MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

12 Republic of the Philippines

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Region IVA- CALABARZON

Prepared by:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 1

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

MODULE INTRODUCTION

This Module is an introduction to the diverse fields of the Social

Sciences and Humanities that caters to the needs of the students in the core,
specialized/track, and applied subjects in the K to12 Senior High School
Curriculum during this situation called NEW NORMAL. The series adheres to
the constructivist and learner-centered philosophy of education to encourage
active student involvement and collaboration in the teaching learning
process in different learning category (Blended, Home based- learning,
online and Face to face). The topics, activities, and assessment in all the
titles are carefully selected and adjusted to align to the standards,
competencies, and content stipulated in the K to12 Senior High School
Curriculum, to deepen understanding and mastery of content and
competencies acquired in the New Normal situation of our country and to
meet global trends and standards in the various fields of the Social Sciences
and Humanities.

The series uses an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and

multidisciplinary approach to the study of the fundamental ideas, concepts,
theories, inquiries, methods, and issues in the Social Sciences and
Humanities. The content of all the titles in the series are organized and
anchored around common themes and perspectives shared by all the
disciplines in the Social Sciences and Humanities. As an introductory to the
diverse fields of the Social Sciences and Humanities, students will not only
learn western concepts, theories, and methods but they will also examine
and critique different indigenous concepts, ideas, and theories developed by
Filipino social scientists and thinkers to study Philippine history, culture,
society, and psyche.

In the end of this module aims to equip the students with the
necessary content knowledge, skills, and competencies in the different fields
of the Social Sciences and Humanities that they can apply in understanding
and analyzing, proposing solutions and alternatives, and being actively
involved in political, economic, social, and cultural issues and trends, that
are happening in the Philippines and the world today. Through its structured
and well-designed lessons and activities, the series aspires to make students
experience and appreciate learning of the Social Sciences and Humanities as
fun and exciting, meaningful, and relevant field study. I hope that after two
years of study, this module will be able to influence learners to choose a
career in the Social Sciences and Humanities profession in college, and will
prepare them to become productive, responsible, and active citizens of the
community, country and the world.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 2

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
MARILOU A. GAPAZ
Public School Social Sciences Teacher
III MAED Major in Social
Sciences

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 3

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

12
Senior High School

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS
FIRST QUARTER

WEEKS 1-6

Lessons 1 - 6

SLM
SELF-LEARNING
MODULE

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 4

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Understanding Culture, Society and Politics – Senior High

School Self-Learning Module
First Quarter
Week 1-6
Lessons 1 - 6
First Edition 2020

No part of this Module may be reproduced in any form without the written
permission from the author except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief
passage in connection with a review for inclusion in a magazine or
newspaper.

Much care has been taken to obtain permission from the owners to reprint
copyrighted materials. The author and editors spared much time and effort
to locate all of them for their permission but may failed in some. Any error or
oversight that may have been possibly made is unintentional and will be
corrected in future printings.

Development Team of the Module

Author: MARILOU A. GAPAZ

Content Editor:

Language Editor:

Reviewers: SDO Laguna Province

Illustrator: N/A

Layout Artist: MARILOU A. GAPAZ

Management Team:

Printed in the Philippines by

Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)

Office Address: Telefax:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 5

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
E-mail Address:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 6

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEK 1
Module Anthropology, Sociology and
Political Science
Lesson 1 – MAKING SENSE OF OUR
EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 5

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 6

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
INTRODUCTION

Module 1 is entitled “Making Sense of Our Everyday Experiences” deals with human cultural variation,
social differences, social change, and political identities; and the rationale for studying anthropology,
political science, and sociology. Its aim is to help the students acknowledge human cultural variation,
social differences, social change, and political identities; adopt an open and critical attitude toward
different social, political, and cultural phenomena through observation and reflection; and appreciates
the value of disciplines of Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science as social sciences.

Week 1

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Discuss the nature, goals and perspectives in/of anthropology,
sociology and political science.

Lesson 1 – MAKING SENSE OF OUR EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES

“The function of Sociology, as of every science, is to that which is hidden.”

- Pierre Bourdieu

Process Questions

1. How can you interpret the quotation above?

2. What do you mean by Sociology?

READINGS

Anthropology, Sociology and Political Science: Its Nature and Goals

Anthropology

Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, human behavior and societies in the past and
present. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour and cultural anthropology studies cultural
meaning, including norms and values. Linguistic anthropology studies how language influences social
life.

Anthropological Perspective and Its importance

Anthropology is the study of people, past and present that focuses on understanding the human
condition both culturally and biologically. Other than culture concept, Anthropology has different
distinctive ways of thinking about the world, human cultures, societies, and people. Anthropological
Perspective focuses on the study of the full scope of human diversity and the application of that
knowledge to help people of different backgrounds. Some of the aspects of the Anthropological
Perspective are culture, cultural relativism, fieldwork, human diversity, holism, biocultural focus.
The four main perspectives of Anthropology are the cross-cultural or comparative emphasis, its
evolutionary/historical emphasis, its ecological emphasis, and its holistic emphasis
(Dudgeon). From an anthropological perspective, these concepts are related to each other and they
are also seen as integrated with one another.

In order to understand the origin and the history of human beings, and to acknowledge global
cultured and communities, people should be able to consider anthropological perspectives in their both
social and academic lives. Anthropological perspective is very important because it looks at shared

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 7

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
aspects of humanity like language, cultural connections, economics, and curiosity to find the common
thread. What makes the Anthropological Perspective unique is that unlike other social scientists,
anthropologists look beyond the confines of our own society and compare

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 8

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
it to the beliefs and practices of other societies, past, and present (Dudgeon). The holistic,
cross-cultural and comparative approach can help us think more deeply about other people and
cultures, and live more consciously in our global world. It also changes your way of thinking
about the world with a wider appreciation of the human experience. It allows us to understand
how the evolutionary package inherited from our ancestors work in today’s environment.

Sociology

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject matter is
diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of race and
social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical change in
whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of
understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding
cultural and social structures.

Therefore, sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and
consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations,
and societies, and how people interact within these contexts.

Sociology is an exciting and illuminating field of study that analyzes and explains important
matters in our personal lives, our communities, and the world. At the personal level, sociology
investigates the social causes and consequences of such things as romantic love, racial and gender
identity, family conflict, deviant behavior, aging, and religious faith. At the societal level, sociology
examines and explains matters like crime and law, poverty and wealth, prejudice and discrimination,
schools and education, business firms, urban community, and social movements. At the global level,
sociology studies such phenomena as population growth and migration, war and peace, and
economic development.

Sociological Perspective

The sociological perspective helps you see that all people are social beings. It tells you that
your behaviour is influenced by some factors and that you have learned your behaviour from others.
The sociological perspective can also help you broaden your view of the social world. It tells you that
there are many different perceptions of social reality. Using the sociological perspective allows you
to see beyond your own day-to-day life by viewing the world through other’s eyes.

Further, the sociological perspective can help you find an acceptable balance between your
personal desires and demands of your social environment. If you always do what you want to do,
you are likely to conflict with others a great deal of the time. On the other hand, if you always do
what the others want, you will not grow as an individual. Applying the sociological perspective can
help you find an acceptable point between these two extremes.

Political Science

Political Science is the branch of knowledge that deals with systems of government; the analysis of
political activity and behavior.

Political science is the study of politics and power from domestic, international, and comparative
perspectives. It entails understanding political ideas, ideologies, institutions, policies, processes,
and behavior, as well as groups, classes, government, diplomacy, law, strategy, and war.

The Rationale of Studying Anthropology, Political Science and Sociology

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 9

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Anthropology

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

10
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Anthropology is the branch of knowledge which deals with the scientific study of man, his
works, his body, his behavior and values, in time and space (Palispis, 2007, p. 6). Also, it includes
man’s social, physical, and cultural development that describes and explains the phenomenon of
human life.

Anthropology helps by providing insights into strange aspects of past or even present societies which
historians and sociologists find difficult to comprehend and explain. Hence, anthropology gives us
information concerning man’s behavior in relation to his social environment.

Political Science

Political Science is a systematic study of a state and its government, with relationships of men in the
community, with relations of men and groups to the state itself, and with the relations of a state
with other sovereign states abroad (Palispis, 2009, p. 14).

According to Ricardo Lazo, the primary goal of Political Science is citizenship education. It requires
the students to understand and appreciate the duties and obligations of being a member of a society.
Political Science includes core competencies, knowledge and skills that help learners become
participative and productive members of the community.

Sociology

According to Joseph Fitcher, sociology is the scientific study of patterned, shared human behavior.
It analyzes human interaction which is essential in understanding man’s cultural make-up. It may
also focus its attention on all kinds of social interactions: social arts, social relationships, social
organization, social structures, and social processes (Palispis, 2009, p. 3). This social
relationship will provide sociological information that will help in understanding society
objectively through the use of scientific investigation or methodology.

The outcomes of sociological investigations are essential for leaders, businessmen or entrepreneurs and
government officials in maintaining social stability and creation of program as well as policies for
development. This study of sociology broadens the experience of individuals as they learn to
discard prejudices and “good” or “bad” behavior depends upon the norms of conduct of the society
in which behavior takes place (Panopio, 1994, p. 2).

Process Questions

1. What are anthropology, sociology and political science?

2. Why do need to understand the concepts of anthropology, sociology and political science?

RELATED READINGS

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humans, early hominids and primates, such as chimpanzees.
Anthropologists study human language, culture, societies, biological and material remains, the biology
and behavior of primates, and even our own buying habits.

Types of Anthropology

There are now four major fields of anthropology: biological anthropology, cultural
anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and archaeology. Each focuses on a different set of
research interests and generally uses different research techniques.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 9

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
A. Biological Anthropology

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 10

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, is a scientific discipline concerned with the
biological and behavioural aspects of human beings, their extinct hominid ancestors, and
related non-human primates, particularly from an evolutionary perspective.

B. Cultural Anthropology

The branch of anthropology concerned with the study of human societies and cultures and their
development.

C. Linguistic Anthropology

Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. It
is a branch of anthropology that originated from the endeavour to document endangered
languages, and has grown over the past century to encompass most aspects of language structure
and use.

D. Archaeology

Archaeology, or archaeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of
material culture. The archaeological record consists of artefacts, architecture, biofacts or
ecofacts and cultural landscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a
branch of the humanities.

Sociology is a Science:

According to Auguste Comte and Durkheim, “Sociology is a science because it adopts

and applies the scientific method. Sociology does make use of scientific methods in the study
of its subject matter. Hence Sociology is a science.

Political Science

The Concerns of Political Science

From all of these types of power relations, political scientists study primarily power relations which
have to do with policy, wealth, inequality, war, peace, international cooperation, making
decisions in times of crisis, political organizations, electoral system, and similar topics.

Four Fields of Political Science

The overall field of political science includes several major subfields: American politics,
comparative politics, international relations, political economy, and political philosophy. Most political
science departments at universities encourage students to specialize or concentrate in one of these
subfields.

Process Questions

1. What are the concepts that you have gained from this readings?
2. Write an outline of concepts gained from this reading on your notebook.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Direction: Answer the following questions.
 Why are sociology, anthropology, and political science important in understanding the

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 11

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
dynamics of society?
 What perspectives does anthropology offer to the study of culture and society?
2. Transfer.
 What personal troubles have you experienced? Identify 1-3 personal troubles.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 12

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

 Are any of these personal troubles also social problems? Which ones and why?
 Identify solutions to these problems.

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

1. https://www.slideshare.net/edwardbenalet/anthropology-sociology-and-political-science- 102745908
2. https://www.slideshare.net/kellykhel/understanding-the-concepts-of-anthropology- sociology

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Dudgeon, Roy C. “The Anthropological Perspective: What Makes it Unique.”

“Why is Anthropology Important.” https://classroom.synonym.com/why-is-anthropology-important-

12080725.html

https://www.google.com.ph/search?sxsrf=ALeKk00s4umAaBNcJP3CfLJ_IYG9ix7uVw
%3A1590831921544&ei=MSv
SXv3bIKG2mAWRjYKIDg&q=branches+of+political+science&oq=branches+of+political+science&gs_lcp=C
gZwc3ktY
WIQAzICCAAyAggAMgYIABAHEB4yBggAEAcQHjIGCAAQBxAeMgIIADIECAAQHjIECAAQHjIECAAQHjIECAAQHjo
ECAAQR1DzD1jrLmDZNGgAcAF4AIAB0QOIAfgYkgEJMC41LjMuMS4zmAEAoAEBqgEHZ3dzLXdpeg&sclient=psy-
ab&ved=0ahUKEwi9uNLcptvpAhUhG6YKHZGGAOEQ4dUDCAw&uact=5

https://www.google.com.ph/search?sxsrf=ALeKk00s4umAaBNcJP3CfLJ_IYG9ix7uVw
%3A1590831921544&ei=MSv
SXv3bIKG2mAWRjYKIDg&q=anthropology&oq=anthropology&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzIECCMQJzIECAAQQ
zIEC
AAQQzIECAAQQzIECAAQQzIECAAQQzIECAAQQzIECAAQQzIECAAQQzIHCAAQFBCHAlDyElibGmDXJWgAcAB
4AYABgwiIAecbkgEFNi0zLjGYAQCgAQGqAQdnd3Mtd2l6&sclient=psy-
ab&ved=0ahUKEwi9uNLcptvpAhUhG6YKHZGGAOEQ4dUDCAw&uact=5

https://www.google.com.ph/search?sxsrf=ALeKk03UVw74q3s8PYBKGMs68U6HGGHr2g
%3A1590835254518&ei=N jjSXv-
UH9vahwPLyoCgBg&q=sociology&oq=socio&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgAMgQIIxAnMgQIABBDMgQIABBDM
gQIA
BBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgQIABBDMgIIADIECAAQQ1Db7QhY3PUIYK2DCWgAcAB4AYABvwOIAZ
8JkgEJMC4xLjMuMC4xmAEAoAEBqgEHZ3dzLXdpeg&sclient=psy-ab

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 13

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEK 2
Module 2 Culture and Society
Lesson 2 –UNDERSTANDING the CONCEPTS
of CULTURE, SOCIETY, and POLITICS

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 14

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 15

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
INTRODUCTION

Modue 2 is entitled “Understanding the Concepts of Culture, Society and Politics” deals with culture and
society as anthropological and sociological concepts; and the significance of studying culture, society,
and politics. Its aim is to help the students appreciate the nature of culture and society from the
perspectives of anthropology and sociology.

Week 2

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Analyze the concept, aspects and changes in/of culture and society.

Lesson 2 –UNDERSTANDING the CONCEPTS of CULTURE, SOCIETY, and POLITICS

Activity

Each person interacts meaningfully with one another as a member of society. Culture encompasses the
meaningful processes and products pf these social interactions. People interact in society as
individuals and as groups with duties and privileges. In the exercise of duties and privileges, a
person as a member of society engages in political activities.

Use the diagram to show how a person experiences culture, society and politics in everyday life.

PERSON

Process Questions

1. How are culture, society and politics interrelated with one another?

READINGS

Man’s Social and Cultural Background

In our society today, we can see a lot of changes and developments that affect our life. Machines
have made our work easier. Computers have allowed us to communicate with more people faster.
Genetic engineering has helped us to produce disease resistant plants. Changes such as these have
resulted in the modernization of nation-states.

A nation-state is a sovereign state whose citizens or subjects have a common culture. They
speak the same language, have common descent, and share a common history. Having citizens
with common culture, the nation- state, therefore, is a major component of personal identity.
Personal identity is the concept you develop about yourself that evolves over the course of your life.

As primary actors, we create the type of society we want to have which also includes our customs
and traditions. Thus, cultures differ depending on the needs of individuals.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 14

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
As defined by Edward B. Tylor, culture refers to that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs,
arts, morals, laws, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 15

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Significance of Studying Culture, Society and Politics

Culture

According to Mark Banaag, culture functions in the following ways and from which we can realize the
significance of culture as well:

1. Culture makes for man to adapt and integrate himself to his environment by being creative
and resourceful in coming up with ways and means of survival.
2. Culture establishes patterns of acceptable social behaviour such as etiquette, protocols, good
manners and right conduct, roles and duties, etc. as established by folkways, mores, and
laws.
3. Culture conveys and facilitates meanings through verbal and non-verbal communication,
written and non- written language, forms of expression, and symbolism.
4. Culture produces man-made things such as clothing, tools, instruments, machines,
equipment, structures, etc. made possible by technological know-how.
5. Culture contributes to over-all human satisfaction as we develop ways to make life more
enjoyable, more comfortable, easier and more rewarding such as recreational activities, leisure,
entertainment and arts, etc.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 16

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Society

As individuals continued to interact, societies were formed. It is a product of human processes intended
to meet basic needs for survival. Every society is organized in such a way there are rules of
conduct, customs and traditions, folkways and mores, and expectation that’s that ensure appropriate
behavior among members.

Studying society provides us an idea on its importance in creating an equal, just, and humane society.

Politics

Sometimes people tend to associate politics with power. According to Ricardo Lazo, politics may be
viewed in different ways. (Please refer to the diagram).

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 16

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Politics talks about collective decision of individuals based on defined rules of society. These rules
bind people together in order to preserve culture and improve human life.

Also, Haque defines politics in different ways but whatever definition is attached to it, there are four
important points inherent to it:

Culture and Society as Anthropological and Sociological Concepts

Society refers to a group of people sharing a common culturewithin defined territorial boundaries.
Every human society is organized in such a way that there rules of conduct, customs,
traditions, folkways, morees, and expectations that ensure appropriate behavior among members
(Palispis, 2007, p. 254).

Culture is a composite or multifarious areas that comprise beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws,
norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of
society. Therefore, culture is:

1. A product of human interaction;

2. A social heritage that is complex and socially transmitted;
3. Provides socially accpetable patterns for meeting biologival and social needs;
4. A distingusing factor;
5. An established pattern of behavior;
6. Cumulative; and
7. Meaningful to human beings.

A. Types of Culture

Culture is composed of material and non-material elements. Material culture consists of tangible things
whereas non- material elements consist of intagible things (Banaag, 2012, p.48).

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 17

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

B. Elements of Culture

To understand culture, it is necessary to understand the different elements that compose it:

Indeed, social norms are very important in understanding the nature of man’s social
relationship. In the social interaction process, each member possesses certain expectations about
the responses and reactions of another member (Palispis, 2007, p. 44). Hence, it is very essential to
determine the different forms of social norms:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 18

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

C. Aspects of Culture

Since culture is very complex, there are important aspects of culture that contribute to the
development of
man’s social interaction:

Process Question

1. Why do we need to understand the idea of culture, society and politics?

RELATED READINGS

Differing Terms

When studying anthropology, it's pretty rare to make it through a lesson without hearing the word
culture or society. In fact, they're so commonly used that most people tend to think they mean the
same thing. However, when it comes to using them in official anthropological terms, this is not quite
true.

In today's lesson, we'll take a look at these two words and try to nail down their proper use. As we
do this, I must admit it's gonna seem like we're sort of splitting hairs when it comes to the
differences. However, just in case you're ever stuck sitting at a table with an anthropologist, today's
lesson will come in handy!

Culture

To get the ball rolling, we'll start with culture. According to many anthropologists, culture can be defined
as the set of learned behaviors and beliefs that characterize a people group. Putting it simply, it's what
makes a population into a people group. It's their beliefs, attitudes, and ideals. From their diet, to their
religion, to their family structure, to their jobs, to even their entertainment, it's what makes them
them.
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 19
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Adding to this definition, most anthropologists would agree that people sort of define or label
themselves through their culture. Think about it. If you go to a party, what usually fills the
conversation? It's not deep emotional stuff. Instead, it's things like where people work, what they
do in their free time, and maybe even where they choose to

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 20

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
worship. Whether we give clues about our national culture of say, being American, or our subculture of
being Italian- American, we're still discussing the beliefs and attitudes that make us us.

While at the party, we'll also exhibit our culture. For instance, for those of us who grew up in the
Westernized world, we'll probably not remove our shoes at a party. Even though it'd be more
comfortable to kick them off and walk around in our socks, we probably won't. However, if the party
took place at my aunt's home, who just so happens to be Korean, we would all remove our shoes. You
see, in Korean culture, it's considered disrespectful and dirty to wear outdoor shoes inside. Although
my aunt considers herself part of the national culture of America, she still holds to many parts of
her homeland's national culture as well.

Now notice, when talking about culture, we're talking about things that are sort of tangible, almost
like objects. They're our language, our technology, and our institutions - things like our churches,
our schools, or even our houses. However, culture is also intangible; it's our values and our
behaviors. Using an anthropological term, our culture includes our norms, the standards or rules
about acceptable behavior. And with this definition finished, we'll move onto our other term, society.

Society

Unlike culture, which encompasses the tangible and intangible things of a people group, society is
defined as a group of people who occupy a particular territory and who share a culture. Stating it simply,
we would say that a society is a people of a culture. Whereas culture is what makes them them,
society is, for lack of a better way of saying it, the actual them. It's the people living and
interacting with one another in order to create a culture. It's people bonded together by their shared
beliefs, attitudes, languages, and institutions; in other words, by their culture.

In saying all this, it's important to note that people can belong to the same society, while also
differing in their, shall we say, layers of culture. For instance, a Hasidic Jew living in New York City
and a cowboy from Montana both are part of American society and American culture. However,
one identifies himself with the subculture of being a New Yorker and a Jewish American, while the
other may have never stepped foot in the Big Apple.

Politics

Politics is the way that people living in groups make decisions. Politics is about making agreements
between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. In large
groups, such as countries, some people may spend a lot of their time making such agreements.
These people are called politicians. Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form
a government. The study of politics in universities is called political science, political studies, or public
administration.

Politics is a multifaceted word. It has a set of fairly specific meanings that are descriptive and
nonjudgmental (such as “the art or science of government” and "political principles"), but it can and
often does carry a negative meaning closely related to these (“political activities characterized by
artful and often dishonest practices”). English is a flexible language, and it is not uncommon for a word
to have multiple related meanings that run the connotative gamut from good to bad. Some of these have
been around for a surprisingly long time. The negative sense of politics, as seen in the phrase play
politics, for example, has been in use since at least 1853, when abolitionist Wendell Phillips declared:
“We do not play politics; anti-slavery is no half-jest with us.”

Process Questions

1. What are the concepts that you have gained from this readings?
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 21
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
2. Write an outline of concepts gained from this reading on your notebook.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 22

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Direction: Answer the following questions.
 Why is culture important in our society?
 How is culture and behaviour related? Give examples to prove your answers.
2. Transfer.
Direction: Answer the following questions.
 If you were to “define” politics based on your own experience, what would it be?
 Is it possible to study politics more scientifically? How?

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

1. https://www.slideshare.net/nevzat1975/lecture-2-culture-and-society
2. https://www.slideshare.net/cleisthenes19/significance-of-studying-culture-society-and- politics

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-sociology/chapter/culture-and-society/

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/politics

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 23

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEKS 3-4
Module 3 - Ethnocentrism and Cultural
Relativism
Lesson 3 - ETHNOCENTRISM and CULTURAL
RELATIVISM

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 24

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 25

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

INTRODUCTION

Modue 3 is entitled “Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism” deals with the perspectives in/approaches
to the study of culture and society (i.e., comparative, historical, structural, functional, interpretive, and
critical). Its aim is to help the students demonstrate a holistic understanding of culture and society; and
value cultural heritage and express pride of place without being ethnocentric.

Weeks 3-4

Most Essential Learning Competency: *Explain the importance of cultural relativism in attaining
cultural Understanding

Lesson 3 - ETHNOCENTRISM and CULTURAL RELATIVISM

"If anyone, no matter whom, were given the opportunity of choosing from amongst all the nations in
the world the set of beliefs which he thought best, he would inevitably—after careful considerations
of their relative merits—choose that of his own country. Everyone without exception believes his own
native customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be the best."
- Herodotus

Process Questions

1. How can you explain your idea about the quotation above?
2. Are you fond of your own culture? Why?

READINGS

As mentioned by Dean Champion and his associates, “the range of variations beween culture is almost
endless and yet at the same time cultures ensemble one another in many ipotant ways”. Somehow
cultural variation is affected by man’s geographical set-up and social experiences. Cultural variation
refers to the differences in social behaviors that different cultures exhibit around the world. What
may be considered good etiquette in one culture may be considered bad etiquette in another
(www.ask.com).

Response to Variation

The study of variation in culture presents challenges to scieitists. Cultural variations are what
make socieitis interesting to study. However, social scietiests must be careful to remain critical of
biases in their observatios and conclusions.

ETHNOCENTRISM

Have you ever seen or eaten food from another country, such as dried squid or fried crickets and think of
it as weird and gross? This is an example of ethnocentrism! That means you use your own culture
as the center and evaluate other cultures based on it. You are judging, or making assumptions about
the food of other countries based on your own norms, values, or beliefs. Thinking “dried squid is
smelly” or “people shouldn’t eat insects” are examples of ethnocentrism in societies where people
may not eat dried squid or insects.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 26

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Cartoon showing a person offering another man some deep fried crickets. The man who is being
offered the crickets says "um, I think I'll pass."

Is ethnocentrism bad or good? On the one hand, ethnocentrism can lead to negative judgments of
the behaviors of groups or societies. It can also lead to discrimination against people who are
different. For example, in many countries, religious minorities (religions that are not the dominant
religion) often face discrimination. But on the other hand, ethnocentrism can create loyalty among the
same social group or people in the same society. For example, during the World Cup or Olympics,
you may tend to root for your own country and believe that the players or teams representing your
country are much better. National pride is also part of ethnocentrism.

To avoid judging the cultural practices of groups that are different to yours, we can use the
cultural relativism approach. Cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to our own standards of
what is right or wrong, strange or normal. Instead, we should try to understand cultural practices of
other groups in its own cultural context. For example, instead of thinking, “Fried crickets are
disgusting! ” one should instead ask, “Why do some cultures eat fried insects?”. You may learn that
fried crickets or grasshoppers are full of protein and in Mexico, it is famous Oaxaca regional cuisine
and have been eaten for thousands of years as a healthy food source!

Cartoon showing a person offering another man some deep fried crickets. The man who is being
offered the crickets asks to know more about them.

