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Q3SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

The Male Reproductive System

Functions of Parts
1. Testes – they produce sperms & the hormone testosterone
2. Scrotum – a special sac outside the abdominal cavity containing testes. At this position testes are kept at a temperature
slightly below the body temperature. This is the best temperature fro sperm production
3. Sperm ducts – carry sperms from the testes to the urethra
4. Prostate gland – it secretes a fluid that activates & feed sperms
5. Seminal vesicle – it secretes a fluid that activates aids in sperm mobility
6. Urethra – it carries urine & semen ( fluid containing sperms) out of the male’s body
7. Epididymis – A coiled tube that stores sperms
8. Penis – It is used to deposit sperms into the female’s vagina during sexual intercourse

The Female Reproductive System

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Functions of Parts

1. Ovaries – they produce ova (eggs) and the hormones oestrogen & progesterone
2. Oviducts – the tube through which the ova pass when released from the ovary. It is also a region where fertilization
occurs.
3. Uterus – the region where the embryo is implanted after fertilization in the oviduct
4. Cervix – A ring of muscle closing the lower end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. It dilates / widens during child
birth.
5. Vagina – it accommodates (receives) the penis during sexual intercourse. It is where sperms are deposited from the
male and also serves as a birth canal.

The Difference Between Female (ovum) & Male (sperm) Gametes

SPERMATOZOA OVUM

cytoplasm

Cell membrane

Smaller in size (diameter of sperm head is 0.01mm) Larger in size (diameter of 0.05mm)
Has no food store Has a food store
Has a tail which helps it to swim towards the egg Does not move by itself (move by the help of cilia within the
oviducts)
Produced in large numbers Produced in small numbers
Life span is 2 – 3 days (i.e. sperms might be able to fertilize an Has a life span of 24hours after being produced
ovum within 2 – 3 days )

Effects of diet and emotional state on the menstrual cycle

i. Diet- an unbalanced diet or malnutrition may cause the period to be very irregular
or stop completely. Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of
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blood during menstruation. Females lacking iron miss periods during certain months
and some may eventually become anaemic, these kinds of people are normally
given iron supplements in the form of tablets and normally advised to eat lots of
green vegetables and liver to gain iron.

ii. Emotional state- anxiety, stress, over excitement, mental fatigue and illness may
alter the menstrual cycle, such as having the menstrual periods earlier or later than
normal, even prolonged menstrual flow.

HOW DOES THE SPERM MEET AN OVUM IN HUMAN MAMMALS?

Usually the penis is limply or droopy, but becomes stiff & longer (or erect) when
sexually excited (aroused). This happens when blood fills the spongy tissue of the
shaft of the penis. Signs of sexual excitement in women are less obvious, but it has
been observed that the labia also fills with blood & swell a little. Also, the vaginal
walls produce a fluid which serves as a lubricant. All these changes in a man &
woman prepare them for sexual intercourse. An erect penis is inserted into the well
lubricated vagina and the paroxysmal movement of the penis in the vagina plus the
vagina muscle contractions stimulates the contraction of the epididymis & sperm
duct thus pushing the sperms through the ducts along which they mix with fluids from
the seminal vesicles & prostate glands. The mixture of sperms & these fluids is now
called semen. Continued stimulation results in the release of the semen into the
vagina, this is called ejaculation.

Once deposited into the vagina sperms swim up through the cervix & uterus to the
oviducts where they meet with an ovum. More than 500 million sperms are released
from a single ejaculation, but only one sperm is needed to fertilise the ovum.
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During fertilization the tail of the sperm remains outside as the head travels through
the cytoplasm to deliver the nucleus, thus fertilization is defined as the fusion of the
sperm nucleus with the egg nucleus to from a zygote. Following fertilization the egg
membrane changes form in order to prevent further entry of other sperms & then the
zygote divides throu gh mitosis forming an embryo as it travels down into uterus for
implantation.
STAGES OF FERTILIZATION
1.Acrosomal stage: the acrosome on the tip of the sperm head breaks and
releases an enzyme which will digest the Zona Pellucida(membrane covering the
egg) and allowing the sperm to enter the ovum. The head of the sperm which
contains the nucleus with chromosomes moves towards the female nucleus and they
will fuse and form a diploid zygote containing 46 chromosomes.
2.Zona Pellucida: the Zona p ellucida shell forms a barrier to prevent polyspermy
by hardening. This prevent any more sperms from entering the ovum.
3.Cell division: in the oviduct the diploid zygote divides by mitosis forming two
daughter cells within 36 hours, they each divide giving rise to four, then eight
daughter cells until they form a ball of cells looking like mulberry called the Morula.
The Morula will then develop into a hollow fluid filled ball of cells called the
Blastocyst. The Blastocyst will be moved by the peristaltic movements of the
walls of the oviduct and the sweeping action of Cilia of the mucus membrane into
the Uterus where it is going to sink and lodge into the walls of the uterus, this is
called Implantation( attachment of the embryo to the uterus walls).
4. Cell differentiation: the embryo continues to grow inside the uterus and produce
new cells which undergo cell differentiation to form tissues and organs.Some cells
develop into the Placenta which is attached to the embryo by the tube called
Umbilical cord. After 8 weeks the embryo is now called the Fetus since it now has
recognizable human features.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA, UMBILICAL CORD, AMNIOTIC SAC AND

AMNIOTIC FLUID

 Placenta – a region that allows for the exchange of substances between

mother & fetus and prevents the blood of the mother from mixing with the
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blood of the fetus. It allows for exchange of gases- oxygen diffuses from
maternal blood into fetus blood and carbon dioxide from fetus blood to
maternal blood. Nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, calcium and iron
diffuses from maternal blood to fetus blood. Excretion of metabolic wastes
such as urea from the fetus to the maternal blood occurs across the placenta.
 Umbilical cord - made of umbilical artery which carries deoxygenated blood
& waste from foetus & the umbilical vein bringing oxygenated blood &
nutrients from mother to the foetus.
 Amnion - a membrane sac that surrounds the foetus & produces amniotic
fluids
 Amniotic fluid – a watery fluid that cushions protects the fetus from external
shock and also lubricates the birth canal(vagina) during delivery.

