding sea-surface. Upwelling
currents are experienced along the eastern shores of oceans, in low latitudes. Here the trade
winds blow off shore, resulting in upwelling.

Examples - Canary current and Benguela current of the east Atlantic, Californian current and
Peru (Humboldt) current of the east Pacific. There is no upwelling off the west coast of Australia
as the coastline is not long enough.

3. Gradient: A gradient current is caused by differences in level (resulting from natural slopes or
build-up by winds) or by differences in density (resulting from differences of temperature or
salinity). The greater the salinity, the greater the density and vice versa. The lower the
temperature, the greater the density and vice versa. When different water-masses lie adjacent
to each other, gradient currents are set up between them because of differences in temperature
and salinity.

The best examples of gradient currents are:

3.1. The surface current that flows from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean is a result of
differences in level. The Mediterranean Sea, being land-locked, experiences severe
evaporation. Since the input by rivers and rain is very small, its level falls and a gradient current
from the Atlantic flows in through the Strait of Gibraltar.

3.2. The northerly current along the east coast of Africa in the Arabian sea, and along the east
coast of India in the Bay of Bengal, during the latter part of the NE monsoon, flows against the
NE winds because of a thermal gradient. The gradient is formed by the cooling of the waters at
the head of the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal by the cold NE monsoon during December and
January

Q8. Major hot deserts are located between 20-30 degree latitudes and on the western
side of the continents. Why?

 The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade
Winds, hence they are also called Trade Wind Deserts.
 The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents
between latitudes 15° and 30°N. and S.
 They include the biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles). The next biggest
desert is the Great Australian Desert. The other hot deserts are the Arabian
Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari, and Namib Deserts.
 The hot deserts lie along the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High-Pressure
Belts where the air is descending, a condition least favorable for precipitation of any
kind to take place.
 The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore
blow outside the desert limits.
 Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their
relative humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
  There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is
extremely low, decreasing from 60 percent in coastal districts to less than 30 percent
in the desert interiors. Under such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and
the deserts are thus regions of permanent drought. Precipitation is both scarce and
most unreliable.
 On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by
chilling the on-coming air. This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and
little rainfalls.
 The desiccating effect of the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so
pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than
1.3 cm.

Q9. Role of ocean currents in the fishing industry:

Ocean currents play a crucial role in the fishing industry. The distribution of nutrients and
marine life is influenced by ocean currents, which affect where fish are found and how
abundant they are in different areas. Some of the most significant ways that ocean currents
impact the fishing industry include:
1. Upwelling: As mentioned earlier, upwelling is the process by which deep, nutrient-rich
water is brought to the surface. This process is essential to the fishing industry, as it
provides an abundance of nutrients for marine life. Areas of upwelling, such as the coasts of
Peru and West Africa, are known for their rich fishing grounds.
2. Migration patterns: Ocean currents also influence the migration patterns of fish. Some
species of fish, such as salmon, are known to migrate long distances to reach their spawning
grounds. Ocean currents can impact the timing and location of these migrations, which can
affect the fishing industry’s ability to catch these fish.

3. Fishing locations: Ocean currents also influence where fish are found. Areas with high
nutrient concentrations, such as upwelling zones, tend to have more abundant fish populations.
The Gulf Stream, for example, is known for its rich fishing grounds, particularly for tuna and
swordfish.

4. Climate patterns: Ocean currents also play a role in climate patterns. The movement of
warm and cold water influences regional weather patterns, which can impact the fishing
industry. Changes in ocean currents can also lead to changes in water temperature, which can
affect the migration patterns and abundance of fish.

Q10. Explain General circulation in the Mediterranean Sea.

As explained earlier, under gradient currents, the level of the Mediterranean Sea is lower than
that of the Atlantic. This is because the Mediterranean Sea is land-locked, resulting in a very
much higher rate of evaporation, and also because the input of water from rains and rivers is
very small.

A gradient current, therefore, flows eastwards along the surface through the Strait of Gibraltar,
and on entering the Mediterranean, it is deflected to its right by Coriolis force and "flows along
the north coast of Africa. Though it reaches a rate of 2 to 3 knots in the SW part of the Sea, the
current is generally weak and hugs the coast forming a complete anticlockwise cycle (see
adjoining chart). The water of the Mediterranean Sea is more saline and hence denser (because
of the high rate of evaporation) than the water of the Atlantic and also of the Black sea. It
therefore flows as a sub-surface gradient current, westwards through the Strait of Gibraltar. In
the Black Sea, the circulation is generally anticlockwise. The denser Mediterranean water flows
in through the Dardanells and Bosporus as a subsurface gradient current while the surface
current 'flows continuously from the Black Sea into the Mediterranean Sea.