Some people worry that the concept of culture can also be abused and misinterpreted. If one
culture behaves one way, does that mean all cultures can behave that way as well? For example,
many countries and international organizations oppose the act of whaling (the fishing of whales)
for environmental reasons. These environmental organizations say that there are not many whales
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 27
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
left and such fishing practices should be stopped. However, other countries argue that whaling is a
cultural practice that has been around for thousands of years. Because it may be

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 28

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
part of a country’s oceanic culture, this country may say that such a cultural practice should not be
opposed based on cultural differences, say, by an inland country that does not understand. Who
gets to define what a moral cultural behavior is? Is whaling immoral? Two different cultures may
have very different answers, as we saw in the above example. Another more extreme instance
would be female genital cutting in some parts of the world. Locally, it is argued that the practice has
cultural roots, but such a practice has raised concerns among many international human rights
organizations.

Anthropologists say that when we think about different cultures and societies, we should think about
their customs in a way that helps us make sense of how their cultural practices fit within their
overall cultural context. For example, having several wives perhaps makes economic sense among
herders who move around frequently. Through such an understanding, polygamy makes cultural
sense.

Process Questions

1. How would you differentiate ethnocentrism to cultural relativism?

2. Why do you have to understand the concept of relativism?

RELATED READINGS

Ethnocentrism, a term coined by William Graham Sumner, is the tendency to look at the world
primarily from the perspective of your own ethnic culture and the belief that that is in fact the “right”
way to look at the world. This leads to making incorrect assumptions about others’ behavior based on
your own norms, values, and beliefs. For instance, reluctance or aversion to trying another culture’s
cuisine is ethnocentric. Social scientists strive to treat cultural differences as neither inferior nor
superior. That way, they can understand their research topics within the appropriate cultural context
and examine their own biases and assumptions at the same time.

This approach is known as “cultural relativism.” Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual
person’s beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual’s own
culture. A key component of cultural relativism is the concept that nobody, not even researchers,
comes from a neutral position. The way to deal with our own assumptions is not to pretend that they
don’t exist but rather to acknowledge them, and then use the awareness that we are not neutral to
inform our conclusions.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 29

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

An example of cultural relativism might include slang words from specific languages (and even
from particular dialects within a language). For instance, the word “tranquilo” in Spanish translates
directly to “calm” in English. However, it can be used in many more ways than just as an adjective
(e.g., the seas are calm). Tranquilo can be a

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 30

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
command or suggestion encouraging another to calm down. It can also be used to ease tensions in
an argument (e.g., everyone relax) or to indicate a degree of self-composure (e.g., I’m calm).
There is not a clear English translation of the word, and in order to fully comprehend its many
possible uses, a cultural relativist would argue that it would be necessary to fully immerse oneself in
cultures where the word is used.

Key Points

 Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most important
or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups.
 Within this ideology, individuals will judge other groups in relation to their own particular
ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and
religion.
 Cultural relativism is the belief that the concepts and values of a culture cannot be fully
translated into, or fully understood in, other languages; that a specific cultural artifact
(e.g., a ritual) has to be understood in terms of the larger symbolic system of which it is a
part.
 Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual person’s beliefs and activities should be
understood by others in terms of that individual’s own culture.

Key Terms

 ethnocentrism: The tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own
culture.
 cultural relativism: Cultural relativism is a principle that was established as axiomatic in
anthropological research by Franz Boas in the first few decades of the twentieth century,
and later popularized by his students. Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: “…civilization
is not something absolute, but… is relative, and… our ideas and conceptions are true only
so far as our civilization goes. “

Cultural context: Depending on your cultural background, this may or may not look delicious.

Process Questions

1. What are the concepts that you have gained from this readings?
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 31
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
2. Write an outline of concepts gained from this reading on your notebook.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 32

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Answer the following questions.
 Is there such superior and inferior culture? Explain.
 How is it possible to recognize the uniqueness of each society’s cultural traits and not from
the stand point of one’s own society?
2. Transfer.
In some parts of Europe and America, same sex marriage is considered as legal.
Explain in your own words the applicability of same sex marriage in the Philippines.

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

1. https://www.slideshare.net/JedLim1/ethnocentrism-and-relativism

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-culture/culture/a/cultural-relativism- article

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/03%3A_Culture/
3.01%3A_C ulture_and_Society/3.1E%3A_Ethnocentrism_and_Cultural_Relativism

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 33

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEKS 5-6
Module 4 – Social, Political and Economic
Symbols and Practices
Lesson 4 - LOOKING BACK at HUMAN
BIOCULTURAL and SOCIAL EVOLUTION

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 34

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 35

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
INTRODUCTION

Module 4 is entitled “Looking Back at Human Biocultural and Social Evolution” deals with the human
origins and the capacity for culture; the role of culture in human adaptation; and processes of cultural
and socio-political evolution. Its aim is to help the students analyze key features of interrelationships of
biological, cultural and socio-political processes in human evolution that can still be used and
developed.

Weeks 5-6

Most Essential Learning Competency: *Analyze the significance of cultural, social, political and economic
symbols and practices.

Lesson 4 – LOOKING BACK at HUMAN BIOCULTURAL and SOCIAL EVOLUTION

Examine the picture.

Process Questions

1. What does it represent?

2. How does it explain man’s development?

READINGS

Human Origins

It is a common understanding that change is the only permanent thing in this world. Every living thing is
dynamic and, as such, undergoes tranformation. Likewise, man as the most important
component of society, goes through evolutionary changes that help him adapt to his environment.
Thus, his adaptation started the formation of society as well as cultural development which is
essential for survival.

Looking at evolution as man’s linear progression. Evolution is a natural process of biologial

changes occuring in a population across successive generations (Banaag, 2012, p. 31). It helps us
identify and analyze man’s physiological development which is important in his subsistence.

The evolution of man became an important concern in the emergence of different socieities.
Early man’s development serves as an avenue in analyzing the progress of our society. For two million

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 31

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
years, man in the form of early hominid, was a herd/tribal animal,/warrior. All of the human’s social
drives developed long before he developed intelectually. They are, therefore, instinctive.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 32

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Species Characteristics
Homo Habilis >> Species with a brain of a Broca’s area which is associated with speech in
modern humans
and was the first to make stoe tools. The ability to make and use tools is a
unique quality of humans such that the species is recognized to be the first
true human. The species name
means “Handy Man”. Lived about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago scaveging for food.
Homo Rudolfensis >>Species characterized by a longer face, larger molar and premolar teeth,
and having a
larger braincase compared to habilis particularly larger frontal lobes, areas of
the brain that processes information. The species lived about 1.9 to 1.8 million
years ago.
Homo Erectus >>The species name means “Upright Man” with body proportions similar to
that of modern humans. Lived 1.89 to 143,000 years ago; adapted to hot
climates and mostly spread in Africa and Asia. They were the first hunters with
improvised tools such as axes and knives,
and were the first to produce fire.
Homo >>Species with large brow ridge and short wide bodies that lived about
700,000 to 200,000
Heidelbergenesis years ago in Europe and Africa.They were the first of early human species to
live in colder
climates, first to hunt large animals on routine basis using spears, and first to
construct
human shelters.
Homo >>Species nicknamed “Hobbit” due to their small stature with a height of more or
Floresiensis less 3 feet
and lived 95,000 to 17,000 years ago in the island of Flores, Indonesia with
other dwarfed animal species.
Homo Sapiens >>The species name means “Wise Man” that appeared from 200,000 years ago.
The present
human race belongs to this species.
Homo Sapiens >>subspecies with short yet stocky in body build adapted to winter climates
Neanderthalensis especially in icy
cold places in Europe and Asia. It also known as “Neanderthal Man”, is the closest
relative of
modern humans.
Homo Sapiens >>Subspecies known as “Cro-Magnon characterized to be anatomically modern
Sapiens humans and lived in the last Ice Age of Europe from 40,000 to 10,000 years
ago. They were the first to
produce art in cave and crafting decorated tools and accessories.

A. Man’s Cultural Evolution

Cultural Period Time Frame Cultural Development

Paleolithic Age (Old Traditionally coincided with the >>Use of simple peeble tools
Stone Age) first evidence of tool construction >>Learned to live in caves
and use by Homosome 2.5 million >>Discovered the use of fire
years ago >>Developed small sculptures; and
monumental painting, incised
designs, and reliefs on the walls of

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 33

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
caves.
>>”Food-collecting cultures”
Neolithic Age (New Occurred sometime about 10,000 BCE >>Stone tools were shaped by
Stone Age) polishing or grinding
>>Settlement in permanent villages
>>Dependence on domesticated
animals or plants
>>Appearance of such crafts as
pottery and weaving
>>”Food producing cultures”

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 34

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Simple Differentiation of the Cultural Evolution

B. Characteristics of Human Society

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 33

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
C. Types of Socieities

Types of Human Societies Characteristi

cs
1.Hunting and Food Gathering >>The earliest form of human soiety.
Services >>People survived by foraging for vegetable foods and small
game, fishing, huntinglargerwild animals, and collecting shellfish.
>>They subsisted from day to day on whatever was available.
>>They used tools made of stones, woods, and bones.
2.Horticultural societies >> People learned to use human muscle power and handheld tools to
cultivate fields.
>>Classified as subsistence farming and surplus farming.
SUBSISTENCE FARMING:
>>Involves only producing enough food to feed the group.
>>The settlements are small.
>>Neightborhood is solid.
>>Political organization is confined in the village.
>>Authority is based on positions inherited by males through
the kinship system.
SURPLUS FARMING:
>>Practiced in thickly populated and permanent settlements.
>>There was occupational specialization with prestige differences.
>>Social stratification was well established.
>>The community tended to be structured by kinship relations that
are male dominated.
3.Pastoral Societies >>It relied on herding and the domestication of animals for food and
clothing to satisfy the greater needs of the group.
>>Most pastoralists were nomads who followed their herds in a
never-ending quest for pasture and water.
>>It was organized along male-centered kinship groups.
>>It wwas usually united under strong politicalfigures. However,
centralized political leadershipdid not occur.
4.Agricultural Societies >>These societies were characterized by the use of the plow in
farming.
>>Creation of the irrigation system provided farming enough
surplus for the community.
>>Ever-growing population came together in broad river-valley
system.
>>Those who controled access to arable land and its use became
rich and powerful since they could demand the payment of taxes and
political support.
>>by taxing the bulk of agricultural surplus, the political leaders
could make bureaucracies implement their plans and armies to
protect their privileges.
>>Social classes became entrenched, and the state evolved.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 34

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
5.Industrial Societies >>It is characterize by more than just the use of mechanical
means of production.
>>It constitutes an entirely new form of society that requires an
immense, mobile diversity specialized, high skilled, and well-
coordinated labor force.
>>Creates a highly organized systems of exchange between
suppliers of raw materials and industrial manufacturers.
>>Industrial societies are divided along class lines.
>>Industrialism brought about a tremendous shift of populations.
>>Kinship plays a smaller role in patterning public affairs.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 35

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

>>Industrial societies are highly secularized.

>>The predominant form of social and political organization is
industrial societies is the bureaucracy.
6.Post-industrial Societies >>Itdepends on specialized knowledge to bring about continuing
progress in
technology.
>>It is characterized by the spread of computer industries.
>>Knowledge and information are the hallmarks of this society.
>>It resulted in the homogenization of social relations among
individuals and the interaction between humans and the natural
environment.

Process Questions

1. What makes human beings an important component in the development of early society?
2. How do early societies differe from another? Explain.

RELATED READINGS

Cultural Symbols

A cultural symbol is a physical manifestation that signifies the ideology of a particular culture or
that merely has meaning within a culture. What is culture, you may ask? Culture is an
accumulation of the beliefs, traditions, language and values of a particular group of people.

The Christian culture has the cultural symbol of the cross, where the Jewish culture has the cultural
symbol of the Star of David. Cultural symbols don't have to be actual symbols or signs; they
can also be gestures such as handshakes and hand signals. Additionally, the same symbol
can mean different things in different cultures. Americans should be careful in Greece, for
example. The thumbs up, which symbolizes that everything is great in American culture, is just like
giving the middle finger in Greek culture.

Examples of Cultural Symbols

Cultural symbols can represent any aspect of the culture, including nationalism, belief systems,
traditions, language and values. Symbols are the basis of culture. A symbol is an object, word, or
action that stands for something else with no natural relationship that is culturally defined. Everything
one does throughout their life is based and organized through cultural symbolism. Symbolism is when
something represents abstract ideas or concepts.

Cultural Practices

There are thousands of diverse groups that practise many different customs, traditions and
religious acts. Some of the customs define the culture that performs them and makes the group
what they are. Cultural practice can be defined as the manifestation of a tradition or custom within a
particular culture, such a Morris Dancing in England and the wearing of the kimonos by Geishas in
Japan.

Cultural customs are often considered strange by the majority of people; these people would be the
people who do not perform such customs. The people who perform such customs usually have been
brought up with these practices or customs and would not see them as being different in any way.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 35

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
The same goes for religious acts or traditions, as individuals who perform such religious acts or traditions
would have learnt from parents or peers within their own social network. Cultural practices performed in
cultures in society. The world is full of cultural practices, traditions, customs or activities that are defined
as outwith the norm. These activities would be considered cultural practice.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 36

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Role of Symbols in Culture

A symbol carries meaning to the people who share a culture because it is created and maintained by the
members of the culture.

A symbol, something that carries meaning to people who share a culture, is broadly
understood and used so frequently that it does not require explanation. Language, which is both
an element and a reflection of culture, is a system of symbols that allows members of a culture to
communicate with one another. Words symbolize objects, ideas, and actions. However, sometimes
these meanings vary by culture. For example, English is a language used by many cultures, but
some English words have different meanings in different cultural contexts. The word call in
American culture means to contact someone by telephone. In Britain, however, call is used to express
paying a visit to someone, while the word ring means to contact via phone. The meaning of the words
call and ring is dependent on culture. These words symbolize different actions to English speakers in
different cultures.

Communication is based upon the use of mutually understood symbols. Language and other
systems of communication are deeply embedded in the culture that creates them. Communication
can be verbal or nonverbal. Verbal communication can occur through both writing and speaking.
Nonverbal communication also includes written communication, body language and gestures, and
alternative systems of communication such as Braille and sign language. Both verbal and nonverbal
communication depends on a broader cultural context.

People create and interpret the meaning of all symbols solely through shared cultural understanding.
Communication can occur only if people know how to use and interpret a shared set of symbols.
The ability to communicate is thus rooted in culture. A culture's shared set of symbols is produced
and maintained through shared cultural beliefs, practices, traditions, and expectations.

Many symbols are visual. For example, in some cultures particular colors are associated with
gender, such as pink for girls and blue for boys. Another example is traffic signage such as stop
signs or symbols used on highways to indicate where to stop for gas, food, or lodging. In some
cultures, accents on letters tell people how words are pronounced. Gestures also have symbolic
meaning. For instance, in American culture a kiss on the cheek symbolizes love and close ties or
feelings of intimacy. In other cultures, such as French culture and Mexican culture, a kiss on the cheek
is understood as a basic greeting.

A symbol has meaning within a culture, because of a shared understanding of what the symbol
signifies.
Stories, traditions, history, and cultural norms contribute to the meaning of a symbol.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 37

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Social Practices

Social practices refer to everyday practices and the way these are typically and habitually performed
in (much of) a society. Such practices – going to work, cooking, showering – are meaningful to people as
parts of their everyday life activities. These activities are routinely performed and integrate
different types of elements, such as bodily and

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 38

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
mental activities, material artefacts, knowledge, emotions, skills, and so on (Reckwitz 2002).
Practices are social because they are similar for different individuals at different points of time and
locations (Reckwitz 2002). Social practices involve consumption as performing the respective
activities requires the usage of material artefacts as well as resources such as energy and water.
Hence social practices such as showering (almost) every day or doing the laundry according to a
specific standard of cleanness (Shove 2004) have a large impact on a society's resource use.
Understanding social practices better would hence enhance the possibilities to stimulate behavioural
change towards reduced resource use.

Political Symbols and Practices

Political symbolism is symbolism that is used to represent a political standpoint. The symbolism can
occur in various media including banners, acronyms, pictures, flags, mottos, and countless more.

Symbols are used by parties in their campaigning, and printed on ballot papers where a voter must
make a mark to vote for the associated party. Their purpose is to facilitate voting by illiterate people,
who cannot read parties' names on ballot papers.

Filipino Customs and Traditions

Our culture is a big reflection of our great and complex history. It is influenced by most of the
people we have interacted with. A blend of the Malayo-Polynesian and Hispanic culture with the
influence from Chinese, Indians Arabs, and other Asian cultures really contribute to the customs and
traditions of the Filipinos.

Filipino culture is unique compared to other Asian countries, and beliefs apply every day in the life of the
Filipinos and reveal how rich and blessed the culture the people have.

Let’s review some of the popular Filipino traditions and find the similarities that bind Filipinos to each
other.

First on the list is Mano Po. When children or young people greet or say goodbye to their elders they
typically do so by taking the right hand of the elder with their right hand and touch the back the
elder's hand lightly on their forehead. It is a way of giving respect to the elders and I believe that is
also a way of receiving blessing to the elders.

Mano is a Spanish word for “hand” while Po is used in the end of the sentence when addressing elders or
superiors.

Next is that Filipinos are one of the most hospitable people you may find anywhere. Foreign visitors in
the country are treated with the utmost respect. This trait is usually seen during fiestas and holidays
where many Filipinos are giving their best to entertain their visitors well.

It is amazing to see that even the simplest home along the road opens their home to a stranger. For
Filipinos, to be able to serve others gives them honor of showing true friendship. Filipino Hospitality
is a trait you can't take away from them.

Having Close Family Ties is also one of their unique traits. It is one of the outstanding cultural values that
Filipinos have. The family takes care of each other and are taught to be loyal to family and elders
by simply obeying their authorities. This is one of the unique characteristics of Filipinos. Having
fondness for family reunions during secular and religious holidays such as Christmas, New Year’s
eve, All Saints’ Day, Holy Week, Fiestas, homecomings, birthdays, weddings, graduations, baptisms,
funerals etc. is evidence that Filipino people valued not only our cultural tradition but the spirit of our

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 37

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
family. As Filipinos, we are blessed to have been brought up with strong family ties.

Bayanihan

Have you ever experienced the bayanihan in our country? It is the spirit of communal unity or
effort to achieve a particular objective. A famous example of this is the neighbors carrying a hut or
house to a new location. People

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 38

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
nowadays use it to describe an outpouring of community spirit-as people give their all to the
common good, without expecting recognition or personal gain.

Courtship

We Filipinos are very romantic when it comes to heart affairs. Serenading or Harana in Tagalog is
one of the most popular forms of courtship to show that a man is very serious with his intentions to
a woman. A serenade would require the young man to sing a love song in front of the young lady's
house. Normally, he is accompanied by his male friends who act as back-up singers. The man himself
or his friend played the instrument, usually a guitar, which provides the background music to his song.

They would have to wait until the young lady opened a window to listen. It would be up to her if she
wanted to invite them in for some refreshment and to chat after the song. Even if they had been
asked to come in, the suitor would not expect that he could have the chance of a private moment with
his object of affection. It was highly likely that the parents would also be there to entertain the man
and his friends.

Religion

The Philippines is one of two predominantly Roman Catholic nations in Asia-Pacific. Their habit of
going to church and often praying reflects that Filipinos have a deep faith and belief when it comes to
religion. They are very devoted to religions that sometimes many take the risk of their lives just to
touch the Black Nazarine (in Quiapo Manila). For many, it is just a choice between their faith and
fears.

Filipinos believe that having a strong devotion may lead to a better life and their guidance to face
everyday life.

Superstition

In the Philippines, superstitious beliefs have grown throughout the country. These beliefs have
come from the different sayings and beliefs of our ancestors that aim to prevent danger from happening
or to make a person refrain from doing something in particular.

These beliefs are part of our culture, for one derives their beliefs from the influences of what their
customs, traditions and culture have dictated to explain certain phenomena or to scare people.
Some are practiced primarily because Filipinos believe that there is nothing to lose if they will
comply with these beliefs.

Marriage and Wedding Customs

In the country, marriage is a sacred union of man and women after a period of courtship and
engagement. It is a sacrament between two people who love each others. For many Filipinos, the
eternal quality of dedication to God pervades a truly sacred marriage.

A sacred marriage is a covenant between two who love each other in God and with God, whose joining
becomes an expression of the desire of each to love and serve God together.

Death

Death in the Philippines is one of the most important occasions in family life. For many Filipinos, a
death of relatives is an opportunity to strengthen ties in the Family. To pay respect and honor the
relationship to the deceased, long lost relatives, friends, and even relatives working abroad are
reunited.
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 39
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
The Philippines is the home of some unique death rituals that are partly religious and mostly
superstitious. The mourning and the weeping are still present, but a happy and welcoming atmosphere
would usually envelop the place to help the deceased on his journey to the afterlife.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 40

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
After the death of a person, a nine-day period of having a novena of prayers and Masses offered up to
the deceased is held, although the beginning of the "Siyam na araw" varies, but usually ends the
week after the death. Another period follows after death, the 40-day mourning period. Family
members indicate their state of bereavement by wearing a small, black rectangular plastic pin on
their left breast or breast pocket area. A ceremonial mass is held at the end of this 40-day period.
Common belief states that the soul goes to Heaven after these 40 days, following the belief that
Jesus Christ ascended to Heaven after the said period of days.

Society

The primary ancestors of Filipinos are Malays who came from the southeastern Asian country
which is now called Indonesia. The Philippines is a combined society, both singular and plural in
form. It is singular as one nation, but plural in that it is fragmented geographically and culturally.
The nation is divided between Christians, Muslims, and other religious-ethno-linguistic groups;
between urban and rural people; between upland and lowland people; and between the rich and
the poor. Although different in numerous ways, the Filipinos are very hospitable and give
appropriate respect to everybody regardless of race, culture and belief.

Christmas in the Philippines

Christmas in the Philippines is considered as one of the biggest holidays in the archipelago.
We earned the distinction of celebrating the world’s longest Christmas season with Christmas
carols heard as early as September and lasting until Epiphany, the feast of the Black Nazarene on
January 9 or the Feast of the Santo Niño de Cebú on the third Sunday of January.

In one’s article, Archbishop Cruz told in his Christmas message that "the essence of Christmas is
God made flesh, God who has come among us" in an act of love "that joins humankind to the
Living God through our Lord Jesus Christ".

For many Filipinos, the true essence of Christmas for is not gift giving but sharing this special holy day
with family.

Fiestas

Every town and city in the Philippines has a fiesta of its own; whatever time of the year it is, there's sure
to be a fiesta going on somewhere.

Fiestas in the Philippines are held to celebrate a patron saint. It is part and parcel of Filipino culture
through good times and bad times, it must go on. The biggest and most elaborate festival of all is
Christmas, a season celebrated with all the pomp and pageantry where the whole country breaks
out in celebrations that can begin long before December.

For individual Filipinos, fiestas can be a way of supplicating the heavens or to make amends for past
wrongs. It is a way to celebrate their blessings, commemorate their past and observe solemn
religious rituals. Celebrations may take the form of music, dancing, feasting, beauty contests,
balls, processions, sports challenges or a host of other events.

Spanish influence is evident in the elaborate masks, makeup, headdresses and costumes worn by
the revelers; outfits which often take months of preparation.

Living with Parents

Filipino traditional that make them exceptional. Unlike in the United States where children leave

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 41

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
the home after finishing high school or college, many Filipinos continue living with parents until they get
married.

Eating with Hands (Kamayan)

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 42

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
In addition to the use of the fork and spoon, eating with your hands or kamayan is another
common Filipino tradition. For many Filipinos, kamayan gives full taste to the food instead of using
utensils. Gather a small portion of meat or fish and a bite-sized portion of rice on your plate. Then
use all your fingers to gather the food into a small mountain or mound. Pick up the little mound and
put it in your mouth using your thumb to gently push the food in.

Filipinos usually eat rice that has a slightly sticky consistency so making the little mounds is easier than if
you were to use a jasmine or basmati rice. Of course, this method of eating doesn't work with
soup/stew or noodles and other kinds of food but for your basic plate of rice, meat/fish and vegetables
it works quite well! Next time you make dinner try eating kamayan.

Process Questions

1. What does cultural symbols and cultural practices mean?

2. Why are these cultural symbols and practices important to human society?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis. Answer the following questions.

 Discuss how society sustains itself across generations.
 How do industrial and post-industrial societies affect man’s cultural development?
2. Study your own community. Discuss the socio-economic changes that occur in your community.

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

1. https://www.slideshare.net/JedLim1/ethnocentrism-and-relativism

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics.
Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_practice

https://www.coursehero.com/sg/introduction-to-sociology/cultural-symbols-values-

and-norms/ www.vigattintourism.com/tourism/articles/Filipino-Customs-and-

Traditions

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 43

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEK 7
Module 5 – Socialization and Enculturation
Lesson 5 - BECOMING a MEMBER of
SOCIETY

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 44

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 45

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
INTRODUCTION

Module 5 is entitled “Becoming a Member of Society” deals with how individuals learn culture and
become competent members of society how individuals learn culture and become competent members
of society; and how individuals should behave as part of a political community. Its aim is to help the
students identify norms and values to be observed in interacting with others in society, and the
consequences of ignoring these rules.

Week 7

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Explain the context, content, processes, and
consequences of socialization.

Lesson 5 – BECOMING a MEMBER of SOCIETY

ACTIVITY: DOS AND DON’TS

Directions:

Revisit your past experiences and research on the norms and values of your family, community,
municipality and country. Answers should be limited to the Dos and Don’ts of your age. Discussion
in your family member could include norms on overspending for a fiesta and other festivities,
homecoming celebration of an overseas Filipino worker, or weddings.

Social Environment DOs DON’Ts

Family
Community
Neighbourhood
Country

Ask someone from your family or household to share his/her story using the questions as guide.

Process Questions

1. Did you have any difficulty in answering the activity? If yes, why? If no, why not?
2. Are there similarities between your experiences and observations and those of your family or
household?
3. In your family, who gives guidance on proper decorum and other “family traditions”?
4. In your community or neighbourhood, who defines standard of what is acceptable or not?
5. In your municipality and the country, who determines what is moral and immoral, and what
is legal and illegal?
6. Was there an instance when you did what shouldn’t as prescribed by “authorities”? How did they
react?

Note: The term “authorities” pertain to parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles, and elder siblings
in the family; neighbours, elders and leaders in the community and neighbourhood; and the
agents of the local and national
governments in municipality/ city and country.

READING

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 43

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
SOCIALIZATION is a continuing process whereby an individual acquires a personal identity and learns
the norms, values, behavior, and social skills appropriate to his and her social position. The process
of socialization is very essential because it teaches us how to behave and act within our society. Hence
it is a continuous process n life.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 44

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
SOCIALIZATION can be described from two points of view: objectively and subjectively (Palispis, 2007).

This perspective on socialization helps identity formation of individuals which essential in establishing
his/her role. Likewise, it includes the following functions:

Importance of Socialization

The process of socialization enables the individual to grow and functions socially (Medina, 1991 p.47).
Hence, the change in man’s social reality modifies his culture. Sociologists say that the culture becomes
“internalized”, that the

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 45

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
individual ïmbibes”it, and that in this way, “from the inside”, it continues to influence his conduct. The
importance of
socialization is very vital in man’s daily life.

Agents of Socialization

Socialization will not be take place without the agents of socialization. These refer to the various
social groups or social institutions that play a significant role in introducing and integrating the
individual as an accepted and functioning member of society (Banaag, 2012 p.138).

The agents of socialization guide every individual in understanding what is happening in our society. People
learn to determine what is proper, right or wrong, appropriate and inappropriate. Social norms were
formed in order to control individual behaviour in a given society. They are usually in a form of rules
or prescriptions followed by people who obey certain standards or roles in a society. The norms
include society’s standards of morality, good manners, legality, and integrity. The following are
forms of social norms.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 46

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Values Concept

According to Peter Worsley, values are general conceptions of “the good”, ideas about the kind of
ends that people pursue throughout the many different activities in which they engage. Values such as
fundamental rights, patriotism, respect for human dignity, rationality, sacrifice, individuality, equality,
democracy etc. guide our behaviour in many. Hence, values are relative depending on its context.
Robert William attempted to identify the major value orientations of many societies. (Please refer to
the diagram).

In a study about Filipino values, Jaime Bulatao, SJ, discovered the following values held highly by
the Filipinos. (Please refer to the diagram).

Social Statuses

Socialization as a continuous process serves an avenue for developing self-concept which is

essential in role identification. The self-responds to categories called social statuses. (Clark and Roboy,
1986 p.65).

Social status refers to the position an individual occupies in society and implies an array of rights and
duties (Linton, 1936 p.113). Related to status in a social role which involves the pattern of expected
behavior in social relationship with one or more persons occupying other statuses. (Panopio, 1994
p.97) Social status can be classified into two. (Please see the diagram).

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 47

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Individuals learn their roles through the different ages of socialization. This avenue for
socialization molds the individuals in relation to the expected behavior patterns. The essential in
role playing are (Lindesmith, Strauss, and Denzin, 1975 p.400):

1. A definition of the role and an identification of self.

2. Behavior in given situations appropriate to the role.
3. A background of related acts by others (counter roles) which serves as cues to guide specific
performances.
4. An evaluation by the individual and by others of the performance of the role.

Conformity and Deviance

The identification of oneself in society is always relatively to his/her existing environment. Erving
Goffman tried to show how certain social processes modify the presentation of self and the
impact of role expectations on the behavior of an individual. According to Goffman, everyone is
consciously playing a role. When persons present themselves to others in everyday interaction, they
organize their overt behavior in such a way as to guide and control the impressions others form of
them to elicit role-taking response.

More so, it is a process of conformity where individuals attempt to change his/her behavior because
of the desire to conform to defined social norm.

Kelman (1958) distinguished different types of conformity:

Compliance (or group acceptance). This occurs when an individual accepts influence because he hopes to
achieve a favorable reaction from another person or group. He adopts the induced behavior
because he expects to gain specific rewards or approval and avoids specific punishment.

Internalization (genuine acceptance of group norms) This occurs when an individual accepts influence
because the content of the induced behavior- the ideas and the actions of which it is composed- is
intrinsically rewarding. He adopts the induced behavior because it is congruent or consistent with his
value system.

Identification (or group membership). This occurs when an individual accepts influence because he
wants to established or maintain a satisfying self-defining relationship to another person or group.

Ingratiation. This is when a person conforms to impress or gain favor/acceptance from other people. It is
similar to normative influence, but is motivated by the need for social rewards rather than the threat of
rejection.

On the other hand nonconformity of an individual would mean deviation from acceptable social norms
which is known as social deviance. Social deviance refers to any behavior that differs or diverges from
established social norms. The concept of deviance is complex because norms vary considerably
across group, times and places. In other words, what one group may consider acceptable, another
may consider deviant.

Functions of Deviance

Ronald W. Smith and Federick W.Peterson outlined some functions which deviance performs to
support the social system in the following:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 47

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Sociological Theories of Deviance

1. Functionalist Theory

According to Emile Durkheim, deviance can serve a number of functions for society. He asserted that
there is nothing abnormal in deviance. He gave four major functions of deviance:

a. Deviance affirms cultural values and norms

b. Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundary
c. Responding to deviance promotes social unity
d. Deviance encourages social change

2. Strain Theory

Robert Merton argued that in an unequal society the tension or strain between socially approved
goals and an individual’s ability to meet those goals through socially approved means will lead to
deviance as individuals reject the goals, the means, or both.

Merton gave the following forms of deviance that emerge from the strain:

a. Conformity – It involves accepting both the cultural goals of success and the use of
legitimate means for achieving the goal.
b. Innovation – This responds involves accepting the goals of success but rejecting the use
of socially accepted means of achieving it, turning instead to unconventional, illegitimate
means.
c. Ritualism – This occurs when people deemphasize or reject the importance of success once
they realize they will never achieve it and instead concentrate on following or enforcing
these rules than ever was intended.
d. Retreatism – This means withdrawal from society, caring neither about success nor about working.
e. Rebellion – This occurs when people reject and attempt to change both the goals and the means
approved by society.
3. Control Theory

Travis Hirschi assumed that the family, school, and other social institutions can greatly contribute to
social order by controlling deviant tendencies in very individual.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 48

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Social Control of Deviance

Social control, within sociology, refers to the many ways in which our behavior, thoughts, and
appearance are regulated by the norms, rules, laws, and social structures of society.

Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient severity to warrant
disapproval from the majority of society.

Sanctions, as defined within sociology, are ways of enforcing compliance with social norms. There
are two types of sanctions:

Human Rights and Dignity

Human Rights are natural rights of all human beings whatever their nationality, religion, ethnicity, sex
language, and color. We are equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. Hence, human
rights are inalienable rights that protect our dignity as human beings. There are different kinds of
rights people enjoy in democratic society, namely:

1. Natural Rights. These are rights inherent to man and given to him by god as human being.
Examples of these rights are the right to live, love and be happy.
2. Constitutional Rights. These are the rights guaranteed under the fundamental charter of
the country. Examples of these rights are the rights against unreasonable searches
and seizures, the rights safeguarding the accused under the Bill of Rights.
3. Statutory Rights. These are rights provided by the law making body of a country or by law,
such as the rights to receive a minimum wage and the rights to preliminary investigation.
4. Civil Rights. These are rights specified under the Bill of Rights, such as freedom of
speech, right to information. These are rights enjoyed by an individual by virtue of his
citizenship in a state or community.
5. Economic Rights. These are rights to property, whether personal, real, or intellectual. Some
examples of these rights include the following: right to use and dispose his property, right
to practice one’s profession, and right to make a living.
6. Political Rights. These are the rights an individual enjoys as a consequence of being a
member of a body politic Some example of political rights are the following :right to vote and
right to be voted into public office.

The protection of the different rights of human beings promotes the notion of human dignity.
Dignity of human being is an essential concept in the society as well as is morality, because through
it the quality and honor of the people can be determined, and from the sense of dignity the concept

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 49

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
of human rights can also be measured The knowledge and understanding of individuals of their
basic human rights will help in identifying their duties and

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 50

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
responsibilities as member of society. Likewise, the role of the agents of socialization will help
the each individual to become a productive member of society.

Process Questions

1. How does socialization help in the development of individuals to become a productive member of
society?
2. Why is social conformity important in society?

RELATED READINGS

The act of adapting behavior to the norms of a culture or society is called socialization. Socialization can
also mean going out and meeting people or hanging out with friends.

The word socialization can mean "the process of making social." The socialization of a dog or a cat
with humans and with other dogs or cats can establish positive behaviors for pets. It's not a bad
idea for people, either. If you constantly chat with your co-workers, your manager might inform you
that you are there to work, not for socialization. Maybe he's just jealous because no one talks to him.

Socialization refers to the preparation of newcomers to become members of an existing group and to
think, feel, and act in ways the group considers appropriate. Viewed from the group's point of
view, it is a process of member replacement. Such widely diverse situations as child rearing,
teaching someone a new game, orienting a new member of an organization, preparing someone who
has been in sales work to become a manager, or acquainting an immigrant with the life and culture of a
new society are all instances of socialization.

Socialization is a central process in social life. Its importance has been noted by sociologists for a long
time, but their image of it has shifted over the last hundred years.

In the early years of American sociology, socialization was equated with civilization. The issue was
one of taming fierce individualists so they would willingly cooperate with others on common
endeavors. An unruly human nature was assumed to exist prior to an individual's encounter with
society. This nature had to be shaped to conform to socially acceptable ways of behaving.

As time went on, however, socialization came to be seen more and more as the end result-- that is, as
internalization. Internalization means taking social norms, roles, and values into one's own mind. Society
was seen as the primary factor responsible for how individuals learned to think and behave. This
view is evident in the work of functionalist Talcott Parsons, who gave no hint that the result of
socialization might be uncertain or might vary from person to person. If people failed to play their
expected roles or behaved strangely, functionalists explained this in terms of incomplete or
inadequate socialization. Such people were said to be "unsocialized"--they had not yet learned what was
expected of them. The trouble is, they might very well know what was expected but simply be
rejecting it. Someone who runs a red light, for example, knows perfectly well that one is not
supposed to do that but is doing it anyway. The possibility that individuals might have needs,
desires, values, or behaviors different from those that society expects (or demands) of them was
not seriously considered by functionalists .

As Parsons used the term "internalization," it referred to the tendency for individuals to accept
particular values and norms and to conform to them in their conduct. Dennis Wrong (1961) deplored this
view of internalization as being an "oversocialized" conception of human beings. It left no room for the
"animal" or biological side of human existence, where motivational drives might conflict with the
discipline of internalized social norms. Functionalists deny the presence in humans "of motivational
forces bucking against the hold that social discipline has over them" (Wrong, 1961, p. 187).
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 51
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Individual drives do sometimes conflict with social expectations, however. For example, a common
theme in movies and TV is that of married people becoming involved in sexual relationships with persons
other than their spouses. They know they are not supposed to have an affair, but they do so anyway.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 52

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Undoubtedly as a reaction to the overly determined Parsonian view of socialization, a group
of interpretive sociologists has reasserted the independence of individuals. They reject
Parsons's view of socialization as internalized values, norms, and habits, and they reject the
notion of society as something out there (a given) that affects individuals the way Parsons suggested
it did. The interpretive perspective sees socialization as an interactive process. Individuals negotiate
their definitions of the situation with others. A couple, for example, may negotiate between
themselves a conception of marriage that is sharply different from the view of marriage held by people in
the larger society. The interpretive view offers an "undersocialized" view of human behavior, since
it tends to minimize the importance of historical social structures and the deep internalization of
social values and norms (Wentworth, 1980). But the innovative couple may find that their
personally developed conception of marriage is challenged or undermined by friends, in-laws, legal
systems, employers, or others.

We can distinguish three major aspects of socialization:

1. The context in which it occurs

2. The actual content and processes people use to socialize others

3. The results arising from those contexts and processes

The context is like the theatre or stage in which socialization occurs. Social context includes culture,
language, and social structures such as the class, ethnic, and gender hierarchies of a society.
Context also includes social and historical events, power and control in social life, and the people
and institutions with whom individuals come in contact in the course of their socialization.

The content and process of socialization is like the play, the lines, and the actors. It includes the
structure of the socializing activity--how intense and prolonged it is, who does it, how it is done,
whether it is a total experience or only a partial process, how aware the individual is of alternatives,
and how attractive those alternatives are. Content refers specifically to what is passed from member
to novice. Processes are those interactions that convey to new members how they are to speak,
behave, think, and even feel. The view of socialization as an interactive process stands in contrast
to the deterministic views of how socialization occurs. Old and new members interact, and in the
process exercise mutual influence on each other.

Outcomes may properly be defined as what happens later, after someone has been exposed to
particular content and processes. New members may learn the behaviors, attitudes, and values
that old members hoped they would learn. What do these include? First and foremost among
humans is learning how to speak and to apply the rules of language to creating new sentences. Like
learning to play chess, learning a language involves being shown some of the ways vocabulary and
grammar can be combined (like learning how the various pieces can be moved in a chess game),
and then creating one's own combinations from those possibilities. Closely related to learning to
use a language is gaining a sense of the rules underlying a society's culture. Even learning to walk
in an upright position appears to be the result of socialization.

THE CONTEXT OF SOCIALIZATION

Socialization occurs within biological, psychological, and social contexts. Each of these offers
possibilities and limitations that may influence socialization.

The Biological Context

Biological features are regularly suggested as sources of human behavior. Sociobiologists (see

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 53

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Chapter 3) suggest that some human capacities may be "wired into" our biological makeup. For
example, even newborn babies seem to strive for maximum social interaction. They move their heads
back and forth in burrowing or "rooting" motions looking for milk; they have powerful, grasping fingers
that cling tightly to other human fingers or bodies; and they move so as to maximize body contact with
their caregivers. These facts suggest that infants are born wanting human contact.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 54

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
In short, biology provides rich potential for becoming human and may present general tendencies,
such as the tendency to seek out social interaction or to use language, but it does not determine the
particular form such social development takes.

The Psychological Context

The primary factor in the psychological context of socialization is the psychological state of
the person being socialized. Psychological states include feelings such as fear, anger, grief,
love, and happiness or a sense of emotional deprivation. Strongly feeling one or more of these
emotions might very well inhibit or promote socialization of a particular kind. Fear may make it
difficult for young children to be socialized in school, whereas people in love may leant very quickly
what makes their loved ones happy. Emotions can also influence how individuals perceive the content of
socialization, whether in becoming a member of a family group or a religious sect. Knowing
something about the feelings of the people involved (the psychological context) helps explain the
results of the socialization process.

The Social contexts

Social contexts influence individual development. Culture exists before the socialization of new
members begins. Parents, for example, do not need to decide alone what they are going to teach
their children, since much of what they will pass along they have themselves learned through
socialization. Besides culture, individuals are affected by social and historical events and by a number
of individuals who actively try to socialize them.

Participants in Socialization

Obviously, parents and the immediate family of infants are important to their early care and
development. Major changes in the family are increasing the importance of other caregivers as
well. Teachers and schools transmit formal skills, knowledge, and social values. As infants mature, they
have more and more contact with other children their age, called peers. Inevitably, children are
affected by the community and nation in which they are reared. Children today spend a great deal
of time with the mass media. Radio, movies, and-- most significantly--television have transformed
the way we experience the world and what we know about it.

THE FAMILY. In rural societies, children have most of their early social contact with the family. Today,
however, the family's importance in the child's life is changing. The American family no longer
necessarily conforms to the stereotypical nuclear family with two parents and two or more
dependent children. Fewer than one family in five consists of a working father, full-time
homemaker mother, and at least one child. There are more and more single- parent families, and
56 percent of all mothers with children under 6 years old are working (U. S. Bureau of the Census,
1985a, p. 399). More and more children are receiving their early and primary care from others in addition
to their parents. What are the effects on young children of having only one parent in the home? Of
having a mother who works outside the home? One study suggests that single parents with adequate
financial and emotional support are able to raise their children quite effectively (Monaghan-Leckband,
1978).

DAY CARE. Nearly 10 million children 5 years old or younger have mothers who work away
from home. This includes 48 percent of the mothers of children 3 years old or younger. For these
children, day care is an important agent of socialization. In 1982 there were more than 30,000 day-
care centers, ranging from informal arrangements at the home of a neighbor to large nurseries run
by schools, churches, charities, corporations, and occasionally employers (Lindsey, 1984).
Figure 5.1 shows the primary childcare arrangements for children under age 5 whose mothers

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 55

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
work outside the home.

When the ratio of staff to children is at least one to ten or lower, when the groups of children are
not larger than 20, and when caregivers are trained in early childhood development and are
attentive to the children, the children who attend day care do very well (Collins, 1984; Lindsey,
1984). Children from very low income families have benefited considerably over the long term as a
result of federally financed Head Start and other early day-care programs (Deutsch et al., 1985;
Schweinhart and Weikart, 1987).

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 56

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SCHOOLS. As societies become more complex and there is a greater division of labor, family
members cannot spend all day every day teaching children what they need to know to
function effectively as adults in society. Therefore, most societies have established schools to
teach youngsters certain skills. Schools teach values and attitudes as well. These values and
attitudes include, for example, competitiveness or cooperation, conformity or innovation.

Schools try to impress upon children the importance of working for rewards, and they try to
teach neatness, punctuality, orderliness, and respect for authority. Teachers are called upon to
evaluate how well children perform a particular task or how much skill they have. Thus, in school,
children's relationships with adults move from nurture and behavioral concerns to performance of
tasks and skills determined by others.

PEERS. A peer group consists of friends and associates who are about the same age and social status.
As children get older, going to school brings them into regular contact with other children of their age. As
early as first or second grade, children form social groups. In these early peer groups, children
learn to share toys and other scarce resources (such as the teacher's attention). Peers may
reinforce behaviors that are stressed by parents and schools-
-for example, whether it is all right to hit someone else and what arc acceptable behaviors for boys
and girls. As children move through school, the interests of peer groups may diverge more and more
from those of adults. This is particularly true of the United States but seems also to be the case in
certain socialist societies today. Youthful concerns may center on popular music and movies,
sports, sex, or illegal activities. Parents and teachers, on the other hand, want children to do
schoolwork, help at home, and "stay out of trouble." Peer groups may provide social rewards--praise,
prestige, and attention--to individuals for doing things adults disapprove of.

COMMUNITY AND COUNTRY. Every society tries to influence how young people grow up. Much of this
influence is expressed through parents, schools, and peers, but it is worth considering for a
moment how children become exposed to the political and economic ideas that are considered
important for citizens of a particular country.

Children learn political information and attitudes rapidly during the elementary school years,
particularly between fourth and fifth grades (Hess and Torney, 1967). One of the first things they
learn is that they belong to some kind of a political unit. Even very young children develop a sense
of "we" in relation to their own country and learn to see other countries in terms of"they." Children
also tend to believe that their own country and language are superior to others. This bond may be
the most critical socialization feature relating to the political life of the nation (Hess and Torney,
1967). The family helps provide this basic loyalty to country, but the school also shapes the political
concepts that expand and develop children's early feelings of attachment.

Children form economic ideas fairly early in life. One study examined how youngsters are socialized into
capitalism. When third-graders were compared with twelfth-graders, the older students were found
to hold more negative attitudes toward labor unions and more favorable attitudes toward business than
did the younger children (Cummings and Taebel, 1978), suggesting that, over time, they developed
attitudes that were more favorable toward capitalism, perhaps because of what they learned at
school, from the media, or at home.

MASS MEDIA. The mass media include many forms of communication--such as books, magazines, radio,
television, and movies--that reach large numbers of people without personal contact between senders
and receivers. In the last few decades, children have been dramatically socialized by one source in
particular: television. Studies have found that children spend more time watching TV than they
spend in school.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 57

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Research also suggests that young people obtain considerable political and social information from
television, but that how they perceive the information depends largely on parental influence
(Comstock et al., 1978). For example, during the Vietnam War, television was the most important
source of public information about the war. Yet how young people felt about it-- whether they favored or
opposed it--seemed to be influenced more by their parents than by the opinions presented on
television. Those who opposed the war interpreted the news on TV as opposing the war, whereas
those favoring it saw the news as favoring it (Comstock et al., 1978).

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 58

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Most researchers studying the effects of television on children have focused on the content of the
programs and not on the total experience of television watching. They argue that there is too much
violence and sex on children's programs and those more good educational programs for children are
needed.

Social Position as Part of the Context

Your family's social class, economic position, and ethnic background--as well as your gender--can affect
the ways in which you will be socialized.

Sociologists ask if children in different social classes are socialized differently. For instance are middle-
class children socialized differently from lower-class children? If so, why and how? Middle-class
parents are slightly less likely to use physical punishment than are lower-class parents (Gecas,
1979). Middle-class parents appear to be more concerned about their children's intentions than
with the negative consequences of their actions. Thus, if a child breaks a dish a middle-class parent
will be concerned with whether he or she did it "on purpose" or whether it was an accident and the
reaction will vary accordingly. Lower-class parents tend to react in about the same way whatever
the intention of the child (Kohn, 1969).

These differences in parental response may stem from the life situations of people in different
classes. Different parental experiences in the occupational world color the view of what children need to
learn (Kohn, 1969, 1976; Kohn and Schooler, 1983; Pearlin, 1971).

Parents who are closely supervised on the job (more often blue-collar workers) value conformity
more than do less supervised parents (usually white-collar workers). Both blue- and white-collar
parents increasingly prefer more autonomy in their children, at least in the Detroit area (Alwin,
1984).

Cross-cultural studies show that members of agrarian and herding societies (where food can be
accumulated and stored) tend to emphasize compliance in their socialization practices. In societies
where food cannot be stored (as in hunting, gathering, or fishing economies), members more often
stress individual achievement and self-reliance (Barry, Child, and Bacon, 1959).

Political structure may also be related to socialization practices. Autocratic states tend to have
more "severe" socialization, show clear power and deference relationships, and stress obedience
(Stephens, 1963). The Soviet Union, for example, works harder to socialize children to conformity
than does the United States (Bronfenbrenner, 1970) . By way of contrast, tribal societies that lack
a centralized or autocratic political system allow children to be less obedient and less conforming
(Stephens, 1963).

All these studies suggest that parents value different traits for their children, depending on the
economic, political, and social situations they face. In general, when adults have more
opportunities for self-determination, they value and try to develop greater self-reliance in their
children (Ellis, Lee, and Petersen, 1978). All groups try to socialize their children as well as they can,
but they stress different behaviors, depending on what they see as needed in their own situation. Just
as different societies may see the need for different behaviors and skills in their children,
subgroups within society may do the same thing. They try to prepare their children as well as
possible for the positions they are likely to hold.

Process Questions

1. What are the context, content, processes, and consequences of the socialization of Filipino
children?
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 59
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Direction: Answer the following questions.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 60

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
 In today’s modern society, what form of social control is applicable or effective
in resolving criminality?
 How do we protect our human rights? What are the important responsibilities that
we need to perform or play to contribute in the development of our country
2. Transfer.
 In your community, discuss and explain the different policies used by our local
leaders as an instrument of social control.
 Conduct a survey concerning the common causes of juvenile delinquency.

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

1. https://www.slideshare.net/SanaHassanAfridi1/socialization-59384075

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation..

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/socialization

https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/savvy/introtosociology/Documents/PersellSocializationReading37.htm

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 61

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEK 8
Module 6 – Social Organizations
Lesson 6 - ORGANIZING SOCIETY

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 62

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 63

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
INTRODUCTION

Module 6 is entitled “Organizing Society” deals with how individuals should behave as part of a
political community. Its aim is to help the students assess the rules of social interaction to maintain
stability of everyday life and the role of innovation in response to problems and challenges.

Week 8

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Analyze the forms and functions of social organizations.

Lesson 6 – ORGANIZING SOCIETY

Alone we can do so little; together we can do so much.

- Helen Keller

Process Questions

1. What does the above quotation mean?

2. Do you agree with Helen Keller? Why?

ACTIVITY: My Social Groups

Directions: Identify the groups that you are a part of and assign this on the drawing below according to
closeness.

Process Questions

1. Who/What group/s is/ are the closest to you?

2. Who/What group/s is/ are farthest from you?
3. Are some group/s that are connected with each other? What are they?
4. What are the factors that you consider when identifying a group’s proximity to you?

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 58

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

READINGS

SOCIETY is a social system that is composed of people assigned to perform a define task and
function in a social system called social institution. People have a tendency to form a group
because of their societal personality and maybe because they badly need it. But maybe in some
cases both.

As Joan Baes sang in “no man is an island” man has a societal personality; he not stand or live alone. He
needs the company of other people. Even the richest person in the universe who has everything needs
other people to do some job for them. People need people to support their needs. A person has a
diversity of needs like: social, spiritual, political, biological, economic. People need love and be
loved, foods to eat, shelter, clothing, and the security to his life and his properties. They want to
belong and to have security, or to uphold their political ambitions and gain recognition.

A GROUP could be very small, such as a girl and a boy talking to eacth other. Or it can be very
huge,sucha as thousands of people attending a prayer rally. It can also be very intimate like a
family or it can be formal like employees of a business firm. A group is constituted by two or more
persones who interact together and are together physically.

HUMAN CLUSTERS

1. Aggregates

Occasionally, we see a number of person who come together without interacting with each other, like
people waiting for a jeep or bus to come, people inside a movie house, or people riding in an
ltr/mrt train. Basically they are unstructured. The people are found in one place but they do not
interact with each other. Occasionally, they may glance at each other and leave a sigh of
objection, but they are not worried about the opinions and attitudes of others. This group is
referred to as aggregate, the important characteristics of which are the common physical location.

2. Social Category is a collection of people that have certain characteristics or traits in common, but
they tend not to interact with each other on a regular basis. For example, teenagers are a
social category because they are all within a particular age range and share certain
characteristics.
3. Collective. Crowds, masses, public and social movements are temporary groups which also
interest the sociologists. Temporary groups are clusters of people interacting with each
other but the interactions are temporary or short-lived. They are composed of clusters of
people who share some kind of blief which prepare them for action, instinctively forming a
temporary or short-lived group.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GROUP

Motivational Base Shared by Individuals

People find themselves together in a social situation that may have motivational implications for the
development of groups. People may form groups based on their needs, interest desires, noble
activities, insecurities or problems. People who have common hobbies like gardening, orchid raising,
stamp collection, dancing or studying the bible find their shared interest a motive for forming groups.