Q11. What are Effects of ocean currents on climate ?

The effects of ocean currents on climate are numerous and a few are listed below as
examples:
1. UK and northern coasts of Europe are 10° to 20°C warmer in January than
Newfoundland. The Westerlies, blowing over the former, come from over the warm
North Atlantic current and carry the oceanic influence far inland, whereas the Westerlies
over the latter, come from cold hinterland.

2. Ports in eastern Canada (latitude 55°N) are icebound in winter, whereas the ports in
Norway (latitude lOON) are not ice-bound (see Labrador current and Norwegian current
in adjoining chart).

3. Callao (latitude about 12°S), in Peru, is about 6°C cooler than Salvador (similar
latitude) in Brazil (see Humboldt current and Brazilian current in adjoining chart).

Q12. Explain Warm and cold currents

Whenever a current is warmer or colder than the sea through which it flows, it is called a warm
or cold current respectively.

Warm currents: When a current from equatorial regions passes through higher latitudes, it will
be a warm current. Warm currents are generally experienced along the western shores of large
oceans.

Examples of warm currents: The Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic Drift, the Norwegian current,
the Brazilian current, the Kuro Shio, the Alaskan current, the East Australian current, the
Mozambique current, the Agulhas current (see adjoining charts).

Important Warm currents are : North Equatorial Current/ Kuroshio Current/ North Pacific Current/
Alaskan Current/ Alaskan Current/ Counter Equatorial Current/ El Nino Current/ Tsushima Current/ South
Equatorial Current /Tsushima Current/ East Australian Current/ Florida Current/ Gulf Stream / Norwegian
Current / Brazilian Current /

Cold currents: When a current from higher latitudes passes through lower altitudes, it will be a
cold current. If it came from polar regions, it will be very cold, such as the East Greenland
current, Baffin Land current (Davis current) and the Kamchatka current. Cold currents are
generally experienced along the eastern shores of large oceans.

Important Cold Currents : Benguela Current/ Humboldt or Peruvian current/ Canary Current/
Greenland Current/ Oya shio Current or Kamchatka current/ Okhotsk current or Kuril/ Labrador Current/
Falkland Current/ Western Australian Current/Canary/California Current.

Q13. How does the Gulf Stream affect the British climate?

The Gulf Stream affects the climate in Britain by bringing warm water from the Caribbean to North
West Europe. This keeps the climate in Britain warmer than other places at a similar latitude. The
harbor of London does not freeze in winter because of the influence of the gulf stream which
sends a warm ocean current flowing from the gulf of Mexico & the shores of western Europe.

Q14. Explain the Role of Warm and Cold Oceanic Currents for Fishing
The meeting point of warm and cold oceanic currents is an important factor that
influences the productivity of fishing grounds. When these two currents meet, they
create a nutrient-rich environment that supports a diverse range of marine life. These
areas are called upwelling zones and are known for their high productivity. Examples of
Fishing Grounds Some of the world's most important fishing grounds are located at the
meeting point of warm and cold oceanic currents. Some examples of these fishing
grounds are:

1. The Grand Banks of Newfoundland: This fishing ground is located at the meeting
point of the Labrador Current and the Gulf Stream.

2. The Humboldt Current: This current flows along the western coast of South America
and is known for its high productivity.

3. The Canary Current: This current flows along the western coast of Africa and is
known for its high productivity.

In conclusion, the meeting point of warm and cold oceanic currents is an important
factor that influences the productivity of fishing grounds. Fishing grounds located in
these areas tend to be more productive and support a diverse range of marine life.

Q15. Decode the following report: BBXX, ATVH, 10123, 99408, 30492

BBXX: Surface report from a ship.

ATVH: Signal letters of ship.

YYGGiw (10123): GMT 10d 12h. Wind speed reported by ff is estimated in knots.

99LaLaLa (99408): Position of ship Latitude: 40.8° South

QcLoLoLoLo (30492 ): Longitude: 049.2° East.