Size of the Group

The size of group may range from two to a million members. When it has two members, it is called
dyad like in a friendship group. On the other hand, as the group increases in number, the kind of

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 59

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
interaction is affected. Likewise, as the size of the group increases, the number of probable
channels and interactions among group members increases geometrically.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 60

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Aside from the number of relationships, other characteristics change with increasing size. Along this
are type of leadership, division of labor, group structure and communication pattern.

Type of Group Goals

It is frequently understood that the structural patterns of social groups are affected by their goals. Hence,
the parts of the organizations may be assumed to be well-versed in ways that will show the way to
the achievement of group goals. A group will determine or developed structural forms that
facilitate the progress of the achievement of each goal and block structural form that will hinder
the pursuit of its goals. Among local government, for instance, what structural arrangement would
be advantageous to the tracking down of its goals?

a. Old centralized bureaucratic structure with the national government executives exercising
control over the local units.
b. The other structure is one where local units have autonomy in some aspects of
governance and just coordinate in other matters with the national government.

The Kind of Group Cohesion

This refers to the extent to which the members of a group have the capability to function and
interact collectively in the direction of their goals. Group cohesion could be influenced by size,
goals, and the possibility of attaining the goals of the group. According to Santos, the cohesion of a
group depends on the degree to which the group has developed the notion of what Georg Simmel
calls a "code of honor" as reflected in the honor of each member. Group cohesion is also determined by
the extent to which individuals ‘needs and interest are satisfied.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION is a concept that social scientists have developed for the scientific study of
society, culture, and personality. The concept "organization" was used by sociologists in two different ways:

1. To stand for a relationship among people, and;

2. As a type of a particular social system called formal organization.

Social organization is also a process of bringing order and significance into human social life (Olsen,
1986:2). Social organizations can be observed in diverse forms in our life, ranging from least
friendly group to the most intricate society. These social organizations overlie and fit with each
other, forming a huge social web, the whole of which is social life.

According to McGee (1977:132), there are certain identifying characteristics of social organizations:

1. Differentiation in statuses and roles on the basis of sex, age, and ability
2. Recurrent connection between sets of activities and the repeated tendency for one tyoe of social
activity
3. A system of norms and values govern the social activities
4. Control: Some people control the behavior of others, and a system of sanctions maintain overly
behaviour
5. Repeated activities and behaviour

SOCIAL STRUCTURE refers to the independent network of roles and the hierarchy of statuses which
define the reciprocal expectation and the power arrangement of the members of the social unit
guided by norms. It is the patterned and recurrent social relationships among people in organized
collectivises as well as among the various parts.

Social status refers to members position or rank in hierarchy of power relations. The dynamic or

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 60

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
behaviour aspect of the status is a role.

Role refers to the sum total of behavior expectation and activities associated with a social position which
a holder is supposed to carry out and perform.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 61

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SOCIAL FUNCTION

Social Organization has a component known as social function. It refers to the results of action that occur
in relation tona particular structure and includes the results of the activities of individual occupying
statuses (Schwartz 1968: 181)

Each social group has an organization with an overall structure governing the interaction of the
member’s and performing the necessary function of holding the group together. All social
organizations involve normative, communicative and other form of social interaction.

In the case of Philippine society, the basic element of social structure is the family and its related kinship
groups. it is through this structural unit of society that much local authority, rights and obligations, and
modes of interactions are expressed, defined ordered and systematize. Group alliances are likewise
formed on these bases.

Philippine society consists of a spectrum of social organizations ranging from the nomadic hunting and
fishing bands and tribal societies to the agricultural-handicrafts-industrial societies of peasant and
urban communities. Differences in historical background, economic base, and settlement patterns have
brought organizational variations among the animistic upload groups and Muslim and Christian Filipinos.
The integration of Philippine society can be hastened by the establishment and development of a super
structure which is the Philippine bureaucracy.

TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS

Social groups are everywhere and are a basic part of human life; everywhere you look there seem
to be groups of people! A main focus of sociology is the study of these social groups. A social group
consists of two or more people who regularly interact and share a sense of unity and common identity.
In other words, it's a group of people who see each other frequently and consider themselves a part
of the group. Except in rare cases, we all typically belong to many different types of social groups.
For example, you could be a member of a sports team, club, church group, college class,
workplace, and more.

A.Primary and Secondary Groups

1. Primary Groups

Primary groups are those that are close-knit. They are typically small scale, include intimate
relationships, and are usually long lasting. The members of primary groups feel a strong personal
identity with the group. In this group relationship, the total personality of the human being is taken
into account. The relationships are intimate and face to face. Communication is profound and strong,
and personal satisfactions are of utmost important. A person in a primary group cannot be
replaced by another person.

Charles W. Cooley who introduced the “idea of Primary group” (1957-23) described it as:

 characterized by intimate face to face association and cooperation. They are primary in several
senses but chiefly in that they are fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the
individual.
 consists of small face to face structures such as the family and friendship groups where
personalities fuse into a common whole. These are considered the building blocks of the
larger society.
 relationships where a person gets to know another intimately and becomes very friendly
through indirect contacts as may be found between pen-pals or phone-pals. On the other
hand, being in close physical proximity or face-to-face relationship does not necessarily
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 62
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
lead to personal relation as in the case of the lecturer and students in a classroom, etc.
 the initial groups that a person joins and they provide him or her experiences in social
relations. Cooley (1957: 23-27) calls primary groups as the “the nursery of human
nature” as these groups shape our personality and develop our self-concept.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 63

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
The basic primary group is the family. Other primary groups are the play groups, one’s friendship or
peer groups,
gangs, the immediate school groups and the cliques formed in large impersonal organizations.

2. Secondary Groups

Different from the primary groups are the secondary groups where interactions amongst the members
are business- like, impersonal, casual and contractual. The interpersonal relationship may be
characterized as rational, individualistic and segmental. The composition of the group is
heterogeneous and membership is numerous and widespread. Communication is effected through
phone, the mail, the press, radio or television. Though members have a difference of ends, they are
around for a specific purpose; to attain a goal; the focal point in secondary groups is the enhancement
of skills and contributes to the efficient functioning of society.

Secondary group relationship involves a reaction to only a part of the individuals personality, the
persons importance to the group is the function that he /she performs in a group. Secondary group
relationships tend to be casual, temporary, and limited in personal involvement. The individual can
be replaced easily by anyone who can carry out the same function:

 secondary group tend to impose patterns of conformity on their members.

 make their members assume a broader and more universal perspective.
 focuses on goals rather than personal relationships.
 this universal attitude my be observed in planning of business, labor economics and religious
organizations

B. In-Groups and Out-Groups

Group may be classified as in-group and out-group when taking into consideration the
individuals sense of belongingness in a group. These two groups are not actually groups but a
variety of relationships that exist in the mind as a person who learns to use the pronouns “we”
referring to the in-group and “they” reffering to the out-group. The insiders are the in-group and the
outsiders are the out-group or other group.

1. In-Groups

The group with which the individual identifies and which gives him a sense of belonging, solidarity,
camaraderie, esprit de corps, and a protective attitude toward the other members. The members
are loyal to each other and one may accept responsibility for the others. They know each other
intimately and share common norms, activities, goals and background.

2. Out-Groups

It is genrenally viewed as the outsiders by the in-group. Any member of the in-group has insufficient
contact with the members of the out-group. He may be aware of its existence, but he tends to mock or
criticize it. More often than not, he has a feeling of strangeness, dislike, avoidance, antagonism,
indifference and even hatred toward the out-group. Out-groups may be labelled as “headhunters” or
“dirty pigs”.

3. Reference Group

This refers to the group that are significant to us as models even though we ourselves may not be part
of the group. It is any group to which we refer when making judgments—any group whose value
judgments become our value judgments. The central aspect of reference group is self-identification
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 64
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
rather than actual membership. The opinion of “high society” may be important to the social climber who
has not yet made the social register. At times the in-group and out group in reference group may be
the same. Reference is a group that people use as a standard in evaluating or understanding
themselves, their attitudes, and their behavior. The central aspect of reference group is self –
identification rather than actual membership (Merril,1969:37).

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 65

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

C. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft

In Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (1887), Ferdinand Tönnies set out to develop concepts that
could be used as analytic tools for understanding why and how the social world is organized.

1. Gemeinschaft, frequently translated as “community,” refers to individuals bound together

by common norms, often because of shared physical space and shared beliefs. Familial ties
represent the purest form of gemeinschaft, although religious institutions are also a classic
example of this type of relationship. Such groupings based on feelings of togetherness and
mutual bonds are maintained by members of the group who see the existence of the
group as their key goal. Characteristics of these groups include slight specialization and
division of labor, strong personal relationships, and relatively simple social institutions.

2. Gesellschaft, frequently translated as “society,” refers to associations in which self-interest

is the primary justification for membership. A modern business is a good example of an
association in which individuals seek to maximize their own self-interest, and in order to do
so, an association to coordinate efforts is formed. The specialization of professional
roles holds them together, and often formal authority is necessary to maintain
structures. Characteristics of these groups include highly calculated divisions of labor,
impersonal secondary relationships, and strong social institutions. Such groups are
sustained by their members’ individual aims and goals.

The equilibrium in Gemeinschaft is achieved through morals, conformism, and exclusion (social
control), while Gesellschaft keeps its equilibrium through police, laws, tribunals and prisons. Amish
and Hassidic communities are examples of Gemeinschaft, while state municipalities are types of
Gesellschaft. Rules in Gemeinschaft are implicit, while Gesellschaft has explicit rules (written laws).

Tönnies’ distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, like others between tradition and
modernity, has been criticized for over-generalizing differences between societies, and implying that all
societies were following a similar evolutionary path, which he has never proclaimed.

Process Questions

1. What is social group and organization?

2. Why is social organization important? Explain.

RELATED READINGS

THE COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Status: refers to a position in the social structure; Each person possesses several statuses,
age, sex, race, occupation, nationality, son, daughter, mother, father, etc.

Master Status: This is the basic one in giving you a sense of who you are. Think of the question, "Who and
what are you, what do you do?" (Usually its a job).

Ascribed Status: This one has been assigned or given to us and we can't change it easily-- race, sex, age,
etc.

Achieved Status: It is earned by us; Doctor, Lawyer, college graduate, etc.).

Social Class: Roughly a social class consists of people who occupy the same status in society. (Marx --
depends on relationship to the means of production (job); Weber-- status group, people who share

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 66

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
similar interests, atti tudes, likes, and dislikes). (College professors can have different life-styles; one
goes to bars and basketball games while the other goes to fancy restaurants and classical music
concerts). According to Weber garbage collector and factory owner can both belong to the same status
group if they both like Mozart and have similar likes and dislikes.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 67

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Roles: Roles are socially prescribed ways of acting in a particular status. They involve certain
behavior patterns, obligations and privileges. We play a different role for each of the different
statuses we occupy. Usually one status (say President of the U.S.) has many different roles
assigned to it. (Run country, veto bills, State of the Union Address, commander of armed forces,
submit budget to Congress, greet foreign dignitaries, etc). We call this a role set.

Role Set: Each status usually has several roles attached to it-- Doctor as medical professional;
Doctor as nurse supervisor; Doctor as instructor to other Doctors; Doctor as medical researcher;
Doctor as hospital administrator; Doctor as surgeon.

Role Model: A person who occupies a status and plays the roles associated with that status in the
way that we would like to play them. (Sort of an ideal). Be able to hit the ball like Ted Williams or
Mickey Mantle.

Role Expectations: social norms that define how a role should be played. (What is an English Profes sor
supposed to teach? How are children expected to behave in front of company?)

Role Performance: actual role behavior--- how well we actually play the roles we have.

Role Strain: difficulties that result from the differing demands and expectations associated with the
same social position (status). The Captain of a Navy ship has many roles. One of them is to
maintain high morale among the officers and crew. Another is to accomplish the assigned mission or
task. Often these two are incompatible, and it's hard to meet role expectations.

Role Conflict: Difficulties that occur when incom patible expectations arise from two or more
social positions (statuses) held by the same individual. For example; a priest hearing confession--- a
man comes in and confesses to killing the President of the U.S. Here, two different roles,
associated with two different statuses-- (priest's confidentiality vs his role as a responsible citizen
to report a crime to the police) have two roles which are in conflict. How many people have seen the
movie Ser geant York? Gary Cooper has serious doubts about joining the Army. In fact, he won't do it
until those doubts are settled. (Man of God vs. soldier expected to kill). He will not assume that
second status (soldier) until he resolves the dilemma. He was trying to avoid role conflict by not
assuming the

Position (Status) of soldier. How does he re solve this problem? He decides that a man of God can,
and must, under certain circumstances, kill. In other words the roles do not necessarily con flict. Once
he resolves this dilemma he readily accepts the second status which is that of soldier.

Groups: A group is a number of people (three or more) who interact together in an orderly way on
the basis of shared expectations about each other's behavior. Note the distinction between group
and category. The latter are people who share the same characteristic-- red hair, for example. Note
that a group is more than a simple aggregate-
- people who happen to be at the same place at the same time.

Primary Group: relatively small number of people who interact over a relatively long period of time
on an intimate, face-to-face basis. These groups are the building blocks of social structure families,
roommates, husband and wife, peer group, small town, or neighbourhood.

Secondary Group: relatively large number of people who interact on a temporary, anonymous, and
impersonal basis. Formal organizations like Ford Motor Company, IBM, DuPont; they exist to serve a
purpose.

Leadership in Groups:
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 68
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
All groups (primary and secondary) tend to have leaders-- people who are able to influence the
behavior of others consistently.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 69

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
What makes a leader? It's difficult to say what specific personal characteristics are important. The
argument that "leaders are born not made" doesn't hold water, but there are some physical
characteristics that seem to emerge often among leaders: (Of course, there are numerous
exceptions to the following):

 Often they are taller: This may seem hard to believe, but American Presidents have tended to be
taller than the average population Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, (more recently, Reagan,
Bush, and Clinton!) Of course, there are some major exceptions to this.
 More attractive people are often found in leadership positions.
 More intelligent people usually emerge as leaders.
 Self-confident people tend to be leaders.
 Sociable people tend to lead.
 Assertive people, people who begin conversations emerge as leaders.
 The situation is very important in determining leadership. Usually by this we mean what the
purpose of the group is (what it does) and the skills that the leader has.

Group Decision Making

Which is better at making a decision-- a group or an individual? Research on this question indicates that
the answer depends on the kind of task that is involved: Tasks can be divided into two
different kinds: determinate and indeterminate:

Determinate tasks have one definite solution that is quickly apparent. Designing an automobile, or
bridge or even doing a simple crossword puzzle are examples of such tasks-- There is one correct
solution. Goups can perform these tasks more quickly because they have a larger pool of talent and
experience.

Indeterminant tasks do not have immediately apparent correct decisions. Selecting applicants
for college admissions or choosing job applicants are examples of indeterminant tasks and it is not
clear whether groups out- perform individuals in these situations.

The Risky Shift: Groups tend to make riskier decisions than individuals. It is hypothesized that
when in a group, responsibility for the decision is "diffused" among the members. Individuals are
more visibly accountable for the decisions that they make alone. Thus, individual decision-making
tends to be more conservative.

Group Think: Inside the group, there is normative pressure to conform and produce unanamous
decisions. This pressure may cause people to ignore or play down information that goes against
group norms guiding the decision process. "Don't rock the boat" is a good example of this. Group
Think can have disasterous consequences. (Some writers have pointed to U.S. policy in Vietnam
as an example of this, where Congress was slow to question involvement in the war). Schaefer
has a great example of how the Persians avoided the dangers of "group think." They decided an
important issue twice. First, they would address the issue while sober. Then they would get drunk
and revisit it. (The idea being that alcohol, as a releaser, would remove people's inhibitions against
opposing group norms)!

Process Questions

1. What are the concepts that you have gained from this readings?
2. Write an outline of concepts gained from this reading on your notebook.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 70

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
1. Comprehension and Analysis. Answer the following questions.
 How do you create a social organization?.
 How important is your social group to you and how can you contribute positively to your
group?

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 71

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

2. Transfer.
Do this activity with your family.
 Identify the various soial groups in your barangay.
 On a sheet of bond paper, map out these groups. Use symbols to indicate the
relationship between two or more groups (example: arrow/ straight line for in-group,
broken line for out-group, etc.)

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

https://www.slideshare.net/Kimjoonmyeon21/social-groups-and-social-organization

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics.
Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

http://www.people.vcu.edu/~jmahoney/groups.htm

https://www.google.com.ph/search?sxsrf=ALeKk02mg0A0wsLLg0kglGVm4iJXa8MF_w
%3A1591424820318&ei=NDf
bXrCBE8n7wQP1pYSYDg&q=define+social+organization+and+social+groups&oq=social+organization+a
nd+social+
grou&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgBMgYIABAWEB4yBggAEBYQHjIGCAAQFhAeMgYIABAWEB4yBggAEBYQHjIG
C AAQFhAeOgQIABBHOgQIIxAnOgQIABBDOgIIADoHCAAQFBCHAlDNClimImCVQ2gAcAF4AIAB-
wGIAcAWkgEGMC4xMS41mAEAoAEBqgEHZ3dzLXdpeg&sclient=psy-ab

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 72

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

12
Senior High School

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS
SECOND QUARTER

WEEKS 1-9

Modules/Lessons 7-12

SLM
SELF-LEARNING
MODULE

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 67

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Understanding Culture, Society and Politics – Senior High

School Self-Learning Module
First Quarter
Weeks 7-12
Lessons 7-12
First Edition 2020

No part of this Module may be reproduced in any form without the written
permission from the author except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief
passage in connection with a review for inclusion in a magazine or
newspaper.

Much care has been taken to obtain permission from the owners to reprint
copyrighted materials. The author and editors spared much time and effort
to locate all of them for their permission but may failed in some. Any error or
oversight that may have been possibly made is unintentional and will be
corrected in future printings.

Development Team of the Module

Author: MARILOU A. GAPAZ

Content Editor:

Language Editor:

Reviewers: SDO Laguna Province

Illustrator: N/A

Layout Artist: MARILOU A. GAPAZ

Management Team:

Printed in the Philippines by

Department of Education – Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)

Office Address:
Telefax:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 68

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
E-mail Address:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 69

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEKS 10-11
Module/Lesson 7 – STATE AND NON-STATE
INSTITUTIONS

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 69

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 70

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
INTRODUCTION

Module 7 is entitled “States and Non-States Institutions” deals with cultural, social, and political
institutions as sets of norms and patterns of behaviour that relate to major social interests. Its aim is
to help the students analyze aspects of social organization; and identify one’s role in social groups
and institutions.

Weeks 10-11

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Explain the forms and functions of state and non-state institutions.

Module 7 – STATE AND NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS

Activity: Find Me!

Directions: Ask the students to complete the table below. They are going to sign on the box if they
match the description contained therein.

Who has shared a food item with Who is a member of a community Who has met a local government
neighbours for the last few based youth group? official?
months?
Who wants to work as finance Who has a plan to be a corporate Who wants to serve other people
clerk or accountant? manager someday? than to earn bulk of money?

Process Questions

1. What kinds of institutions do you think were represented in this activity?

2. How do these institutions affect your life?

READINGS

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

The government or the political institution is an institution that is universal. Political institution is
defined as the system of norms, values and roles responsible for maintaining social order in a
society.

Aspect in maintaining social order:

1. CREATING FORMAL NORMS - is the political institution that has created formal norms or laws
that guide our behavior. There three types of laws depending on their origins, namely:
a.Constitutional Laws. These are formalized norms that emerged in the constitution, the written
plan of any government.
b.Statutory Laws. These are laws that have been enacted by a legislative body of the
government like congress and city councils.
c. Common Laws. These are unwritten laws built over centuries on local customs and
precedent, and further developed by judicial decisions.
2. APPLYING SANCTIONS - It is the responsibility of a political constitution to apply sanction to
those who fail to follow or obey certain norms.
3. SETTING DISPUTES AMONG INDIVIDUALS - It is also one of the duties of political institutions.
If you believe that your best friend gets your money from your bag, you can sue him. A
judge will decide on the validity of a case. If you are right on your accusation, your best friend

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 71

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
will get on jail term and will be obliged to return the money or the money he got from
you. Some type of disputes may include the following: inheritances, divorce, property
rights, personal liability and bankruptcy.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 72

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

4. SETTLING DISPUTES BETWEEN NATIONS - Political institution tries to resolve disputes between
nations as well. This is done to evade wars between nations. Example here is the disputes
between the Philippines and China on the island in the West Philippine Sea.

BANDS

A Band is usually a very small, oftentimes nomadic group that is connected by family ties and politically
independent. Moving from place to place usually in search of food, bands are most often made up of
hunter gathers.

Bands are essentially associations of families living together. The status and power between all
adults of the same gender of a band are horizontal. Due to the small size of bands to the fact that
everyone else, quarrel between members often erupt. There is no leadership position that has the
authority to conclusively settle disputes, punish criminals, prevent families from leaving or represents
the entire community in dealing with outsiders.

TRIBES

A Tribe is somewhat more complex than a band. As the population size increases with a shift in
subsistence pattern from foraging to horticulture or pastoralism, kinship ties and friendship are
no longer sufficient to hold society together.

Pan tribal associations often are in the form of councils, groups of elder men or women who are member
of the same age set, warrior societies, religious cults or secret societies. Tribes commonly have
village headmen who perform leadership roles, but these individuals have relatively limited
authority. Like bands, most tribal societies are still essentially egalitarian in that no one family or
residential group is politically or economically superior to others.

CHIEFDOMS

Chiefdoms are similar to bands and tribes in being mostly classless societies. However, chiefdoms differ
in having a more or less permanent, fulltime leader with real authority to make major
decisions for their societies. The government is essentially just the chief.

Chiefs and their families generally have a higher standard of living than ordinary people. An important
advantage that chiefdoms have over band and tribal level societies when conflicts arise between them is
that chiefdoms are usually more effective in warfare.

STATES

State level political system first appeared in societies with large scale intensive agriculture. They began
as chiefdoms and then evolved into more centralized, authoritarian kingdoms when their populations
grew into tens of thousands of people. While chiefdoms are societies in which everyone is ranked
relative to the chief, states are socially stratified unto larger distinct classes in terms of wealth,
power and prestige.

Political systems had a pyramid of authority with a small hereditary elite class at the top headed by
a king and royal family.

AUTHORITY AND LEGITIMACY

Max Weber proposed a theory of authority that included three (3) types. He pioneered a path towards
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 73
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
understanding how authority is legitimated as a belief system. Herbert Spencer interpreted weber's
theory to say that legitimate order and authority stems from "different aspects of a single
phenomenon--the forms that underlie all instances of ordered human interaction.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 74

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

AUTHORITY TYPES

1. Traditional Authority- is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition. The ability and right to rule is
passed down, often through heredity.
2. Charismatic Authority - is found in a leader whose mission and vision is to inspire others. It is
based upon the perceived extraordinary characteristics of an individual. It is often the most
lasting of regimes because the leader is seen as infallible and any action against him will be
seen as a crime against the state.
3. Legal-Rational Authority - is empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law (legal) or
natural law (rationality). This form of authority is frequently found in the modern state, city
government, private or public corporations, and various voluntary associations.

LEGITIMIZATION

In political science, legitimacy is the popular acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a
regime whereas “authority” denotes a specific position in an established government, the term
“legitimacy” denotes a system of government. Political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for
governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock(s) and collapse.

Legitimacy is the popular acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law in regime. Legitimacy “a
value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper”

1. Traditional Legitimacy - derives from societal customs and habits that emphasized the
history of the authority of tradition. Traditionalists understand this form of rule as historically
accepted, hence it's continuity because it is the way society has always been.
2. Charismatic Legitimacy - derives from the ideas and personal charisma of the leader, a person
whose authoritative persona charms and psychologically dominates the people of the society to
agreement with the government’s regime and rule. A charismatic government usually features
weak political and administrative institutions.
3. Rational-Legal Legitimacy - derives from a system of institutional procedure, where government institutions
establish and enforce law and order in the public interest.

FORMS OF LEGITIMATE GOVERNMENT

1. COMMUNISM - the legitimacy of a communist state derives from having won a civil war, a
revolution, or from having won election, thus the actions of the communist government are
legitimate, authorized by the people. Communist parties based the arguments supporting
the legitimacy of their rule and government upon the scientific nature of Marxism.
2. CONSTITUTIONALISM - the modern political concept of constitutionalism establishes the law as
supreme over the private will, by integrating nationalism, democracy, and limited government.
The political legitimacy of constitutionalism derives from popular belief and acceptance that
the actions of the government are legitimate because they abide by the law codified in the
political constitution.
3. DEMOCRACY - in a democracy, government legitimacy derives from the popular perception that
the elected government abides by democratic principles in governing, thus legally accountable
to its people.
4. FASCISM - is a political system headed by a dictator in which the government controls the
lives of the people and opposition is not permitted.
5. MONARCHY - in a monarchy, the divine right of kings establishes the political legitimacy of
the rule of the monarch (king or queen); legitimacy also derives from the popular perception
(traditional and custom) and acceptance of the monarch as the rightful ruler of nation and
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 73
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
country.

STATE and NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 74

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
STATE - is an organized political community living under a single system of government often state and
government are used as synonyms. States may or may not be sovereign, for example, federated
states that are members of federal union have only partial sovereignty but are states.

NON-STATES - These are establishments which are not owned and controlled by the
government non state institution are for profit and other are non-profit and some are for personal
investment and for financial help.

1. Banks are places or institution where people place or deposit their money or savings with
corresponding interest on a given period of time and or assets for safe keeping. The three
main functions are”
 Banks are depository of savings
 Banks are largely responsible for the payment systems.
 Banks issue loans to both people and companies.
2. Corporation - a corporation is a company group of people authorized to act as a single
entity (legally a person) and recognized as such in law .Corporation is a legal entity created
under state law and designed to generate a profit. Corporations come in many different
types but are usually divided by the law of the jurisdiction where they are chartered unto
two kinds:
 Whether or not they can issue stock
 Whether or not they are for profit.
3. Cooperatives - is a legal entity owned and democratically controlled by its members .Members
often have 9 close association with the enterprise as producer or consumers of its
product or services or ,as its employers. Cooperatives play a critical role in building
community health for several key reasons:
 They often provide quality goods and services.
 They typically invest in local communities.
 Since most cooperative members are local residents.
 Cooperative membership builds social networks and strength social cohesion.
 Purchasing cooperatives in physical needs small local business remain competitive
within markets dominated by large, nation retailers.
 Worker cooperatives in particular, create quality, empowering jobs for communities members.
 Cooperatives are typically based in the cooperative values of "self –help, self-responsibility,
democracy
and equality, equity and solidarity” and the serves cooperative principles.
4. Trade Unions - is an organization whose membership consists of workers and union leaders,
united to protect and promote their common interest. A trade union may be:
 A company union that represents interests of only one company and may not form any
connection with other unions. Also called have union, a company union is often a bogus
one and is generally illegal.
 A general union that represents workers from several companies in the same industry.
 A craft union that represents skilled workers in a particular field such as carpentry or welding.
5. The TUCP (Trade Congress of the Philippines) – is the biggest confederation of labor
federations in the Philippines. It was built on December 14, 1975 by 23 labor
federations which saw the necessity and importance of uniting themselves into a strong
and dynamic labor center. Today, the TUCP as the most representative labor center in the
country composed of 30 federations with members in all sectors and industries (from
agriculture to manufacturing services) including government employees.
6. Transitional Advocacy Groups/ Networks – is an open relationships among knowledgeable,
committed actors (individuals and organizations). It exists to promote principled causes, ideas

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 75

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
and values. Their goal is to give the powerless a voice in domestic and international law
making. The primary tool is information- quickly produced, accurately formulated and
effectively displayed.
Examples of the Kinds of Issues that motivates advocacy networks include:
 Human Rights
 Consumers Rights
 Women's Rights, etc.
 Environmental issues

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 76

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
 International peace

Importance of Transitional Advocacy Groups - It provides a voice for civil society in the closed
field of international politics. Also, it opens democratic space within an elite arena.

7. Development Agency - is an organization committed/dedicated to distributing aid. The

international committee of the Red Cross is the world oldest humanitarian organization and is
unique in being mandated by international treaty to uphold the Geneva Conventions. Aid
can be subdivided into two categories humanitarian aid (emergency relief effort )
development aid (or foreign aid), aimed at helping countries to attain long term sustainable
economic growth, with the aim of achieving poverty reduction.
8. International Organization - is an organization with an international membership, scope, or
presence. There are two main types:
 International nongovernmental organization (ingots). these include
international non-profit organization and worldwide companies such as the world
organization of the scout movement, international committee of the red cross and
medicines sans frontiers
 Intergovernmental organization Also defined the salient issues and decide which
issue can be group together. IGOs often work closely with other organizations including
NGO.(e.g Greenpeace and amnesty international ) which serve many of the same
function as their IGO counter parts and are particularly useful for mobilizing public
support, monitoring the effectiveness of international aid, and providing information
and expertise.

Process Questions

1. What is the difference between state and non-state institutions?

2. How important are the non-state institutions to society? Why?

RELATED READINGS

THE STATE

A state is an organized political community that has a government. States are classified as sovereign if
they are not dependent on, or subject to, any other power or state. States are considered to be subject
to external sovereignty, or hegemony, if their ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. A federated
state is a territorial, constitutional community that forms part of a federation. Such states differ from
sovereign states, in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal
government. Americans live in a federal system of 50 states that, together, make up the United
States of America.

Theories of the State

Most political theories of the state can roughly be classified into two categories. The first, which includes
liberal or conservative theories, treats capitalism as a given, and concentrates on the function of states
in a capitalist society. Theories of this variety view the state as a neutral entity distinct from both society
and the economy.

Marxist Theory

Marxist theory, on the other hand, sees politics as intimately intermingled with economic relations,
and emphasizes the relationship between economic power and political power. Marxists view the

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 77

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
state as a partisan instrument that primarily serves the interests of the upper classes. Marx and
Engels were clear that communism's goal was a classless society, in which the state will have
"withered away. " For Marxist theorists, the role of the non-socialist state is determined by its
function in the global capitalist order. Marx's early writings portrayed the state as "parasitic," built upon
the superstructure of the economy and working against the public interest. He believed the state
mirrored

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 78

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
societal class relations that it regulated and repressed class struggle, and that was a tool of
political power and domination for the ruling class.

Anarchism

Anarchism is a political philosophy that considers states immoral and instead promotes a stateless
society, anarchy. Anarchists believe that the state is inherently an instrument of domination and
repression, no matter who is in control of it. Anarchists believe that the state apparatus should be
completely dismantled and an alternative set of social relations created, which would be unrelated
to state power.

Pluralism

Pluralists view society as a collection of individuals and groups competing for political power. They
then view the state as a neutral body that simply enacts the will of whichever group dominates the
electoral process. Within the pluralist tradition, Robert Dahl developed the theory of the state as a
neutral arena for contending interests. He also viewed governmental agencies as simply another set of
competing interest groups. The pluralist approach suggests that the modern democratic state acts in
response to pressures that are applied by a variety of organized interests. Dahl called this kind of
state a polyarchy.

Functions of the State

Classify the different political theories concerning the function of the state in

society Key Points

 Liberal and conservative theories of the state tend to believe the state is a neutral entity,
separated from society and the economy. These theories assume a capitalist economic
system exists.
 Marxist theorists believe the state is a partisan instrument that primarily serves the
interests of the upper class. Marxists see a close relationship between political and economic
power.
 Anarchists would like to completely dismantle the state apparatus and replace it with an
alternative set of social relations that are not based on state power.
 Pluralists view the state as a neutral body that simply enacts the will of the groups who
dominate the electoral process.
 A polyarchy, a concept Robert Dahl developed, refers to the idea that the modern
democratic state acts in response to the pressures a variety of organized interests apply.

Terms

 Anarchist: a person who believes in and advocates for the absence of hierarchy and authority in
most forms (compare anarchism).
 Pluralist: a person who believes many different groups or sources of authority control government.
 Polyarchy: a government by many people, who can come from several different orders and
economic classes.

Examples

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 79

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

 Many people consider the United States to be a pluralist state. Even the currency includes the
Latin phrase, "epluribus unum," which means, out of many, one. Accordingly, different electoral or
special interest groups compete to encourage policymakers and legislators to pass legislation
that supports their given agenda. For

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 80

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
example, interest groups or lobbyists come from specific companies (a pharmaceutical,
chemical, or natural gas company), represent industries (relators, doctors, or legal
attorneys), or promote various non-profit causes (education, libraries, or retired persons).
 Marxists believe the state only acts in ways that benefit the ruling economic classes, at the
expense of the working class. Politicians make laws to benefit the wealthier classes and is not
afraid of using government force, including the police or national guard, to restrict members of
the working class and labor unions who may want to mobilize a strike to obtain higher wages
for their workers.

NON- STATE INSTITUTIONS

These are groups and organizations which operate outside the support of any state or government. They
are referred to be ‘stateless’ since they are considered to be independent of any state, although, they
usually collaborate with the government in implementing projects. Non-state institutions assume
different functions and focus on a specific objective. In general, they develop certain services needed
by members of the society for their progress.

There are different non-state institutions that operate in society. Two of them are banks and corporations.

Banks

The term ‘bank’ has no single definition for many authors have provided their own definition of it. For the
purposes of uniformity, we define a bank as a financial institution licensed to provide several financial
services to different types of customers. Banks are in operation mainly for their deposit and lending
function. Customers are allowed to deposit their money to banks which grow through an interest
rate. Banks also provide loans, at a higher interest rate, to customers who need money either for
personal consumption or for investment and businesses. This process of taking in deposits and
lending them to customers in need is called financial intermediation. This means that the bank serves as
a connecting link between its depositors and borrowers of money.

Banks also act as a custodian of customer’s money, which help guarantee the safety of each deposit.
When a person puts his money in a bank, the amount given is maintained in a deposit or savings account
which prevents the risk of theft and robbery. Certain types of bank accounts also make it possible for
customers to withdraw money as needed. This ensures a more secured transaction of funds. Some
secondary functions of a bank include money remittance, which make it easier for people to send
money from one place to another. This holds importance especially for overseas Filipino workers
(OFWs) who provide financial assistance to their families in the Philippines. Most banks also accept
payments to house and other utilities such as electricity and water utility. This function of the bank eases
the transaction of its customers with utility companies.

Other bank functions include currency exchange, allowing customers to convert foreign
currencies to another currency they need and safety deposit boxes, which provides customers
a safe place to keep their priced possessions (e.g. gold, silver, or jewelleries). Due to the
countless services that banks provide, there are types of bank which only specialize in a specific
bank function. However, there is no clear line categorizing banks to a classification since one
bank may engage itself in several functions. In this case, a specific bank can be classified into two
or more bank types. Some of the most common types of banks are as follows:

A retail bank is a type of bank that focuses on consumers or the general public as its customers.
One’s personal bank account, like checking and savings account, are usually in a retail bank. Retail
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 81
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
banks can be considered to be the most common and widespread of all the types of banks.

A commercial bank also provides the same services as a retail bank; however, it focuses on
businesses and businessmen as its main customers. Commercial banks provide short term loans
for businessmen to be used for investment purposes.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 82

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
An investment or an industrial bank provides medium and long-term loans and deposits to business
industries.

Agricultural banks, as the name suggests, caters to the financial needs of farmers and the farming
industry. They provide short-term and long-term loans to facilitate agricultural activities. Loans
from this type of bank is used for buying seeds, fertilizers, land, or any materials needed for farming.
An agricultural country such as the Philippines is unsurprisingly abundant of agricultural banks.
Examples of which are the central bank is the main financial institution in a country since it supervises
the monetary system in the country. It functions as a regulating institution to all other banks in a country
and it issues all the bank notes (or money bills) and coins of the country in which it operates. The
Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is the central bank of the Philippines. A central bank is the only banking
institution established through a special law of the government, which makes the government of
great influence to its central bank.

If you try to think of companies and businesses you know, it is possible that some of them are
corporations, since corporations are one of the most commonly known non-state institutions.

Corporations

A corporation is an organization, created by a group of people known as shareholders, which is legally

recognized to act as a single person in carrying out certain goals and objectives. As a ‘legal person’,
a corporation is mandated to enjoy the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of an individual. Using
its own name, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, to hire employees, and to loan and
borrow money. It is also authorized to have its own assets.

Any corporation-owned property belongs to the corporation itself and not to the owners of the
corporation. Like most individuals, a corporation is also obligated to pay taxes. This non-state
institution is created to operate businesses and to pursue a common objective, may it be profit-
oriented or not. Although, many corporations are usually set up for profit. It is important to take
note that a corporation is a distinct and separate entity from the people who own it. This enables
the corporation to have powers and liabilities of its own. Any debt of the corporation is the
responsibility of only the corporation itself; shareholders cannot be personally held accountable for
these debts. This feature also enables the corporation to sue and be sued in behalf of its name. Any
lawsuits directed to the corporation are solely the responsibility of the corporation itself and not of its
owners.

There are different types of corporations that are classified based on specific factors like the
corporation’s purpose,
manner of taxation, and number of shareholders.

 A business corporation is created to operate and to generate profit. Companies like

McDonald’s and
Starbucks are examples of a business corporation.
 A non-profit corporation is established with a purpose of serving the public rather than pursuing
profits.
 A corporation whose income is taxed through the corporation itself is a C-corporation.
 An S-corporation is taxed through its shareholders. An S-corporation can only have
less than 100 shareholders, unlike a C-corporation which can have an unlimited number of
shareholders.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 83

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Banks, Corporations and their Social Implications

Banks and corporations both play a part in the economic growth of society. As mentioned
earlier, financial intermediation in a bank allows the institution to issue loans to borrowing
customers (individual or group) who need money for their investment, at a higher interest rate. This
loan will, then, facilitate businesses and investments. In short, loans from the bank will keep
businesses going. Continued operation of businesses leads to greater chances of generating more
income for the business and increasing employment. More income would entail more savings to

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 84

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
be deposited in a bank which will be used to lend to future customers. In this case, it can be seen that
the bank plays a role in facilitating the cycle of expediting investments and generating more income and
savings.

Cooperatives

According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), a cooperative is “an autonomous

association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs
and aspirations, through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise”. Members of a
cooperative usually joins together in order to achieve a specific objective, an objective which
usually benefits the members of the organization itself. In short, cooperatives are mainly structured
to benefit its members and to satisfy its members’ needs. In a cooperative, the people who use its
products or services are the same people who own and control the organization. Cooperatives exist
among different industries and are composed of different types of people, may it be farmers,
consumers, or workers.

There are several principles that uniquely characterize this non-state institution. It is an essential
characteristic of a cooperative that its owners and financers are also the people who use the
cooperative.

Meaning, in a typical cooperative, the customers are also the ones who own the organization.
These members or users are also the ones who have control over the cooperative. They have the
power to elect a board of directors which will handle the overall operation of the organization.
Users or customers of a cooperative are also the ones who benefit from it. To have a clearer grasp of
these principles characterizing cooperatives, let us look at an example of a consumer cooperative. The
function of a consumer cooperative is to provide products and commodities needed by people. A
consumer cooperative may put up a supermarket to satisfy this necessity for certain products.

There are several types of cooperatives, depending on its specific function and purpose.

 A credit cooperative provides financial services to its members, including securing savings
and creating funds to be used for issuing loans.
 A consumer cooperative operates mainly to obtain and distribute products and
commodities to its customers, both members and non-members.
 Producer cooperatives aid those in the sector of production, either agricultural or industrial. A
subtype of a producer cooperative is agricultural cooperatives which help producers or
farmers in marketing their crops as well as in purchasing supplies needed for further
production.
 A service cooperative (or a worker cooperative) concentrates on helping workers in the
service-oriented occupations (i.e. health care, transportation, labor) by creating employment
opportunities and other benefits to its members.
 A multi-purpose cooperative undertakes two or more functions of different cooperatives. For
example, multi- purpose cooperative could act as a consumer cooperative and establish a
supermarket. At the same time, it could also provide financial services like a credit
cooperative.

Trade Unions

Part of the universal human rights of every individual is his right to organize and form associations that
would protect his rights as a worker; the embodiment of this right is trade unions. A trade union or
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 85
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
labor union is an organization with a membership composed of workers or employees from related
fields, which aim to represent the interests and rights of its members, both in the workplace and in
the society.

While an individual has the capacity to demand better conditions from his employer, trade unions
recognize that a unity of several employees would act as a more powerful tool in advancing these
interests. This is how trade unions became the voice of the workers to the management; they serve
as link between employees and their employers.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 86

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Trade unions work to improve certain issues like wage adjustment, good working environment, and
rewards and other benefits.

There are different types of trade unions according to its members.

 A general union represents workers with a range of jobs and skills, from different industries and
companies. An example of this type of union is a trade union of drivers, janitors and office
workers.
 Industrial unions are composed of workers from one particular industry, across
different levels of the hierarchy. A trade union of all employees who work in the
mining industry (with different levels and positions) is an example of an industrial union.
 A craft union seeks to represent skilled workers doing the same work who may be
employed in different industries. A craft union of carpenters is one example.
 A white-collar union is composed of professionals doing similar jobs across different
industries. A trade union of teachers and professors is an example of a white-collar union.

Although there are many types of trade unions, these classifications still perform the same functions
expected from a trade union. In addition, a trade union may not only be limited to a particular
company. Here are unions in the Philippines which are composed of several workers from different
companies.

Defining Transnational Advocacy Groups

To have a general understanding of what a transnational advocacy group is, it is better to first
individually define terms that make of it. The word ‘transnational’ denotes something that
goes beyond one’s national borders. ‘Advocacy’ can be defined as issues or causes that are
being defended or supported by a certain group of people known as advocates. A ‘group’, as you
were familiarized in previous lessons, is generally defined as a collection of individuals with
significant relations among each other.

Combining these terms and definitions, we may define a transnational advocacy group as a
collection of actors (individuals or groups) characterized by their fluid and open relations with each
other, united by their commitment to work on and defend certain issues and causes that are relevant
across several nations. They “use the power of information, ideas, and strategies to influence the
value context within which states make policies”. Transnational advocacy groups are also referred
to as “transnational advocacy networks” due to the nature of actors’ connection with each other.

The word ‘transnational’ characterize this network of actors since members of a transnational advocacy
group come from different nations involved. In addition, the term ‘transnational’ also illustrates the
group’s involvement to certain ‘trans-sovereign’ issues— issues that exist in multiple countries. These
issues include human rights, women’s rights, environmental protection, and indigenous peoples’
rights.

Functions and Strategies

The main function of a transnational advocacy group is the creation and development of advocacies and
campaigns about certain causes, issues, ideas, values and beliefs. These campaigns aim to motivate
changes in policies, which are necessary for the betterment of people involved. Since this non-state
institution do not have inherent power to make instant policy changes in the state, they use,
instead, the power of information dissemination, together with other strategies, to influence state
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 87
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
actors who are in legitimate position to create such changes.

Keck and Sikkink named four tactics used by transnational advocacy groups to influence the state’s
behavior and
policy making. These are information politics, symbolic politics, leverage politics, and accountability
politics.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 88

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
First, information politics is the ability to produce and circulate accurate and credible ideas and
information to persuade people and motivate them to take action. Transnational advocacy groups do
these through campaigns and other ways of communication.

Symbolic politics is the ability of the group to interpret and use symbols or stories in such a
way that it would emphasize the issue at hand. They provide explanations about an event and
connects it to the specific cause. For example, the death and extinction of certain animal species may
be used by environmental advocacy groups to raise awareness about environmental degradation.

Leverage politics enables transnational advocacy groups to use some form of leverage, to tap and
influence target actors that are powerful enough to institute policy changes. These powerful actors may
come from the government, larger institutions (e.g. World Bank), or even corporate business
owners.

Lastly, accountability politics happens as transnational advocacy groups convince state actors to
change their position about certain issues, and persuades them further to act upon their verbal support
about certain issues.

Development Agencies

Development agencies were formed as a response to crises like war damage and industrial
decline. In some countries, such agencies were established with the hope of stimulating
economic development, post- war. Development agencies have come a long way since they were
first established, as thousands of them are currently operating within the globe.

Nonetheless, there is still no solid formula to create this type of non-state institution since different
development agencies across the world have a range of specific functions and roles. This lack of
common understanding about development agencies makes it more difficult to define it. In general, we
refer to development agencies as groups or entities that are tasked and committed to pursue certain
developmental agendas of a state. They are an institution that provides help in support of a state’s
economic growth and social progress.

Roles of Development Agencies

As mentioned earlier, development agencies have a range of tasks. It is, however, important to
note that it is up to the organization to decide which among the wide array of tasks they will
pursue. Normally, specific tasks of a development agency are dependent on the aspect of
development it focuses on. In a research commissioned by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development (OECD), the roles of development agencies may include;

a) strategic roles, such as coordinating with local actors and international donors,
monitoring the local economy, and strategic planning for economic and local
development;
b) asset and investment roles, such as land and property management, funding and
investing in local development projects, income generation, and provision of grants or
donations for other organizations;
c) innovation, enterprise, skills, and employment rolls, which include workforce and skills
development, employment creation, and support of small and medium scale businesses;
d) promotional roles, like foreign investment promotions and project management; and;
e) capacity building roles which include providing technical assistance to other local
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 89
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
development organizations and informing them of good practices and models.

International Organization

The word international organization is an umbrella term used to refer to institutions established by
three or more states as voluntary members, formed through a formal agreement or treaty, in order
to promote cooperation and

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 90

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
coordination among them. Members of an international organization work together for the
development and management of their common interests.

Significance of International Organizations

International organizations provide an avenue for different countries and states to connect. This
connection among countries helps form international laws, norms, and ideas, which in turn
strengthen the relationship among member states. These norms also serve as guides on how to
regulate and manage these member states.

Through the development of these norms, states are guided in their actions both locally and
internationally. Due to the presence of an independent international institution, issues that are present
across different national borders will be addressed and recognized. There will be a body to monitor
actions of member states and investigate those actions against humanity (e.g. human rights
violation). In the end, we can claim that international organizations have been embedded in the lives of
people, as they perform multiple functions— tasks that aim to improve the lives of people by
pursuing different development agendas.

Process Questions

1. What are the concepts that you have gained from this readings?
2. Write an outline of concepts gained from this reading on your notebook.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Direction: Answer the following questions.
 Choose one important non-state institution. How important is this institution to society?
 Why do you think this institution persist to this day?
2. Transfer.
 If possible, conduct a participant-observation of the setting of the institution
(for example, a barangay for the state or a bank for the non-state), event (for example,
a social service or a money transaction respectively), or activities (for example, what
the groups did from the start of the event up until it was finished). (If it is not
possible, you could still do the activity based on your observation before the
pandemic or on your own experience. You may also watch a video in the internet
as your least option).
 Write an essay that describes how this institution (barangay or bank) works in terms of
actors, rules governing the behaviour of actors, goals of the institution, and what was
done to attain these goals. (Observe the safety measures by the Inter Agency Task
Force or IATF)

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

https://www.slideshare.net/roducado/the-philippine-educational-system-47030724

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 91

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 92

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

https://learn.saylor.org/mod/page/view.php?id=16405

https://sklthebest.home.blog/2018/10/01/ucsp-module-4-non-state- institutions/

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 93

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEK 12
Module 8 – PHILIPPINE EDUCATION
SYSTEM

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 94

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 95

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

INTRODUCTION

Module 8 is entitled “Philippine Educational System” deals with cultural, social, and political
institutions as sets of norms and patterns of behaviour that relate to major social interests. Its aim
is to help the students analyze aspects of social organization; and identify one’s role in social groups
and institutions.

Week 12

Most Essential Learning Competency - * Examine the functions and importance of education in the society.

Module 8 – PHILIPPINE EDUCATION SYSTEM

ACTIVITY: K-12 Program

Ask the students to share their understanding of the K-12 Basic Education Program by the Department of
Education.

Process Questions

1. Which track did you choose under the K-12 program: technical vocational or college track? Why?
2. What and who influenced your decision? Why?
3. In your opinion, what is the primary consideration of students in choosing a track? How about for
parents?

READINGS

PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values and beliefs. There are many
competing ideas about education as an institution. For some, it is viewed as a socializing process
while others views education as a status competition. Finally, education can also be seen as a system
of legitimation, where it restructures entire populations, creating elites and redefining the rights and
duties of its member (Meyer, 1977). Mass education, or public education, is an example of how
education can restructure entire populations and redefine the rights and obligations of citizen.

The primary function of educational institution is the socialization of children and the new
members of the society. Educational institution keeps children and youth occupied and out of
labour force. It serves to bring about social change, provides a means for social mobility, and conducts
many community activities for both parents and students.

EDUCATION in the PHILPPINES

Education in the Philippines is manage and regulated by the Department of Education, commonly
referred to as DepEd. DepEd controls the Philippine education system, including the creation and
implementation of the curriculum and the utilization of funds allotted by the central government.
It also manages the constructions of schools acquisition of books and other school materials, and
the recruitment of teachers and staff.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 96

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
From 1945 to 2011 the basic education system was composed of six years of elementary
education starting at the age of 7 (change to 6 later), and 4 years of high school education starting
at the age of 12.. Further education was provided by technical and vocational schools and colleges
and universities. Although the 1987 Constitution stated that elementary education was
compulsory, this was never enforced.

In 2011, the country started to transition from its 10-year basic system to a K to 12 educational system.
The new 12- year system is now compulsory, along with the adoption of the new curriculum for all
schools (the K to 12 program).

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 97

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
The transition period will end in the 2017-2018 school year, which is the graduation date of the first
group of students who entered the new educational system.

All public schools in the Philippines must start classes on the date mandated by the department of
education usually: First Monday for public; second Monday for private; third Monday for some colleges
in the month of June and must end after each school completes the mandated 200-day school calendar
prepared by the department of education.

The economic, political, social, and religious values of the society are being reflected by the kind of
educational system.

Spanish Time

The function of education was to inculcate moral and religious values. Religion was the core
curriculum and the schools were used to spread Christianity Visitas were the schools where put-up in
barrios in small thatched building. These served as their chapel and school house. The boys had a
separate room from girls at the visita. Reading by syllabic method, sacred songs and music are
included in the course of study. For advance students arithmetic and writing was also taught.
Higher education focused on training the youth in virtue and letters. it mainly served the upper
class; thus, higher education symbolized “social standing and prestige”. The educated class consisted
mostly of illustrados. Compulsory education was approved between the age of 7 and 12. The
curriculums in the primary grades are Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Geography, Spanish Christian
Doctrine, and Vocal music. Agriculture was compulsory for the boys and girls were trained in
needlework. Vocational Schools, Schools of Arts and Trades, Nautical Schools and Normal Schools
were available.

American Time

When the Americans came, education was focused on the development of new social patterns that
would prepare the nation for a self-governing democracy. Public institution was institutionalized to give
every person the education needed to participate in self-governing democracy. The medium of
instruction was English. Private schools were allowed. The primary level curriculum consisted of:
English, Arithmetic, Geography, Singing, Drawing, Physical Education and Character Training.
Grammar and Social Studies were included in the intermediate level.

Today, the government of the Philippines has been very active in tapping the educational system
for the country’s efforts. With the adoption of the K to 12 program, it is hoped that the
Philippine Educational System is now responding to the demands of the economy for national
development.

FUNCTIONS of EDUCATION in a SOCIETY

1. Giving training in specific skills or the basic general education literacy.

2. Prepare people for occupational roles.
3. Preserving the culture from one generation to the next.
4. Encouraging democratic participation by teaching verbal skills.
5. Developing the person’s ability to think rationally and independently.
6. Enriching life by enabling the student to expand his/her intellectual and aesthetic horizons.
7. Improving personal adjustment through personal counselling and such courses as applied

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 98

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
psychology, sex education, family living and drug abuse.
8. Improving the health of the nation’s youth by providing physical exercise and courses in hygiene.
9. Producing patriotic citizens through lessons illustrating the country’s glory
10.Building the character.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 99

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Some of these educational functions may not be realized; nevertheless, these are the intended
functions of our educational system. To be sure, schools being the performer of all these functions are
exerting their level best to help realize the goals of the Philippine educational system.

The following are the constitutional provisions relevant to Basic Education.