Q16. Decode the following weather report BBXX/ VHAN/ 16003/ 99000/ 10469/

Ans

WEATHER REPORT FROM SHIP/Ship: VHAN/ GMT: 16d OOh 20m, Wind: estimated at 10
knots/ Position: 00° 05'N 46°58'E,
Q17. Decode the following report: BBXX, ATVH, 10123, 99408, 30492

BBXX: Surface report from a ship.

ATVH: Signal letters / call letter of ship.

YYGGiw (10123) : GMT 10d 12h. Wind speed reported by ff is estimated in knots.

99LaLaLa (99408): Position of ship Latitude: 40.8° South

QcLoLoLoLo (30492 ): Longitude: 049.2° East.

Q35. Decode the following report: BBXX, 3FRK, 08063 , 99275 , 70984

YYGGiw 99LaLaLa QcLoLoLoLo

BBXX : Weather report from ship / 3FRK : Call sign of vessel/ 08063: GMT 08d 06h
10m. Wind speed reported by ff is estimated in knots / 99275 : Position Lat 27 deg
35'N/ 70984 : Long 098° 29'W

Q18 . List out Information required in danger messages (Tropical cyclones)

Regulation 32 of Chapter V, titled 'Information required in danger messages',of SOLAS

74, as amended in 2000, states:

The following information is required in danger messages:

Tropical cyclones (storms):

1. A statement that a tropical cyclone has been encountered. This obligation should be
interpreted in a broad spirit, and information transmitted whenever the Master has good
reason to believe that a tropical cyclone is developing or exists in the neighbourhood.

2. Time, date (UTe) and position of ship when the observation was taken.

3. As much of the following information as is practicable should be included in the

message:

• Barometric pressure, preferably corrected (stating millibars, millimetres, or inches, and

whether corrected or uncorrected);

• Barometric tendency (the change in barometric pressure during the past three

hours);
•True wind direction;

•Wind force (Beaufort scale);

•State of the sea (smooth, moderate, rough, high);

•Swell (slight, moderate, heavy) and the true direction from which it comes. Period or
length of swell (short, average, long) would also be of value;

•True course and speed of ship.

Q 19. Explain ship surface observation report transmitting time & Ship surface
observation code format

SHIP SURFACE OBSERVATION CODE FORMAT Like the synoptic surface

observation code for land stations, the ship surface observation report is transmitted at
6-hourly intervals at the standard hours of observation which are: 0000, 0600, 1200,
and 1800 UTC.

The following shows the symbolic form of the message for the synoptic weather report
from a ship station.

A. SYMBOLIC FORM OF THE MESSAGE MiMiMjMj DDDD YYGGiw 99LaLaLa

QcLoLoLoLo

Section 1 MiMiMjMj - Bulletin Header : This group identifies the bulletin as a collection
of marine observations. In a collection of ship, manned buoys, or automatic buoys, the
group will be encoded as BBXX and will be the first line of the bulletin.

Q20 . Equipment supplied by IMD to vessels

The following equipment is manufactured and supplied, free of charge, by the

India Meteorological Department:

Selected ship:

1. Barometer

2. Whirling psychrometer

3. Weekly barograph

4. Sea-thermometerS
5. Marine buckets

Supplementary ship:

1. Barometer

2.. Whirling psychrometer

Q21. Classification of ships for weather reporting.

Selected ship: A mobile ship which is equipped with sufficient certi'fied meteorological
instruments for making observations and which transmits the required observations in
the full code consisting of eighteen to twenty one groups. *

Supplementary ship: A mobile ship which is equipped with a limited number of

certified meteorological instruments for making observations and which transmits the
observations in the abbreviated form of the code consisting of twelve or more groups.

* Auxiliary ship: A mobile ship normally not provided with certified meteorological
instruments which transmits weather reports in disturbed weather or under a special
request, in the reduced form of the code consisting of eleven or more groups * or in
plain language.

Ships not recruited in any of the categories are requested to transmit weather reports
on their own initiative in case of disturbed weather.

Q22. Publications supplied by IMD to Selected and Supplementary ships

The India Meteorological Department supplies the following publications, free of

charge, to Selected and Supplementary ships:

1. Monthly meteorological charts of the Indian Ocean.

2. Indian Ocean Currents.

3. Marin,e Observer's Handbook.

4. International Cloud Atlas.

5. Ship's Weather Code.

6. Weather Services to Shipping, Fishing Vessels and Marine Interests.

7. Code of Storm Warning Signals.

8. Handbook of Cyclonic Storms in the Bay of Bengal.

9. Winds, Weather and Currents on the Coasts of India.

10. State of Sea Card.