1. “The state shall protect the right of all citizen equality education at all levels and shall take
appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all.”
2. “The state shall establish, maintain amend support a complete, adequate and
integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and society.”
3. “The state shall establish and maintain a system of free education in the elementary and high
school levels. Without limiting the natural right of parents to rear their children, elementary
education is compulsory for all children of school age.”
4. “The state shall establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan
programs, subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in
both public and private schools especially to the under privileged.”
5. “The state shall encourage non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems as well as
self-learning, independent, and out-of-school study programs particularly those that respond to
the community.
6. “The state shall provide adult citizens the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in civics,
vocational efficiency and other skills.

FORMAL EDUCATION

Formal Education refers to the systematic and deliberate process of hierarchically structured and
sequential learning corresponding to the general concept of elementary and secondary level of
schooling. At the end of each level, the learners must obtain certification in order to enter or
advance to the next level.

Formal education shall correspond to the following levels in basic education:

Elementary Education

Elementary education or paaralang elementarya is the first part of the educational system, and it
includes the first six years of compulsory education from grade 1 to grade 6. Major subjects include:
Mathematics, Science, English, Filipino and Social Sciences. Optional subjects include: Music, Arts,
Physical Education, and Health.

Until 2004, primary students traditionally sat for the National Elementary Achievement Test (NEAT)
administered by the Department of Education, Cultural and Sports (DECS). However, the scores
obtained by students in the NEAT were not used as basis for their admission into secondary level.

During 2004, when DECS was officially converted into the Department of Education (DepEd), and
as a result of reorganization, the NEAT was change To National Achievement Test (NAT) by the
Department of Education (DepEd). The NAT was not administered in SY 2015-2016; instead, it
would be given in grade 7 in the following school year.

Elementary education involves compulsory, formal education primarily concerned with providing basic

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

100
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
education, and usually corresponds to a traditional 6 or 7 grades, and in addition, to preschool programs.
Such preschool education normally consists of kindergarten schooling, but may cover other preparatory
courses as well.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 101

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Secondary Education

Secondary Education is concerned primarily with continuing basic education of the elementary level
and expanding it to include the learning of employable, gainful skills, usually corresponding to 4 years of
junior high school and 2 years of senior high school.

Tertiary Education

Most institutions of higher learning are regulated by the commission of higher education. Colleges
typically offer 1 or more specialized programs while universities must offer at least 8 different
undergraduate degree programs in a wide array of subjects and at least 2 graduate programs. Public
universities are all non-sectarian and offer a wide-range of programs, with English as a medium of
instruction. Public universities are government funded, with the largest, the University of the
Philippines, receiving a substantial amount from the annual budget. There are also a number of
private tertiary institutions, sectarian or non-sectarian as well as for-profit or non-for-profit. Most
private institutions are Catholic non-profit organizations. Likewise, most universities offer 4 year degree
programs and 2 semesters per year.

Vocational Education

Accredited private institutions offer technical and vocational education. Programs offered vary in
duration from a few weeks to 2 years. On completion students may take centrally-administered
examinations to obtain their diploma or certificate. Vocational colleges don’t usually require an
entrance examination. Only a record of high school education and an enrolment fee are required.

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Non-formal education refers to any organized systematic educational activity carried outside of the
framework of the formal system to provide selected types of learning to a segment of the
population.

Informal education is a lifelong process of learning by which every person acquires and
accumulates knowledge, skills, attitudes, and insights from daily experiences at home, at work, at
play, and from life itself.

SPECIAL EDUCATION

Special Education refers to the education of persons who are physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, or
culturally different from so called “normal” individuals such that they require modification of school
practices to develop their potential. Special education provides distinct services, facilities, curricula,
and instructional materials geared to pupils or students who are significantly higher or lower than
the average or norm.

Special Education (SPED) aims to develop the maximums potential of the child with the special
needs to enable him/her to become self-reliant and take advantage of the opportunities for a full and
happy life.

Process Questions

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

102
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Explain the following statements.

1. Education is the key to success in the Philippine society today.

2. Compulsory Education Law only keeps individuals in school who do not have any interest in
learning.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 103

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

RELATED READINGS

Role of Education in Social Development: An Empirical Analysis

Education plays an important role in human development. Human development encompasses

development in several dimensions of human well-being. Social development is one of the important
dimensions. The main objective of the paper is to analyze the contribution of education to social
dimension of human development. The present exploratory study is based on the micro level
household survey conducted in ten villages of Dakshina Kannada (D.K) district of Karnataka state. The
frame work developed by Oxford Poverty Human Development Initiative (OPHI) was used for the
identification of the indicators for the Social dimension of human development. Accordingly the five
indicators are health, empowerment, safety and security, ability to go about without shame, and
meaning and value in one's own life. UNDP methodology with appropriate modifications is adapted to
quantify development at individual level as well as aggregate social development. Results show that
there exists high correlation between attainment of education and social dimension of development at
individual level. This reflects on the importance of education in influencing the social well-being of
individuals.

Education is one of the most important means to improve personal endowments, build capabilities,
overcome constraints and in the process, enlarge available set of opportunities and choices for a
sustained improvement in well-being. The process of education and attainments thereof has an
impact on all aspects of life. It is a critical invasive instrument for bringing about social, economic
and political inclusion of people (NHDR, 2001). In this context, the present paper makes an
attempt to assess the contribution of education to one of such several dimensions of life of
individuals, i.e. social development.

Social development first attracted widespread attention through the principles set out in the millennium
development goals of the United Nations in 1995 (the Copenhagen Declaration- "World Summit for Social
Development"). Midgley (1995) conceives social development as a "process of planned social change
designed to promote the well-being of the population as a whole in conjunction with a dynamic
process of economic development". The goal of social development in the context of modern welfare
is to produce a social well-being that makes people capable of acting and making their own decisions in
the broadest sense. In this context, Oxford Poverty Human Development Initiative (OPHI) has proposed
a methodology to evaluate development including social sphere of well-being of individuals.
According to OPHI health, empowerment, meaning and value in life, external humiliation and safety and
security are some of the major indicators of social development.

Gould (1993) opines that the rapid expansion of education over the last three decades is one of the most
outstanding achievements of the developing world. This book examines the origin of this
expansion and its impact on the improvements of social and economic development at local,
national and global levels. Through discussions of the historical, economic and political contexts of
the demand for education, a review of the issues in educational planning in the developing world and
the governmental and community response at all levels is provided. His survey reveals that
expansion of education has greatly contributed to the quality of life, economic and social development.
The text concludes with an overview of the social effects of education and also specifies its failure to
meet the aspirations of all individuals and communities.

"Health literacy as a public health goal: a challenge for contemporary health education and
communication strategies into the 21st century" authored by Nutbeam (2000) explains the role of
health education in addressing the social determinants of health. In this analysis, improving health

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

104
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
literacy means more than transmitting information, and developing skills to be able to read
pamphlets and successfully make appointments. …

Process Questions

1. Why is education important for social development?

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 105

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

2. How does education contribute in maintaining social order?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Direction: Answer the following questions.
 How does education contribute in reinforcing social inequalities while contributing in
creating equal opportunities for the citizens?
 Why is basic education a basic right?
2. Transfer.
 Many students drop-out from schools because of economic reasons. Interview out-of-
school youth in your barangay and summarize their answers. What stands out among
the answers given? Why? (Observe the safety measures by the Inter Agency Task
Force or IATF)

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

https://www.slideshare.net/roducado/the-philippine-educational-system-47030724

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-319228689/role-of-education-in-social-development-an-
empirical

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

106
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEKS 13-14
Module 9 – RANKING GROUPS in
SOCIETY

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 107

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

108
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

INTRODUCTION

Module 9 is entitled “Ranking Groups in Society” deals with social stratification as the ranking of
individuals according to wealth, power, and prestige. Its aim is to help the students identify
characteristics of the systems of stratification.

Weeks 13-14

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Examine the concept, characteristics and forms of stratification
systems using sociological perspectives.

Module 9 – RANKING GROUPS in SOCIETY

ACTIVITY: Throwback Time

As the name of the activity suggests, this activity will allow students to revisit personal experiences by
answering the following questions:
1. When was the last time you experienced “hunger” due to lack of provisions (e.g. money,
resources,) to buy
food?
2. What actions did you take to satisfy your hunger?
3. Did you ask for help from anyone (e.g. family members, close friends) to address the concern?
Why or why not?
4. Did anyone extend help?
5. Is there anyone to blame for the difficult situation you experienced?

Process Questions

1. What did you feel while doing the activity above?

2. What does this experience tell you about your socioeconomic status?

READINGS

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social Stratification is a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy

according to power, wealth, and prestige (Macionis 2012: 224). Power, wealth, and prestige are referred
to as social desirables, or reward of social positions of statuses. Wealth pertains to ownership or
control of resources. Power is the ability to compel obedience or control a number of people.
Prestige refers to social recognition and deference. People in different positions have different
access to wealth, power and prestige. These differences in society give rise to social
inequality.

Macionis pointed out that in certain societies, some people experience social mobility or the change in
position within the society hierarchy. Vertical mobility refers to the change from one status to
another that is higher or lower. Individuals who rose from modest beginnings to fame and fortune
experience upward mobility. Some people move downward because of business failures,
unemployment, or illness. In contrast, horizontal mobility is the change from one status to another
that is roughly equivalent. This is the case when people switch from one job to another at about the
same social level.

There are two types of social stratification systems. Closed system allows for little change in social
position, while open systems, permit much more social mobility. Closed systems are called caste
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 109
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
systems, and more open systems are called class systems. A caste system is a social stratification
based on ascription or birth India’s caste system and apartheid, or separation of the races in South
Africa, are examples of caste system. A class system in contrast, is a social stratification based on both
birth and individual achievement. The system is common in industrial societies.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

110
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
In some societies such as the United Kingdom and Japan, social stratification mixes caste and class
(Macionis 2012: 228).

Social stratification is distinguished as three social classes:

1. The upper class consists of elite families who are most prolific and successful in their
respective areas. They value heritage most over wealth. Example: stockholders,
investors, and who live in exclusive neighborhood.
2. The middle class the most professional people. They value most education since education
is the most important measure of social status. Example: lawyers, doctors, managers,
owners of small business, executives, etc.
3. The lower class is the office and clerical workers, skilled and unskilled craftsman, farm
employees, underemployed and indigent families. They depend on their pay check.

Status

The individual's position in the social structure is called status. The higher or lower positions that
come about through stratification are called statuses.

Two Types of Status

1. Ascribed Statuses - are assigned or given by the society on the basis of some fixed
category, without regard to a person's abilities or performance. Example: sex, family
background, race, and ethnic heritage.
2. Achieved Statuses - are earned by an individual. You struggle and exert more effort to get
hold of them. Example: You won the search/contest "Starstruck", You land a good job after
graduation because the quality of your performance satisfies your employer.

.THEORIES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

1. Functionalist Perspective

According to the structural functional approach, social inequality exists because it plays a vital part
in the continued existence of society. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945) argue that the more
important position is to society, the more rewards a society attaches to it. Rewarding important
work with money, prestige, and power encourages people to do these jobs and to work better,
longer, and harder. Macionis (2012: 223-223) summarizes the criticisms of Davis-Moore Theory as
follows:

How do we assess the importance of a particular occupation? Do rewards actually reflect the
contribution someone makes to society? Do corporate executives, for example, deserve mega-salaries
for their contributions to society?

Living in a society that places so much emphasis on money, we tend to overestimate the importance of
high-paying work. How does one see the value of work that is not oriented toward making money?

It likewise ignores how social inequality may promote conflict and even outright revolution. These
criticism leads to the social-conflict approach.

2. Social Conflict Perspective

 Marxist Social-Conflict Perspective

Social conflict analysis draws on the ideas of Karl Marx and Max Weber (Macionis 20112: 232-234).
Rather than viewing social stratification as benefiting society as a whole, it emphasizes how it
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 111
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
benefits some people and disadvantages others. According to Marx, social stratification is created
and maintained by one group in order to protect and enhance its own economic interests. Since
stratification is not essential in a classless society. As

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

112
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
expected, the Marxist view is criticized for denying the Davis-Moore Theory: that a system of
unequal rewards is necessary to place talented people in the right jobs and to motivate them to
work hard.

 Weberian Social Conflict Perspective

Max Weber claimed that social stratification involves three dimensions of inequality: class, social
status or prestige, and power (Macionis 2012: 234-235). A public school teacher exercise great
power as a source of knowledge and wisdom in the community yet have little wealth or prestige.
Influenced by Weber’s ideas, sociologists use the term socioeconomic status (SES) to refer to a
composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality; and not only on economic position
or class as Marx argued.

3. Symbolic Integrationist Perspective

The symbolic-interaction approach, a micro-level analysis and influenced by the ideas of Weber,
explains that we size up people by looking for clues to their social standing. We can know about a
person’s position in society through status symbol, anything than can give an idea as to what stratum
an individual belongs to. Among some groups, conspicuous consumption, or buying and displaying
products that make a “statement” about social class, happens. For Thorstein Veblen (1953, orig. 1899,
cited in Macionis 2012): 235-236) who introduced the concept, conspicuous consumption involves people
buying expensive products not because they need them but to show off their wealth.

INEQUALITY

One important dimension of social stratification is income inequality. Poverty is a state in which
resources, usually material but sometimes cultural, are lacking. Relative poverty is the lack of
resources of some people in relation to those who have more. Absolute poverty refers to a lack of
resources that is life threatening (Macionis 2012: 257).

Social ranking likewise involves gender, and ethnicity. Minority refers to any category of people
distinguished by physical or cultural differences that a society sets apart and subordinates (Macionis
2012: 303). In societies that give more power and other resources to men than women, gender is an
important dimension of social stratification (Macionis 2012: 299). Gender is the meaning of a culture
attaches to being female or male.

Gender stratification is the unequal distribution of wealth, power and privilege between men and
women. Often, as a result, women increasingly join the ranks of the poor, giving rise to a phenomenon
referred to as the feminization of poverty.

Gender Inequality

Sex and gender based prejudice and discrimination, called sexism, are major contributing factors to
social inequality. The emphasis on gender inequality is born out of the deepening division in the
roles assigned to men and women. Women are underrepresented in political activities and decision
making processes.

Transgender and variant persons may express their gender through their appearance, the statements
they make, or official documents they present. In this perspective, gender normatively produces
widespread cultural/institutional devaluations of trans-identities, homosexuality and femininity.
Trans persons, in particular, have been defined as socially unproductive and disruptive.

Women are those people whose gender identity does not conform to patriarchal beliefs about sex

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 113

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
(only male and female) endure to face aggression on global, domestic, interpersonal,
institutional and administrative scales. Masculinities are generally constructed so as to subordinate
femininities and other expressions of gender that are not heterosexual, assertive and dominant.
Gender sociologist and author, Raewyn Connell (2009O, discusses in her book Gender, how
masculinity is dangerous, heterosexual, violent and authoritative.

Racial and Ethnic Inequalities

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

114
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Is the consequence of hierarchical social distinctions between racial and ethnic categories within our
society and are often recognized based on characteristics such as skin color and other physical
characteristics or an individual’s place of origin or culture.

Ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage based on common ancestry, language, or religion that gives a
group of people a distinctive social identity (Macionis 2012: 320). People of a particular ethnicity can be
a target of prejudice, just like those of a particular social class, sex, social orientation, age, political
affiliation, or physical disability. Prejudice is a rigid and unfair generalization about a category o
people. A related concept, discrimination, is the unequal treatment of various categories of
people. Macionis (2012: 323-324) clarifies that prejudice refers to attitudes while discrimination
involves actions. Both prejudice and discrimination can either positive (favourable views, providing
special advantages) or negative (unfavourable views, creating obstacles). Also, these biases, may
built into the operation of society’s institutions such as schools, hospitals, the police, and the
workplace. This is referred to as institutional prejudice and discrimination.

Stereotyping

More often than that not, prejudice involves stereotyping; which refers to our propensity to picture
all members of a particular category as having the same qualities. Usually, stereotyping is the result of
overgeneralization. If we have encountered negative attitudes with a member of a particular social
category then we overgeneralize by judging that everyone else in the category it just like a person.
Several forms of stereotypes that have developed in our society are related to national
characteristics. And all this stereotypes are inaccurate and not true.

Ethnic Minorities

It is the fact that in every society there are some people whose manner of life departs from the
principles of the society as a whole. When people dwell in a society that does not share their
cultural heritage, they are labelled an ethnic minority. Ethnic minorities then, are people whose
cultural background differs from those dominant members of society. Similar to other minorities,
ethnic minorities also experience discrimination.

Minorities in the Social Structure

Members that have more power than other people in a society are called the dominant members.
Dominant members set the standard and establish the values and norms of the society. By
controlling powers the dominant members enjoy certain privileges, such as better housing better
schools and higher incomes. And to maintain their favourable position, dominant members of a society
must protect or defend their power over other people within the society. Other people who are
barred from some degree of power, prestige or wealth are called minorities and are usually denied
equal treatment by the dominant members of the society. At the end they belong to the lower
position within the society.

How People Become Minorities?

There are three basic ways in which minority definitions develop according to sociologists, namely;
migration, colonialism, and annexation.

1. Migration
When people move, or migrate, from one society to another, they are commonly called
minorities in the new society. Migration could be voluntary (by choice), or it could be
involuntary. Several of them have come for greener pasture; some, to escape political or
religious oppression.
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 115
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
2. Colonialism
This happens when people from another country decides to settle in a new land and then take
control of the society. We call this method of establishing control as colonialism. Often the
people who take over do so for economic gain. They often keep their control by military force.
Because they have political and social power, they set the standards for the society.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

116
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

3. Annexation
Citizens may turn out to be a minority when their country is joined, or annexed, to
another nation. Annexation could either be voluntary or involuntary. Annexation usually happens
after the war ends.

How Minorities Are Treated?

When some people in a society consider others as inferior, the behavior patterns of everyone involved
are affected. The question is what patterns of human relationship develop between dominant
members of the society and minorities. There are six patterns of dominant-minority relationship
could develop.

How Minorities Are Treated?

When some people in a society consider others as inferior, the behavior patterns of everyone involved
are affected. The question is what patterns of human relationship develop between dominant
members of the society and minorities. There are six patterns of dominant-minority relationship
could develop.

1. Extermination

The most tremendous form of rejection by dominant members of a society toward minorities is to kill
or exterminate them. Extermination is the most brutal of all the treatments of minority people.

2. Expulsion

Expulsion is a less severe form of rejection, compared to extermination. Expulsion is the

elimination of the minority group from the dominant society. Sometimes, minorities are expelled to an
unused tract of land.

3. Segregation

Often involves not only housing but also schools, jobs, transportation, restroom, theatres, and
restaurants. Segregation for much generation became the practice in the US where Black
Americans were required to live in certain section of the town. Their offspring had to attend a
segregated school; and in some states, black Americans attended special theatres and swam at
beaches separate from those of white Americans.

In 1954, an important step was taken, when the United States Supreme Court ruled (in the
case of Brown of Education of Topeka) that segregation in the public schools was unconstitutional.
This ruling marked the beginning and the end of segregation in the United States.

4. Cultural Pluralism

Cultural pluralism is the acceptance and recognition of cultural differences in subgroups among the
residents, with no single subgroup dominating the others. These are situations, however, in which
people of various national origins keep many of their cultural characteristics and live together in
harmony with the common culture. Instead of trying to blend their cultural identities with the common
culture, they keep their unique ethnic characteristics and accept one another as they are.

As an excellent case of cultural pluralism is in Switzerland, French, German, and Italian, and Swiss
have retained their separate languages and customs; however they are all united in a common political
and economic system.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 117

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Think also of our own society. Many of our ethnic subgroups maintain to preserve their unique
identities, traditions, and lifestyles. They as well respect the rights and customs of other ethnic
subgroups and of the society as a whole.

5. Assimilation

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

118
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Today many ethnic and racial minorities are looking to preserve some of their cultural differences.
This has not always been the case.

At one point in time it was hoped that people from all racial and ethnic background would come together
and blend
into a “new” American culture. And that’s why the United States has been called the “melting pot”
society.

The usual pattern of blending, or assimilating, is that minorities try to be similar to the dominant
members of society. Assimilation has occurred when previously distinct social categories blend into one
unified social category.

Many immigrants to the United States so wanted to be Americans that they dropped all of their ethnic
characteristics; their verbal communication, outfit, customs and traditions, and even their names.

6. Amalgamation

There are instance that assimilation leads to amalgamation. Amalgamation is a blending

through accepted intermarriage. Through this process, the differences between dominant and
minority members of society disappear, all individuals have ancestors of various nationalities in an
amalgamated society

Scapegoating

This is a situation when people encounter problems that they do not know how to solve. Often,
they feel frustrated. From time to time, this frustration can lead to aggression. Several times they
establish a scapegoat to blame for their problems. The term ”scapegoat” is taken from the Ancient
Hebrew custom of identifying the sins of the people with a goat and driving the goat into the
wilderness. Minorities are often the object of scapegoating since they lack power and status on
the society.

Racism

It is the thinking that one’s own race is superior and has the right to control or direct others. It helps
maintain the myth that other people are inferior because of certain differences. Racism remains as
one of the foremost ways that the dominant members of a society sustain the power over
minorities. Like other forms of prejudice, racism provides a means for reducing minorities to a
lower status.

Disability

Disability normally a condition either caused by genetics or disease, accident, trauma which may hamper
a person’s mental, sensory, or mobility functions to carry out or perform a task in the same way as a
person who does not have a disability.

People with disability come out in a variety of sizes, shapes, sex, colors, and culture-just as we all
do. The mere things or reason that separates a person with disability is that, they are unable to do
certain things in the same way as the majority of the society.

A disability may be present from birth or may happen during a person’s lifetime.

According to the World Health Organization, individuals may also qualify as disabled if they have
an impairment in the past or are seen as disabled based on personal or group standard or norm.
Such impairment may include physical, sensory, and cognitive or developmental disabilities.
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 119
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Mental disorders also known as psychiatric or psychosocial disability and various types of chronic
disease may also qualify as disabilities.

Conditions Causing Disability are classified by the Medical Community as:

a. Inherited (genetically transmitted)

b. Congenital, meaning caused by mother’s infection or other disease during pregnancy,

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

120
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
c. Embryonic or fatal development irregularities, or by injury during or soon after birth;
d. Acquired, such as conditions caused by illness or injury
e. Of unknown origin

Ways of Categorizing Disability

1. Physical disability

Any impairment which limits the physical function of limbs, fine bones, or gross motor ability is a physical
impairment, not necessarily a physical disability. The social model of disability defines physical
disability as manifest when impairment meets a non-universal design or program.

Other physical disabilities include impairments which limit other activities of daily living, such as severe
disorders. A man with an above the knee amputation exercises while wearing prosthetic legs. Physical
disability affects a person’s mobility or dexterity.

2. Sensory Disability

Sensory Disability is an impairment of one of the senses. The term is used primarily to refer to vision
and hearing
impairment, but other senses can be impaired. Sensory disability affects a person’s ability to hear or see.

a. Vision Impairment is vision loss of a person resulting from disease, trauma, or congenital or
degenerative conditions that cannot be corrected by conventional means, such as
refractive correction, medication, or surgery. This functional loss of vision typically defined
to manifest with:
 Best corrected visual acuity of less than 20/60,or significant central field defect,
 Significant peripheral field defect including homonymous or heteronymous bilateral visual,
 Field defect or generalized contraction or constriction of field, or
 Reduced peak contrast sensitivity with either of the above conditions.
b. Hearing Impairment refers to conditions in which individuals are fully or partially incapable
to recognize or perceive at least some frequencies of sound which can typically be heard
by the most people. Sometimes mild hearing loss is not considered a disability. It is a broad
concept that ranges from mental retardation to cognitive deficits too mild or too specific (as
in specific learning disability)to qualify as mental retardation. Intellectual disabilities may
appear to any age. Mental retardation is a subtype of intellectual disability and the term
intellectual disability is now preferred by many advocates.

3. Intellectual Disability

Is a broad concept that ranges from mental retardation to cognitive deficits too mild or too specific
(as in specific learning disability)to qualify as mental retardation. Intellectual disabilities may appear to
any age. Mental retardation is a subtype of intellectual disability and the term intellectual disability is
now preferred by many advocates.

4. Mental Health and Emotional Disabilities

A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated

with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and perceived by the majority of
society as being outside of normal development or cultural expectations. The recognition and
understanding of mental health, conditions has changed over time and across cultures and there are
still variations in the definition, assessment, and classification of mental disorders, although guideline
criteria are widely accepted. Intellectual disability affects a person’s abilities to learn.
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 121
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
5. Developmental Disability

Any disability that results in problems with growth and development is called developmental
disability. Although the term is often used as a synonym or euphemism for intellectual
disability, the term also encompasses many

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

122
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
congenital medical conditions that have no mental or intellectual components. Spine bifida is an
example for this kind of disability.

6. Non Visible Disabilities

Several chronic disorders such as diabetes, asthma, inflammatory bowel disease, epilepsy, narcolepsy,
fibromyalgia and some sleep disorder may be counted as non-visible disabilities as supposed to
disabilities, as opposed to disabilities which are clearly visible, such as those requiring the use of
wheelchair.

We should be careful in describing people with disability. Some words by their very nature
degrade and humiliate and diminish people with disability.

SOCIAL REPRODUCTION of INEQUALITY

Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu (1990) points out that various linguistic and cultural competencies that
some parents pass on to their children are capital. He highlights the importance of family
background to one’s social status. Cultural capital refers to cultural advantages coming from a
“good home”.

Social capital refers to “features of social organization, such as networks, norms, and trust
that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit” (Putnam 1993:35). Putnam argues
the social capital embodied in norms and networks of civic engagement seems to be a
precondition for economic development, as well as for effective government. Many studies have,
however,, documented how dynamics social capital may result in social exclusion as non-members
of an organization or networks may not have access to the resources otherwise available to members.

Symbolic capital refers to the resources available to an individual on the basis of honor, prestige, or
recognition. Graduating from a certain university, for example, may have symbolic capital in the
context of looking for a job. Bourdieu (1984) points out that symbolic capital can come from the
possession and appropriation of objects with a perceived or concrete sense of value. For example, a
watch worn by a Hollywood actress possesses symbolic capital because of the prestige of the one
wearing it, which in turn distinguishes the person wearing it.

Political capital refers to the goodwill that a politician or political policy can build up with the public
through the pursuit of popular policies. This goodwill can then be mobilized to achieve other
objectives such as the passing of unpopular policies.

Process Questions

1. Do you agree that men and women should be treated the same way? Explain your answer.
2. What is the best way to treat people with disability?

RELATED READINGS

What Is Social Stratification?

Sociologists use the term social stratification to describe the system of social standing. Social
stratification refers to a society’s categorization of its people into rankings of socioeconomic tiers based
on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power.

You may remember the word “stratification” from geology class. The distinct vertical layers found
in rock, called stratification, are a good way to visualize social structure. Society’s layers are
made of people, and society’s resources are distributed unevenly throughout the layers. The
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 123
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
people who have more resources represent the top layer of the social structure of stratification.
Other groups of people, with progressively fewer and fewer resources, represent the lower layers
of our society.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

124
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
In the United States, people like to believe everyone has an equal chance at success. To a certain
extent, Aaron illustrates the belief that hard work and talent—not prejudicial treatment or societal
values—determine social rank. This emphasis on self-effort perpetuates the belief that people control
their own social standing.

However, sociologists recognize that social stratification is a society-wide system that makes
inequalities apparent. While there are always inequalities between individuals, sociologists are
interested in larger social patterns. Stratification is not about individual inequalities, but about
systematic inequalities based on group membership, classes, and the like. No individual, rich or
poor, can be blamed for social inequalities. The structure of society affects a person’s social standing.
Although individuals may support or fight inequalities, social stratification is created and supported
by society as a whole.

Factors that define stratification vary in different societies. In most societies, stratification is an
economic system, based on wealth, the net value of money and assets a person has, and income,
a person’s wages or investment dividends. While people are regularly categorized based on how
rich or poor they are, other important factors influence social standing. For example, in some
cultures, wisdom and charisma are valued, and people who have them are revered more than
those who don’t. In some cultures, the elderly are esteemed; in others, the elderly are disparaged
or overlooked. Societies’ cultural beliefs often reinforce the inequalities of stratification.

One key determinant of social standing is the social standing of our parents. Parents tend to pass their
social position on to their children. People inherit not only social standing but also the cultural
norms that accompany a certain lifestyle. They share these with a network of friends and family
members. Social standing becomes a comfort zone, a familiar lifestyle, and an identity. This is one of
the reasons first-generation college students do not fare as well as other students.

Other determinants are found in a society’s occupational structure. Teachers, for example, often have
high levels of education but receive relatively low pay. Many believe that teaching is a noble profession,
so teachers should do their jobs for love of their profession and the good of their students—not for
money. Yet no successful executive or entrepreneur would embrace that attitude in the business
world, where profits are valued as a driving force. Cultural attitudes and beliefs like these support and
perpetuate social inequalities.

Systems of Stratification

Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of stratification. Closed systems accommodate
little change in social position. They do not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social
relationships between levels. Open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement
and interaction between layers and classes. Different systems reflect, emphasize, and foster
certain cultural values and shape individual beliefs. Stratification systems include class systems
and caste systems, as well as meritocracy.

The Caste System

Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or nothing to
change their social standing. A caste system is one in which people are born into their social
standing and will remain in it their whole lives. People are assigned occupations regardless of their
talents, interests, or potential. There are virtually no opportunities to improve a person’s social
position.

In the Hindu caste tradition, people were expected to work in the occupation of their caste and to enter

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 125

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
into marriage according to their caste. Accepting this social standing was considered a moral duty.
Cultural values reinforced the system. Caste systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny, and the
will of a higher power, rather than promoting individual freedom as a value. A person who
lived in a caste society was socialized to accept his or her social standing.

Although the caste system in India has been officially dismantled, its residual presence in Indian
society is deeply embedded. In rural areas, aspects of the tradition are more likely to remain, while
urban centers show less evidence

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

126
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
of this past. In India’s larger cities, people now have more opportunities to choose their own
career paths and marriage partners. As a global center of employment, corporations have
introduced merit-based hiring and employment to the nation.

The Class System

A class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. A class consists of a set
of people who share similar status with regard to factors like wealth, income, education, and
occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open. People are free to gain a different level of
education or employment than their parents. They can also socialize with and marry members of other
classes, which allows people to move from one class to another.

In a class system, occupation is not fixed at birth. Though family and other societal models help
guide a person toward a career, personal choice plays a role.

In class systems, people have the option to form exogamous marriages, unions of spouses from
different social categories. Marriage in these circumstances is based on values such as love and
compatibility rather than on social standing or economics. Though social conformities still exist that
encourage people to choose partners within their own class, people are not as pressured to choose
marriage partners based solely on those elements. Marriage to a partner from the same social
background is an endogamous union.

Status Consistency

Social stratification systems determine social position based on factors like income, education, and
occupation. Sociologists use the term status consistency to describe the consistency, or lack
thereof, of an individual’s rank across these factors. Caste systems correlate with high status
consistency, whereas the more flexible class system has lower status consistency.

To illustrate, let’s consider Susan. Susan earned her high school degree but did not go to college.
That factor is a trait of the lower-middle class. She began doing landscaping work, which, as
manual labor, is also a trait of lower- middle class or even lower class. However, over time, Susan
started her own company. She hired employees. She won larger contracts. She became a business
owner and earned a lot of money. Those traits represent the upper- middle class. There are
inconsistencies between Susan’s educational level, her occupation, and her income. In a class
system, a person can work hard and have little education and still be in middle or upper class,
whereas in a caste system that would not be possible. In a class system, low status consistency
correlates with having more choices and opportunities.

Social Inequality

Social inequality refers to relational processes in society that have the effect of limiting or harming
a group's social status, social class, and social circle.

Areas of social inequality include access to voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, the
extent of property rights and access to education, health care, quality housing, traveling,
transportation, vacationing and other social goods and services.

Apart from that it can also be seen in the quality of family and neighbourhood life, occupation, job
satisfaction, and access to credit.

If these economic divisions harden, they can lead to social inequality.[1] The reasons for social
inequality can vary, but are often broad and far reaching.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 127

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Social inequality can emerge through a society's understanding of appropriate gender roles,
or through the prevalence of social stereotyping.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page

128
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Social inequality can also be established through discriminatory legislation.

Social inequalities exist between ethnic or religious groups, classes and countries making the
concept of social inequality a global phenomenon.

Social inequality is different from economic inequality, though the two are linked.

Social inequality refers to disparities in the distribution of economic assets and income as well as
between the overall quality and luxury of each person's existence within a society, while economic
inequality is caused by the unequal accumulation of wealth; social inequality exists because the
lack of wealth in certain areas prohibits these people from obtaining the same housing, health
care, etc. as the wealthy, in societies where access to these social goods depends on wealth.

Social inequality is linked to racial inequality, gender inequality, and wealth inequality.

The way people behave socially, through racist or sexist practices and other forms of discrimination,
tends to trickle down and affect the opportunities and wealthy individuals can generate for
themselves.

Process Questions

1. What are the concepts that you have gained from this readings?
2. Write an outline of concepts gained from this reading on your notebook.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

 Activity: Stop, Look, Examine
Analyze the key sociological perspectives on stratification by citing situation/
condition where it overtly manifests. Give your reason/s to it.

Key Ideas Manifestation/s Reaction/s

Social inequality exists because it
plays a vital part in the smooth
operation of society
Social stratification is created and
maintained by one group in order to
protect and enhance its
own economic
interests
We size up people by looking for
clues to their social standing

 Process Questions
a) How do wealth, power and prestige affect the social stratum of an individual?
b) Among the social perspectives discussed, which do you think best explains
why social and political stratification exist in society? Why?
2. Transfer.
 Make a case study on the extent of poverty in your own community or a community
within your barangay. Possible topics include but are not limited to:
a. Malnourishment
b. Informal settlers
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 104
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
c. Unemployment

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 105

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
d. Out-of-school children/youth
 Information should come from the local government unit’s records, interviews with
local leaders and residents, and other vital sources.

Case Study Format

 Brief introduction
 Presentation and analysis of the problem and its possible solutions
 Conclusion
 Insights/Realizations

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

https://www.slideshare.net/mld1935/social-stratification-13708782

https://www.youtube.com/watch?reload=9&v=SlkIKCMt-Fs

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/sociology/chapter/what-is-social-

stratification/

https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/social_inequality.htm

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 106

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEK 15
Module 10 – GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS AND
SOCIAL INEQUALITIES

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 106

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 107

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

INTRODUCTION

Module 10 is entitled “Government Programs and Social Inequalities” deals with social and political
inequalities as features of societies and the global community. Its aim is to help the students Explain
government programs and initiatives in addressing social inequalities e.g. local, national, and global.

Week 15

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Explain government programs and initiatives in addressing
social inequalities e.g. local, national, global

Module 10 – GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS AND SOCIAL INEQUALITIES

ACTIVITY: TATAY DIGONG’S QUOTE

Read the quotation cited by the President Rodrigo Roa Duterte.

PROCESS QUESTIONS

1. What does President Duterte mean in his quote?

2. How does his government address the social inequalities in our country?

READINGS

A POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR ADDRESSING INEQUALITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

It was noted that inequality of outcomes and that of opportunities are highly inter-dependent.
Without equal opportunities, systemic patterns of discrimination and exclusion prevent the poor
and disadvantaged groups from accessing economic, political and social resources, resulting in
inequality traps — and the persistence of inequality across generations. Equal opportunities can
level the playing field so that the circumstances of birth (such as race, gender, rural or urban
location) do not adversely influence an individual’s chances to get ahead in life.

Moreover, the capture of economic and political resources by richer households — reflected for
instance in public expenditure biases — implies that levelling the playing field remains,
politically, a highly contested process.
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 108
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Equalizing opportunities is critical for advancing more equitable outcomes. Apart from such
instrumental reasons, equal opportunity has intrinsic value. It is, simply put, the right thing to do.

However, equal opportunities by themselves are unlikely to enhance the well-being of low-income
households and disadvantaged groups if income inequalities are rising at the same time. When
children from richer households can go to college without accumulating massive debts or access
better health care because they can afford to pay for such services, it becomes difficult to argue that
incomes do not matter for opportunities to get ahead in life. Equitable outcomes can hardly be derived
from unjust starting points.

Since the inequality of outcomes and that of opportunities are interlinked and mutually reinforcing, a
comprehensive policy framework to reduce inequality needs to address both. The mix of policies
and how they are sequenced to address inequalities are context-dependent and specific to the
needs and requirements of each country. Nevertheless, priority should be given to deeper and
more persistent gaps. For example, a country going through rapid urbanization might be
experiencing declines in income inequality, but widening gaps in education or health might need
to be prioritized.

Based on the analysis of the preceding chapters, this report proposes a comprehensive policy
framework to help policy makers better navigate the complexities and challenges of forming
appropriate policies to address inequality based on three related pillars:

 Moderating income inequality

 Closing gaps in health, nutrition and education
 Addressing social exclusion by promoting agency, combating discrimination and
transforming inequality- reproducing cultural norms

POLICY FRAMEWORK TO ADDRESS INEQUALITY

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 109

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Human Rights. This ensures that governments and policy makers are accountable to all citizens for
the impact that their decisions (such as those regarding taxation, public expenditure and
engagement of civil society) have on the

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 110

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
distribution of well-being. A strong accountability component to the policy framework can ensure
that inequality reduction is based on the principle of equal human rights for all citizens and prevent
the adoption of subjective notions of fairness, which might be the outcome of political negotiation
in which the most disadvantaged are often voiceless.

Moderating Income Inequality

The inevitability of rising inequality during economic development and of the trade-offs that are implied
has not found widespread support in empirical studies. This implies that not only can the poorest
countries aspire to pursue broad- based growth, but also that rising inequality is no longer a short-
term price worth paying for long-term economic development, because high or rising inequality
can even slow down future growth. In other words, it is possible to moderate income inequality
without jeopardizing long-term growth.

Income inequality has been on the rise in many developing countries since 1995. Moreover,
countries that experienced more rapid growth and graduated to higher income groups also found
inequality rising faster than other countries. This, then, points to the fact that something about the
current pattern of growth in fast-growing countries is excluding large portions of the population from
gaining from its benefits.

Thus, at its core, moderating income inequality will require that countries transition towards
inclusive growth. It has been noted earlier that inclusive growth is widely understood to be
economic growth that results in broadly shared well-being. Inclusive growth can be promoted
through three principal routes:

a. By changing the patterns of economic growth such that the incomes of low-income
households grow more than the average
b. Through redistributive measures that contribute to growth while reducing inequality
c. By expanding opportunities for low-income households and disadvantaged groups to access
employment and income generation options

Underpinning an inclusive growth strategy should be a consistent macroeconomic framework.

All too often, macroeconomic policies have been concerned with the narrow objective of
macroeconomic stability (i.e., keeping inflation and deficits low). But, as the evidence makes clear,
macroeconomic stability has often been achieved at the expense of rising inequality — and sometimes
at the expense of growth itself.

Closing Gaps in Education, Health and Nutrition

The analysis presented in this report has shown that inequalities in material well-being are not
limited only to the domain of income, but that large and persistent gaps in education, health and
nutrition outcomes exist between households across income, spatial and gender dimensions. For
instance, while almost all children from households in the highest income quintile in Latin America
and the Caribbean, the Middle East and East Asia finish primary education, only 80 percent of
children in the poorest quintile are able to do so. Gaps in nutrition are also quite stark, with children
from the lowest wealth quintiles anywhere from two times to five times more likely to be stunted
than children from the highest wealth quintiles in most developing regions.

Moreover, trends in inequality in health and nutrition outcomes across wealth quintiles over the past two
decades do not show signs of improvements. During the 2000s, inequality in fertility rates between
households in different wealth quintiles actually increased in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa.
Similarly, the gap in child mortality rates between the poorest and richest wealth quintiles

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 111

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
increased in South Asia during the same period. Malnourishment rates fell much faster among rich
households than among poor households across all regions.

Gaps in education, health and nutrition outcomes are also evident between rural and urban
households. Children living in urban areas are more likely to complete primary school than children
in rural areas. In some regions, the rural-urban gap in primary school completion rates can be as
much as 30 percent. Inequality between urban and

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 112

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
rural households in health and nutrition outcomes is actually increasing in some regions. For instance,
gaps in fertility rates between urban and rural areas increased in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle
East.

Gender inequality in education, health and nutrition outcomes is also quite significant. Gender
gaps in educational attainment are falling, but still remain persistent across all regions, with male
children 14 percent more likely to finish primary school than their female counterparts in regions like
sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Moreover, the gender gap in health and nutrition actually
increased in some regions of the developing world from 2000 to 2010. Across all regions, girls are
not just more likely to die before the age of five than boys, but improvements in male child
mortality rates were larger than those for female children.

In sum, there are wide and persistent gaps between households across wealth, spatial and gender
dimensions in all non-income indicators of material well-being, especially in health and nutrition.
Moreover, while there are some improvements in the distribution of education outcomes as measured
by primary completion rates, the gap in health and nutrition remains persistent — or is even
growing.

While income inequality is an important determinant of inequalities in education, health and nutrition, it
does not fully explain their persistence. Furthermore, economic growth on its own is no guarantee for
improvements in well-being, especially for poor households and other marginalized and
disadvantaged groups. Therefore, closing gaps in education, health and nutrition will require
additional policy measures.

Policy measures that can help close gaps in education, health and nutrition outcomes include:

a. Increasing public expenditure in social services, with a specific focus on the sectors
with the largest disparities and targeted to groups with the lowest levels of education, health
and nutrition outcomes
b. Strengthening service delivery programmes and modalities
c. Strengthening institutional capacity to deliver social services and implement programmes
d. Instituting governance policies to promote institutional responsiveness
e. Expanding access to opportunities for disadvantaged groups and low-income
households to access services

Addressing Social Exclusion by Promoting Agency, Combating Discrimination and Transforming Inequality-
Reproducing Cultural Norms

Processes of social exclusion — driven by multiple economic, social, political and cultural
factors — prevent individuals and groups from meaningfully contributing to the shaping of their
environments and from living a life of their own choosing. As such, they play a major role in
entrenching inequalities of outcomes and opportunities.

Political space for inequality reduction requires viable pro-equalization majorities, which, in turn, are
contingent upon the capacity of marginalized and disadvantaged groups to organize politically in order
to have their voices heard. In other words, the effective contestation of unequal power structures
necessarily involves the removal of the multiple barriers that block the meaningful participation of
entire segments of society in economic, cultural and political life.

Most policy makers perceive that there is limited political space for action on inequality in their
countries. However, political space for inequality reduction can be created through specific actions
aimed at expanding the domain of political feasibility. Two areas of work are, in this sense, of critical
importance: broadening participation in public and political life by strengthening the agency, voice
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 113
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
and political participation of those who have been left behind by development processes; and
combating discrimination, also by undoing prejudices, stereotypes and other cultural norms that
reproduce and justify inequality.

Process Questions

1. What are the policy frameworks to address social inequalities in developing countries as cited in
this report?
2. How these policy frameworks are implemented in developing countries?

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 114

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

RELATED READINGS

CLOSING THE SOCIAL INEQUALITY GAP IN THE PHILIPPINES

Poverty doesn't just make it difficult for families to survive; it can also have much wider economic
impact. In the Philippines, where more than a quarter of the country's population of 92.3 million
lives below the poverty line, economic and social inequality is a major problem. The Philippines has
one of the highest rates of income inequality in the world, and unless action is taken, the gap will
continue to widen. ChildFund has operated in the Philippines since 1954 and works to ensure the
nation's poorest children and their families have access to the food, health care and education they
need to survive.

Persistent Problems

According to the ASEAN Trade Union Council, the Philippines has the highest rate of economic and
social inequality in Southeast Asia. This problem is not limited to personal wealth. Land distribution,
educational and vocational opportunities and basic welfare programs are also affected by the growing
disparity between the Philippines' richest and poorest citizens.

As economic inequality has become more pronounced in the past decade, this has resulted in
geographical disparity in the Philippines. In Mindanao, the southernmost and second largest of the
Philippines' islands, six of the 10 regions are among the top 10 nationally in terms of poverty rates, with
between 25 and 40 percent of families living in abject poverty. Nationwide, the 30 most deprived
provinces are home to more than one-third of the Philippines' poorest families, resulting in
generational poverty that is incredibly difficult to emerge from.

As in many other parts of the world, it is often the indigenous population that suffers the most. In the
Philippines, the approximately 1.7 million people belonging to the nation's 100 ethnic groups
remain the most disadvantaged, with discrimination and a lack of opportunities creating serious
barriers.

Building a Foundation

Economic and social inequality are complex problems, but they can be addressed by
governments and aid organizations working together to ensure that opportunities are more readily
available for the nation's poorest people.

"The key to reducing inequality is better education, better healthcare, social safety nets and higher and
broader economic growth, especially in agriculture," Edwin Lacierda, a spokesman for the president
of the Philippines, said in a news briefing in Manila earlier this year.

The government of the Philippines is working to expand access to health care, education and land
ownership among the country's poorest families, but the road to recovery and improved
equality is long. To aid in these efforts, ChildFund has worked to provide increased resources to
children in need and help them break the cycle of poverty.

Last year, we provided home- and center-based early childhood development services to more than
8,000 children in the Philippines' poorest provinces. Children enrolled in these programs receive
nutritious food and educational opportunities, and parents are trained in areas like nutrition and
basic health care.

ChildFund also supports programs that have led to 16,000 at-risk children staying in school.
Tutoring programs, developed in partnership with the Philippines government's Department of

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 115

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Education, have yielded improvement in crucial areas such as English, math and science, building a
strong foundation upon which children can continue their education.

Despite these accomplishments, more families need our help. The best way to give a Filipino child
access to the resources he or she desperately needs and sponsor a child. Your support will let a child
have a greater chance for a fulfilling future.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 116

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Process Questions

1. Are there instances of inequalities in Philippine society?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Direction: Answer the following questions.
 What are social inequalities in our country today?
 What are the government programs that address the social inequalities?
 How do the government programs address the social inequalities in our country?
2. Transfer.
 Make a research on the present government programs and initiatives that
address social inequalities.
 Identify how these programs address the social problems in the Philippines.

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

https://www.slideshare.net/adnankhansurani1/reduced-inequalities

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and
Politics. Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Dudgeon, Roy C. “The Anthropological Perspective: What Makes it Unique.”

https://www.childfund.org/Content/NewsDetail/2147489041/

file:///C:/Users/marilou%20a.%20gapaz/Downloads/HumanityDivided_Ch7_low.pdf

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 117

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEK 16
Module 11 – STRATEGIES TO REDUCE
INEQUALITY

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 118

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 119

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

INTRODUCTION

Module 11 is entitled “Strategies to Reduce Inequality” deals with social and political inequalities as
features of societies and the global community. Its aim is to help the students suggest ways to address
social inequalities (local, national and global).

Week 16

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Suggest ways to address social inequalities (local, national and
global)

Module 11 – STRATEGIES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY

ACTIVITY: Cartoon Interpretation

Direction: Observe and analyze the caricature.

Process Question

1. What is your understanding or interpretation of the caricature?

RELATED READINGS

GLOBAL STRATIFICATION and INEQUALITY

Social stratification involves not just people within a single country; it is also a worldwide pattern
with some nations far more economically productive than others.

One system of classifying countries is according to a Three Worlds Model:

The “First World” is made up of rich, industrial, capitalist countries, while the “Second World”
refers to less industrialized socialist countries. The non-industrialized poor countries comprise the
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 120
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
“Third World”. Macions (2012) notes that in this model, The capitalist West (the First World) and the
socialist East (the Second World) are against

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 121

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
each other, while other nations (the Third World) remain more or less on the sidelines. Changes in
Eastern Europe and the collapse of the former Soviet Union in the early 1990’s meant the end
of the “Second World” and the usefulness of the three worlds model.

The revised system of classification is not based on ideology or political structure but on the
economic development of countries (United Nations Development Programme 2010 and the World
Bank 2011, as cited in Macionis 2012: 271).

High-Income Countries: The 72 high-income countries are those with the highest over-all standards of
living. These nations have a per capita gross domestic product (GDP) greater than $ 12,000.

Middle-Income Countries: The 70 middle-income countries are those with a standard of living about
average for the world as a whole. Their per capita GDP is less than $ 12,000 but greater than $
2,500.

Low-Income Countries: The remaining 53 low-income countries are those with a per capita GDP is
less than
$ 2,500. Most people in these nations are poor.

THEORIES of GLOBAL STRATIFICATION

There are two major explanations for inequality among nations: Modernization Theory and
Dependency Theory (Macionis 2012: 280-281).

1. Modernization Theory. Walt Rostow explains global inequality in terms of technological and
cultural differences between nations. Nations becomes rich by developing advanced
technology, a process that depends on a culture that encourages innovation and change
toward higher living standards. Rostow identifies four stages of development:
 Traditional stage: People’s lives are built around families and local communities
(Example:
Bangladesh)
 Take-off stage: A market emerges as people produce goods not just for their own use but
also to trade others for profit. (Example: Thailand)
 Drive to technological maturity: The ideas of economic growth and higher living
standards gain widespread support (Example: Mexico)
 High mass consumption: Advanced technology fuels mass production and mass
consumption as
people now “need” countless goods. (Example: United States of America)

How to address global inequalities? Rostow’s modernization theory highlights the role of technology
transfer and foreign aid. Accordingly, rich nations help poor nations by providing technology to
control population size, increase food production, and expand industrial output and by providing
foreign aid to support economic development.

2. Dependency Theory. This views global inequality as a result of the historical exploitation of poor
nations by rich one. It maintains that colonialism created global inequality beginning 500
years ago, giving rise to rich nations and underdeveloped poor nations. This process
continues today in the form of neo-colonialism, or the economic exploitation of poor nations by
multinational corporations. Immanuel Wallerstein’s model of the capitalist world economy

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 122

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
identified three categories of nations:
 Core: the world’s high income countries, which are home to multinational corporations.
 Semiperiphery: the world’s middle-income countries, with ties to core nations
 Periphery: the world’s low-income countries, which provide cheap labor and raw
materials, and a vast market for industrial products.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 123

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

How to address global inequalities? The dependency theory claims that three factors, namely export-
orientation, a lack of industrial capacity, and foreign debt, make poor countries dependent on rich
and prevent their economic development. Andre Gunder Frank’s dependency theory argues that
countries in the Perihery must cut the “umbilical cord” that connects them to the Center, if they were
to become developed countries themselves.

Process Questions

1. What is global stratification?

2. How are you going to explain the theories of global stratification?

NINE STRATEGIES TO REDUCE INEQUALITY

Inequality is usually associated to an unequal distribution of resources and, therefore, it is related to the
gap between the rich and the poor. It also relates to an unequal access to opportunities or benefits
from economic activity. In the best case scenario, this unequal distribution is associated to talent or
effort; but, in most cases, it is the result of institutional structures that create social barriers based
on: sex, age, ethnicity, social status, among other variables that define individuals’ initial conditions.

Among its documented effects, inequality can lead to social tensions, discrimination, poverty traps,
and erosion of social capital, regional imbalances, and an unfair access to justice. It also prevents
people from obtaining fair benefits from economic activities. Therefore, fighting inequality will open
doors to opportunities that are taken from groups traditionally excluded from development.
Preventing inequality can help promote social capital and stimulate the economy.

In this order of ideas, governmental and non-governmental efforts have taken place in order to
improve welfare by reducing inequality.

The following are some examples of how inequality can be reduced by implementing institutional
arrangements on the field of fiscal, social, and economic policy:

Pro-Poor Fiscal Policy

Income redistribution is achieved by fiscal policy mainly, but it does not limit itself to income transfers
from the rich to the poor. In informal markets, fiscal incentives for poorer entrepreneurs can
encourage them to enter the formal sector, provide social security for them, and they make easier
to pay taxes according to status and profits. On the other hand, fiscal incentives for banks can
encourage them to lend money to poor people, providing guarantees of payment and creating
funding programmes targeted to the poorest deciles.

Better Targeting of Social Programmes

Targeting helps to reduce income inequality and inequalities related to education and health.
Income transfers programmes can have a greater and longer term impact if better targeting is used,
ensuring people with wider gaps in access and income inequality are participants of the
programmes.

This can be done using geographic targeting (selecting the regions with a higher prevalence of
poverty) or using surveys to estimate if a potential beneficiary is poor or how poor she is. There is
also the possibility of participatory targeting, where people from the community identify and validate
the selection of beneficiaries.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 124

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Finally, having a national or state level list of social beneficiaries is also useful for preventing the
programmes to duplicate efforts.

Participatory Decision-Making

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 125

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
This strategy focuses on increasing the voice of the poor. Poor people often face an inequality of
participation in policy making. Designing participatory methodologies to actually include their
perspective in public policy can help reduce the gaps of power to decide over policies, which affect
them and their communities. Participation does not limit to decision making, it can include monitoring
and evaluating results and impact of social policies too.

Revision of Legislative Frameworks That Foster Inequality

This strategy can help to identify discriminatory laws or laws that generate inequalities among
people or regions. Laws that do not recognize domestic labour as productive; or social security
systems that do not provide universal access.

The frameworks supporting these legislations might be discriminating towards informal poor
workers; for example, agricultural labourers without access to social security (and therefore, pensions).
Hence, these laws might change so they can include these sectors of population.

Promotive Action

Discrimination against certain groups of population might isolate them and limit their access to
opportunities for a better wellbeing. Media campaigns and advocacy efforts, which identify this
kind of discrimination and promote the participation of these sectors, can make people with
disabilities, migrants, religions groups and indigenous groups more confident about their inclusion
in the State.

Affirmative action can help to reduce the impact of ancient discrimination towards social groups,
like indigenous groups. Quotas for political participation can also improve their voice on public
policy.

Addressing Regional Inequality

Improving access to roads, communications and markets can have a great impact on reducing poverty
and opening opportunities for marginalized groups. Moreover, decentralization of public services,
offices and industries can promote shared prosperity among regions by preventing regional poverty
pockets.

Differentiated Poverty Reduction Policies

Extreme poverty is usually associated to systemic inequality and chronic poverty. Meanwhile,
transient poverty is more related to the effect of shocks and a higher social mobility rate. Different
policies are need to address each case of poverty: a temporary employment programme might
work for transient poverty but it may be inefficient for chronic poverty related, for example, to a
disability or to address poverty experienced by refugees. Understanding the dynamics of poverty can
work to design more efficient policies and having a bigger impact on chronic poverty.

Measuring Other Inequalities, Rather Than Just Income Inequality

An example of this kind of inequalities can be seen in more time spent on non-paid activities by
women; higher poverty levels by indigenous groups; more difficulties to start business
activities by poorest entrepreneurs; inequalities in school attendance by women and several others;
limited access to markets (both labour and goods).

Other inequalities, not related to an unequal distribution of income, tend to affect a particular group
for a long period of time in a systematic way. Gender inequality, for example, is not new or

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 126

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
randomly generated, and it can prevent women´s poverty to decline for generations.

Discrimination against indigenous groups may not be a problem today, but the effects derived
from the past might endure unless affirmative action is taken. Most inequalities are systematic and
perpetuated by institutions, from habits, tradition to legal, economic and political systems that restrict
participation by and for the poor not in a transient way, but with a long term effect. Making these
inequalities visible might influence policy makers to design more effective policies to address
them.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 127

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Program Monitoring and Evaluation

Sound public expenditure evaluation can determine if a social programme is being efficient on reducing
inequality or poverty. Design, performance and impact evaluation can also increase public support
for social programmes by demonstrating they are effective.

Process Questions

1. What are the strategies to reduce inequality?

2. Which of these strategies is the best one to address social inequalities (local, nation, and
global)? Explain your answer.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

Direction: After examining Modernization and Dependency theories, enumerate (based on
your own understanding) the differences between the two theories in terms of their solutions to
global inequality.

2. Transfer.
Below the diagram is a box where you will write three or more solutions/programs to
address global inequality.

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

https://www.slideshare.net/adnankhansurani1/reduced-inequalities

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

4. What did you like most about this module, and why?
5. What do you think you learned from this module?
6. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics.
Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 128

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
http://www.a-id.org/2016/11/08/nine-strategies-to-reduce- inequality/

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 129

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNDERSTANDING
CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS

WEEKS 17-18
Module 12 – MAKING SOCIETY BETTER

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from SDO Laguna AP Department/ Humanist
and Social Science Department. We encourage teachers and other
education stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and
recommendations to the Department of

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 130

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Introductory Message

This Self-Learning Module (SLM) module for Philippine Politics and

Governance has been designed to provide simplified, convenient and
accessible to all types of learners, especially those who has inability to
attend regular class due to personal family conflicts as well as for formal
school. The content of the module has been validated by evaluators to
ensure its alignment to the curriculum designed by the Department of
Education for Senior High School.

Moreover, the topics activities were designed interestingly and

comprehensively to enhance learning ability for assessment of learning.
There are formative and summative activities including the answer keys
which can be seen at the last page of the module.

Educators are encouraged to use the module as supplement and

intervention for learners.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 131

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

INTRODUCTION

Module 12 is entitled “Making Society Better” deals with the agents/ institutions, processes, and
outcomes of cultural, political, and social change. Its aim is to help the students evaluates factors
causing social, political, and cultural change; and advocate how human societies should adapt to
such changes.

Weeks 17-18

Most Essential Learning Competency - *Examine human responses to emerging challenges in

contemporary societies
Module 12 – MAKING SOCIETY BETTER

Activity 1: My Amazing Life

Directions: Fill out the organizer below with information about yourself and the big changes In your life.

Process Questions

1. What is the most significant event in your life? Why is sit most important to you?
2. How do you relate this quotation “Nothing is permanent in this world except change”? Give
concrete

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 132

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
examples.
3. Why do some people oppose or resist change?

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 133

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

WHAT IS SOCIAL CHANGE?

Social Change is the” transformation of culture and social institutions over time” (Macionis 2012: 565).

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

The process of social change has four major characteristics:

1. Social change happens all the time. Everything in our social world are subject to change,
although some societies change faster than others. As Macionis points out, hunting and
gathering societies change quite slowly, whereas members of today’s high income societies
experience significant change within a single lifetime. Some elements of culture also
change faster than others. Macionis thus cites William Ogburn’s theory of cultural lag,
which states that material culture (things) usually changes faster than nonmaterial culture
(ideas and attitudes). For instance, advances in genetic technology have developed more
rapidly than ethical standards on the use of the technology.

2. Social change is sometimes intentional but is often planned. Today’s high-income societies
generate many kinds of change. Yet, it would be impossible of the changes that are set in
motion. For example, telephones (invented in 1876) have taken on different forms and uses
over time.

3. Social change is controversial. Social change brings both good and bad consequences, and
thus could be welcomed by some and opposed by others. Karl Marx and Max Weber have
chronicled the transformations brought about by the Industrial Revolution. The capitalists
welcomed the Industrial Revolution because new technology meant increased productivity
and profits. However, workers opposed it as they suffered alienation and the
dehumanization brought about by newer techniques and social relations of production.

4. Some changes matter more than others. Some changes such as fashion fads only
have passing significance, while others such as major medical discoveries and inventions may
change the world.

CAUSES of SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change has many changes.

1. Culture and change

There are three important sources of cultural change (Macionis 2012: 565-566). First is
invention, or the cration of something new by usually putting things together. Inventions can
range from seemingly complex technological objects such as the spacecraft or even the light
bulb to the seemingly simple such as kitchen gadgets (like can opener).

Second is discovery, or finding something that has existed but previously not known.
Module 4 provides various examples of the discovery of material and fossil remains of
prehistoric societies that changed our understanding of biophysical and cultural evolution.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 134

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Third is diffusion, or the spread of cultural attributes from one culture to another through
contact between different cultural groups. Change happens as products, people, and
information spread from our society to another. An example of cultural change is the wide
variety of cuisine from other lands that is made available to us. Fast-food courts and restaurants
in major Philippine cities offer food from around the country and the world that is usually not
part of a person’s everyday meal. Filipino overseas workers have also been known

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 135

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

to introduce balut and other Filipino foods to their host societies. Another example is the
evolving ideals of beauty as people come in greater contact with others.

2. Conflict and change

Inequality and conflict in a society also produce change. Karl Marx foresaw that “social
conflict arising from inequality (involving not just class but also race and gender) would
force changes in every society to improve the lives of working people” (Macionis 2012:
566). In the Philippines, the rising inequalities and human rights violations during the
Martial Law period caused mass uprisings that culminated in the 1986 People Power
Revolt. The Philippines was considered to be the first in the world to have challenged
authoritarian rule through a non-violent process.

3. Ideas and Change

Weber, like Marx, also saw that conflict could bring about change. However, he traced the
roots of most social change to ideas (Macionis 2012: 566). For example, charismatic people such
as Mahatma Gandhi or Jose Rizal had political ideas that change society.

4. Demographic change

Population patterns such as population growth, shifts in the composition of a population, or

migration also play a part in social change (Macionis 2012; 566). An increasing
population may encourage the development of new products and services, but it can also
have ecological and social implications such as the conversion of more agricultural land to
residential subdivisions. In other societies, lower fertility rates (women are having fewer
children), an aging population, and the influx of migrants from other societies are changing
many aspects of social life.

Modernity

A central concept in the study of social change is modernity. Modernity refers to social patterns
resulting from industrialization. These social patterns were set in motion by the Industrial
Revolution, which began in Western Europe in the 1750’s (Macionis 2012: 566). Related to the
discussion of modernity is modernization or the process of social change began by industrialization
(Ibid).

For Emile Durkheim, modernization is defined by an increasing division of labor. The division of labor
refers to the degree to which tasks or responsibilities are specialized. Durkheim defines a society
according to type of solidarity. Mechanical solidarity is based125on shared activities and beliefs
while organic solidarity is characterized by specialization makes people interdependent. As societies
become industrialized, mechanical solidarity is gradually replaced by organic solidarity.

For Weber, modernity meant replacing a traditional worldview with a rational way of thinking
characterized by goal- oriented calculation and efficiency. He focused on the dehumanizing
effects of modern rational organization, especially the bureaucracy which is the ultimate for of
rationalization.

Marx saw modernity as the triumph of capitalism over feudalism. Capitalism creates social conflict,
which Marx claimed would bring about revolutionary change leading to an egalitarian socialist society.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 136

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

George Ritzer introduces the concept of McDonaldization of society while Randolf David explores the
Philippine experience of modernity.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 137

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
New Challenges to Human Adaptation and Social Change

1. Global warming and climate change

2. Transnational migration and overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)

Responding to Social, Political, and Cultural Change

1. Inclusive citizenry and participatory governance

2. New forms of media and social networking
3. Social movements (e.g., environmentalism, feminism, religious, fundamentalism)

NEW CHALLENGES TO HUMAN ADAPTION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Humans are generally adaptive to changes in environment. If people perceive relevant changes in
the environment they are in, they readily adapt their behaviour to meet these new challenges for their
own benefits.

ADAPTATION

Adaptation refers a change or the process of change by which an organism or species becomes
better suited to its environment. Adaptation enhances the fitness and survival of individuals.

HUMAN ADAPTATION

Humans like any other organisms and animals try to act like more cautions if changes in their
environment are perceived to have a dangerous impact on their welfare. They may also try to work on
new ways to meet own goals more effectively.

This ability of human to be able to rapidly to varying environmental conditions and changes has made it
possible for them to survive in any regions or places anywhere in the world.

Global Warming and Climate Change

Many researchers on climate change today focus mostly on what it will bring in the future. These
researches also try to find out how humans have influenced the planet. Researchers are using
computer models to project and wanted changes like the unstoppable warming temperatures or rising
seas and how these can be avoided.

Climate Change Effects In Asia

More than any other region on the in the world, Asia has been greatly affected by the current
atmospheric conditions. Climate change has affected the industrial and agricultural sectors of most
countries in Asia. In fact, the crop yield in many countries of Asia has declined, partly due to the rising
temperatures and extreme weather events. The retreat of glaciers and permafost in Asia in recent
years as a consequence of warming in unprecedented. The frequency of occurrence of climate-induced
diseases and heat stress in Central East, South and South- East Asia has increased with rising
temperature and rainfall variability.

Adaptation to Global Warming And Climate Change

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 138

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Adaptation to global warming is a response to the still unresolved issue on global warming. This
action seeks to reduce the vulnerability of all social and biological systems to the current and
immediate issue of climate change. Through this, we may all be able to offset the effects of global
warming.

Examples of Adaptation to Possible Negative Impacts of Global Warming (Warmer, Drier Climate) in the
Tropics

 Expand irrigation systems

 Switch to new cultivars ( e.g. maize to more drought tolerant sorghum)
 Diversity activities ( new crops, livestock, alternative employment)
 Provide public relief and improved climate information
 Increase food imports
 Increase use of fertilizers and pesticide
 Return to traditional water and soil conserving technologies ( e.g. raised fields, agroforestry)
 Migration and urbanization

Adaptation to climate change exists at the various levels. In temperate regions, like the Philippines,
agricultural sector will most likely be affected. More adaptation techniques are needed to address
the problems that maybe brought about by current and future climate change.

At the national and international levels, the need of regions and people vulnerable to the effects of
climate change on their food supply should be address. In many cases reducing vulnerability to
current climate variability should also serve to mitigate the impacts of global warming.

Transnational Migration and Overseas Filipino Workers

Aside from the human adaptation to changes in the environment brought by the unstoppable global
warming and its after affect climate change people on earth are also facing adaptation challenges borne
by need for mobility. Life has been so fast and people as well are changing residences as rapidly.

Is define as the process of geographic mobility, or the changes of residence of a person from one
community to another with the intension of settling temporarily or permanent.

Jay Weinstein and Vijayan Pillai (2001) denote another type of migration or force migration. Force
migration exists when a person is moved against his will, such as slave, or when the move is initiated
because of external factors like natural disaster or civil war.

Transnational Migration

Next to international and internal migration, a new form of migration has been observed. This new
form of migration is term as transnational migration. Nina Glick Schiler,formely a professor of
Anthropology at the University of Machester defines transnational migrants as “those persons who
having migrated from one nation-state to another, live their lives across borders, participating
simultaneously in social relations that embed them in more than one nation-state”.

Meanwhile, Stephen, a university professor of Anthropology, states that while the term
transnational migration suggest a more or less permanent state of being between two or more

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 139

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
locations, some people may spend a good part of their time engaging in this state of being, other
my live for longer periods of time in one place or another. All

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 140

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
the people living within a transnational social field are exposed, in different levels, but nonetheless
in some shared way to “a set of social expectations, cultural values, and patterns of human
interaction shaped by more than one social, economic and political system.

More and more people today belong to two or more societies at the same time. Transnational
migrants work, pray, and express their political interest in several contexts rather than in a single
nation-state.

Furthermore, not all migrants can be considered as transnational migrants, and not all who take part in
transnational practices do so all the time. Studies made by sociologist Alejandro Portes and his
colleagues reveal that only five to ten percent of the Dominican, Salvadoran, and Colombian
migrants surveyed in the US regularly participated in transnational economic and political
activities, even occasional involvement is not universal. People in the 21st century will claim
multiple political and religious identities, to both national and transnational groups. The critical task is
to understand the way individuals and organizations actually operate across cultures, and the costs and
benefits of these arrangements.

Transnational migration has also created connections that can be a good vehicle for social and
cultural exchanges between societies. This may happen through an enrichment of arts, music,
films, entertainment and cuisine, promotion of tourism, diffusion of alternative medicine, or
exchanges at the level of education and research.

Although transnational migration entails compromises and adjustments on both sides, not enough
is known about what determines or what conditions and in what contexts transnational migration
has positive and/or negative consequences. For whom and for what. The political, economic, and
cultural structures of power than span social fields must be taken seriously. State policies,
philosophies of integration, citizenship regimes, and cultural context mater.

Effects on Family of Migrants

Work migration is increasing globally. Even women have joined the race in an increasingly fast
pace. Most of them are in the care sectors and domestic work. The Philippines is leading this
development. Unfortunately for most Filipinos, most of the job offered to them is on a short-term
basis only. Many children of migrant workers have grown up not knowing both of their parents. Most
have experienced long term absence of parents which is the reason why there is very little affection
between them. Many family relationships are broken as one parent emigrates which causes a
larger proportion of children growing up with divorced or separated parents.

OFW’s can use video chat, Facebook, Messenger, Instagram, Twitter and the like to keep touch
with their family. Indeed, computer mediated communications have contributed a lot in bringing
Filipinos together from around the world closer to their family back home. Migrants and their families
may experience their transnational existence as a source of personal enrichment and development. Their
lifestyle opportunities and language abilities can be enhance.

. Transnational Migration Challenges

The issue of transnational migration has injured and is still facing a lot of challenges. Transnational

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 141

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
migration has cause family disruptions because of the need of the head of the family to live
elsewhere to earn a living and be able to his family a comfortable means of life.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 142

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
There are some instances where the father or the mother has to leave work abroad. There are
even some cases where both parents are working abroad in separate countries. This poses
psychosocial challenges to the children in the family.

Another challenge, transnational migrants face is the simple access to pensions and health insurance.
Though some have this benefits in their work contract, most do not have access at all or are given
limited privilege.

A different challenge but is also important is the possibility of laws, absence of identity and
belonging for some individuals. Socially speaking, migrants may also absorb or assimilate the
ideas, culture, and tradition of their respective host countries while others may still hold on the
ways of their country origin. They might feel insecure when socializing with foreign nationals.

Activity 2: Pic-Graphic Organizer

Use the clue pictures as guide to complete the organizer.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 129

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Process Questions

1. Which among the characteristics of social change can be seen mostly in our society?
2. Which among the causes of social change is prevalent in the Philippine setting?
3. In your own perception, give one characteristic and cause of social change. Explain ang provide
examples.

Activity 3: Chain of Changes

Specify I the lines below the objects, things, and events that undergo change. Use the chain to
describe the process of change that took place.

Process Questions

1. Why does change happen?

2. What will happen to our society if it will not undergo modernity?
3. What are the positive and negative effects of our changing society?

Activity 4: Train of Implications: Dimensions of Modernization

Analyze the implications of the modernization on culture, society and politics. Answers will be written
below the balloons that specify the dimensions of modernization according to Peter Beger (1977).

The decline of small, The Increasing Orientation toward

traditional the future and a
expansion of social
communities growing awareness of
time

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 130

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Process Questions

1. How does community experience the decline of tradition?

2. How do you experience the expansion of choices?
3. What are signs of increasing social diversity?
4. What are your plans for the future? Do you consider yourself modern based on these plans?

RELATED READINGS

The McDonaldization of Society

The McDonaldization of Society (Ritzer 1993) refers to the increasing presence of the fast food
business model in common social institutions. This business model includes efficiency (the division of
labor), predictability, calculability, and control (monitoring). For example, in your average chain
grocery store, people at the register check out customers while stockers keep the shelves full
of goods and deli workers slice meats and cheese to order (efficiency). Whenever you enter a
store within that grocery chain, you receive the same type of goods, see the same store organization,
and find the same brands at the same prices (predictability). You will find that goods are sold by the
pound, so that you can weigh your fruit and vegetable purchase rather than simply guessing at the
price for that bag of onions, while the employees use a timecard to calculate their hours and
receive overtime pay (calculability). Finally, you will notice that all store employees are wearing a
uniform (and usually a name tag) so that they can be easily identified. There are security
cameras to monitor the store, and some parts of the store, such as the stockroom, are
generally considered off-limits to customers (control). While McDonaldization has resulted in
improved profits and an increased availability of various goods and services to more people
worldwide, it has also reduced the variety of goods available in the marketplace while rendering
available products uniform, generic, and bland. Think of the difference between a mass-produced shoe
and one made by a local cobbler, between a chicken from a family-owned farm and a corporate
grower, or between a cup of coffee from the local diner and one from Starbucks.

McDonaldization is a concept developed by American sociologist George Ritzer which refers to the
particular kind of rationalization of production, work, and consumption that rose to prominence in the late
twentieth century. The basic idea is that these elements have been adapted based on the
characteristics of a fast-food restaurant—efficiency, calculability, predictability and standardization,
and control—and that this adaptation has ripple effects throughout all aspects of society.

The McDonaldization of Society

George Ritzer introduced the concept of McDonaldization with his 1993 book, The McDonaldization of
Society. Since that time the concept has become central within the field of sociology and
especially within the sociology of globalization.

According to Ritzer, the McDonaldization of society is a phenomenon that occurs when society, its
institutions, and its organizations are adapted to have the same characteristics that are found
in fast-food chains. These include efficiency, calculability, predictability and standardization, and
control.

Ritzer's theory of McDonaldization is an update on classical sociologist Max Weber's theory of

how scientific rationality produced bureaucracy, which became the central organizing force of
modern societies through much of the twentieth century. According to Weber, the modern
bureaucracy was defined by hierarchical roles, compartmentalized knowledge and roles, a

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 131

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
perceived merit-based system of employment and advancement, and the legal-rationality authority of
the rule of law. These characteristics could be observed (and still can be) throughout many aspects
of societies around the world.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 132

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
According to Ritzer, changes within science, economy, and culture have shifted societies away
from Weber's bureaucracy to a new social structure and order that he calls McDonaldization. As he
explains in his book of the same name, this new economic and social order is defined by four key
aspects.

Efficiency entails a managerial focus on minimizing the time required to complete individual tasks
as well as that required to complete the whole operation or process of production and distribution.

Calculability is a focus on quantifiable objectives (counting things) rather than subjective ones (evaluation
of quality).

Predictability and standardization are found in repetitive and routinized production or service delivery
processes and in the consistent output of products or experiences that are identical or close to it
(predictability of the consumer experience).

Finally, control within McDonaldization is wielded by the management to ensure that workers
appear and act the same on a moment-to-moment and daily basis. It also refers to the use of robots
and technology to reduce or replace human employees wherever possible.

Ritzer asserts that these characteristics are not only observable in production, work, and in the consumer
experience, but that their defining presence in these areas extends as ripple effects through all
aspects of social life. McDonaldization affects our values, preferences, goals, and worldviews, our
identities, and our social relationships. Further, sociologists recognize that McDonaldization is a
global phenomenon, driven by Western corporations, the economic power and cultural dominance
of the West, and as such it leads to a global homogenization of economic and social life.

The Downside of McDonaldization

After laying out how McDonaldization works in the book, Ritzer explains that this narrow focus on
rationality actually produces irrationality. He observed, "Most specifically, irrationality means that
rational systems are unreasonable systems. By that, I mean that they deny the basic humanity, the
human reason, of the people who work within or are served by them." Many have no doubt encountered
what Ritzer describes here when the human capacity for reason seems to be not at all present in
transactions or experiences that are marred by rigid adherence to the rules and policies of an
organization. Those that work under these conditions often experience them as dehumanizing as well.

This is because McDonaldization does not require a skilled workforce. Focusing on the four key
characteristics that produce McDonaldization has eliminated the need for skilled workers.
Workers in these conditions engage in repetitive, routinized, highly focused and compartmentalized
tasks that are quickly and cheaply taught, and thus easy to replace. This kind of work devalues labor
and takes away workers' bargaining power. Sociologists observe that this kind of work has reduced
workers' rights and wages in the US and around the world, which is exactly why workers at places
like McDonald's and Walmart are leading the fight for a living wage in the U.S. Meanwhile in China,
workers who produced iPhones and iPads face similar conditions and struggles.

The characteristics of McDonaldization have crept into the consumer experience too, with free consumer
labor folded into the production process. Ever bus your own table at a restaurant or café? Dutifully
follow the instructions to assemble Ikea furniture? Pick your own apples, pumpkins, or blueberries?
Check yourself out at the grocery store? Then you have been socialized to complete the production or
distribution process for free, thus aiding a company in achieving efficiency and control.

Sociologists observe the characteristics of McDonaldization in other areas of life, like education and
media too, with a clear shift from quality to quantifiable measures over time, standardization and
Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 133
 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
efficiency playing significant roles in both, and control too.

Look around, and you will be surprised to find that you will notice the impacts of McDonaldization
throughout your life.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 134

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)

Guide Questions

1. What are the features of an increasingly rational society, one that is drive by means-end
calculation?
2. What are the dangers of an increasingly rational world, and how can we cope with it?

Activity 5: Race to Change

Direction: Enumerate the changes and how they adapt to new challenges that are generally faced by
the human population as enumerated below.

Process Questions

1. How did modernity started in the food business?

2. Why do some people can easily adapt to change?
3. Which among these changes do people find difficult to adapt?
4. How can you be rational in everything you do?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/ASSESSMENT

1. Comprehension and Analysis.

 Cultural differences are often expressed in the “generation gap”. List all the things that you and

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 135

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
your parents share and believe together (religion, education, and family values) as well as those

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 136

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
that you disagree with (music, clothing, and love relationships). How will you
explain these differences based on the lesson?
2. Transfer.
 Advocacy Campaign
You are a member of a creative chat that was tasked by a government agency
to create an advocacy campaign in support of its programs towards sustainable
development. There are 17 goals outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development adopted by world leaders during a United Nations summit in September
2015. These goals are indicated in the picture below.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 137

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Your task is to conceptualize and create an advocacy campaign using new forms of media and
communication technologies. Your goal is to covey to the public the cultural, social, and political
challenges attributed to those changes. Agency executives will determine the effectiveness of your
campaign.

INSTRUCTIONAL AUDIO AND VIDEO

https://study.com/academy/lesson/george-ritzer-and-mcdonaldization-of-society-definition-and-
principles.html

REFLECTION

Write a brief reflection on your journal with the following guide questions:

1. What did you like most about this module, and why?
2. What do you think you learned from this module?
3. What was most challenging or least interesting about this module?

REFERENCES:

Baleña, Ederlina D., Lucero, Dolores M., and Peralta, Arnel M. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics.
Quezon City: Educational Resources Corporation.

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 138

 MODULES in Understanding Culture, Society and Politics (UCSP)
Candelaria, Anne Lan, Ph.D., et. al. Understanding Culture, Society and Politics. Teacher’s Guide.
First Edition,
2016. Pasig City: Lexicon Press, Inc.

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A_Sociology_(Boundless)/
06%3A_Social_Groups_and
_Organization/6.04%3A_Bureaucracy/6.4C%3A_The_%E2%80%9CMcDonaldization

%E2%80%9D_of_Society https://www.un.org/sustainalbedevelopment/sustainable-development-

goals https://www.slideshare.net/CandaceR/propaganda-11435623

https://www.thoughtco.com/mcdonaldization-of-society- 3026751

Marilou A. Gapaz, T III - DNIHS Page 139