Identical & Non-identical Twins (Fraternal twins)

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Identical twins are twins resulting from the separation of one fertilized egg to
form two complete individuals. These individuals may share the placenta &
amnion. They also have the same sex & closely resemble each other in every
respect.

Fraternal Twins (non-identical twins) results from two different ova fertilized
by two different sperms. Each embryo will have its own placenta & amnion. It
is possible that they may be of the same or different sexes & may not
resemble each other.
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SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

A woman needs adequate supply of food

She must eat plenty of nourishing foods, especially proteins for the growing
baby
She needs an increased intake of calcium & vitamin D (i.e. in milk) for the
formation of strong bones if the baby
She must have an increased intake of carbohydrates for the energy needed
to carry the growing baby.
She should avoid taking any drug unless seriously necessary & prescribed by
a medical practitioner.
She must also avoid alcohol & smoking as these interfere with the growth of
the baby leading to miscarriage still born or children born underweight.

Advantages of Breast Feeding over Bottle Feeding

Breast milk is ready made & cheap

It is always at right temperature required by the baby
It almost all the required nutrients e.g. proteins, fats, sugar, vitamins & salts
in correct quantities
It contains anti-bodies to any disease from which the mother has recovered
It also carries white blood cells which produce ant-bodies or ingest bacteria
Its free from bacteria
It helps to establish an emotional bond between mother & child.
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Uterine Cycle

Ovarian
Cycle

The menstrual cycle is characterized by two cycles, the ovarian cycle and the uterine cycle running simultaneously.

Ovarian cycle
In the ovarian cycle, one ovum is released every 28 days. First two hormones produced by the pituitary gland are secreted, i.e.
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The Hormone FSH is acts on one of the follicles inside the ovaries
to mature & ripen. LH later stimulates the ripe follicle to rupture & release an ovum, this is known as ovulation. The ovum is then
moved into the oviduct by cilia where it can meet with a sperm, but if the ovum is not fertilized it breaks down & flows out in through
the vagina in the form of blood.

Uterine cycle
The ruptured follicle then develops into solid body (gland) known as the corpus luteum, which secretes the sex hormones
oestrogen & progesterone which stimulates the uterus lining to thicken & form more blood vessels, The uterus lining thickens every
time during ovulation so that it is ready for the embryo. But if there is no fertilization, the corpus luteum breaks down & stops
releasing progesterone. A drop in progesterone levels then leads to the constriction of the blood vessels lining the uterus, as a result
the thickened lining breaks down & the blood escapes through the cervix & vagina, this is known as menstrual period.

Note; a fall in the level of the sex hormones triggers the release of FSH & LH which in turn stimulates ovulation, hence the cycle
continues.

Effect of Diet on Menstrual Cycle

Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of blood during menstruation. Females lacking iron miss periods
during certain months & some may eventually become anaemic. These kinds of people are normally given iron supplements in the
form of tablets & normally advised to eat lots of green vegetables to gain iron.

Effect of Emotional State on Menstrual Cycle

Anxiety, stress & excitement may result in a female having her menstrual periods earlier than normal.

Birth Control Methods

This involves using methods of contraception which enable to people to prevent any unplanned / unwanted pregnancies.

 Barrier methods
 Condoms
a) Male Condom is a thin sheath which is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse to prevent the sperms from entering
the vagina. The penis must be removed cautiously from the vagina immediately after ejaculation to avoid spillage of sperms.
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b) Female Condom is also a thin sheath inserted inside the vagina before intercourse to collect the sperms from the penis.

 Diaphragm (the cap)

A dome shaped device which fits over the cervix to prevent entry of sperms. They come in different sizes & a woman must be
trained how to insert it by a doctor or at a family welfare clinic. Diaphragms offer more protection when used together with a
spermicidal cream. It must remain in place for sometime after intercourse (about 8 hours), and then it can be removed,
washed, dried powdered & kept in a container.

 Intra-Uterine Device (IUDs)

IUDs are fitted inside the uterus by a doctor. The IUD touches the wall of the uterus & prevents implantation of the embryo.
The IUD is removed by a doctor by pulling the strings attached to it which pass though the cervix. IUDs are usually used by
women who have already had a child and they remain effective fro 8 - 10 years.

 Chemical / Hormonal Methods

a) Spermicidal creams
A woman uses an applicant to put spermicides insides her vagina just before intercourse kill sperms. Spermicides are not
very effective on their own & so are often coupled with diaphragms for back up.

b) The Pill
The contraceptive pill contains one / both hormones oestrogen & progesterone. The contraception of hormones stops the
ovaries from producing eggs. The woman takes the pill everyday for 21 days of her menstrual cycle. When she stops taking
this pill menstruation occurs. The woman can then begin taking the pill again on day one of her next menstrual cycle. If she
forgets to take the pill for a day then the protection is incomplete & so another contraception must used until the woman’s
menstrual cycle.

c) Norplant
It consists of six capsules which are inserted under the skin in the woman’ arm. It contains progesterone which prevents
ovulation. It is effective 24 hours after insertion and remains effective for five years. The norplant also thickens the cervical
mucus making it difficult fro the sperm to enter the uterus. It also makes the inner lining o the uterus unsuitable for the fertilized
egg to get implanted.

d) The injection
This contains the hormone progesterone. Once injected into the arm of the woman the hormone is slowly released into the
body for the next 2 – 3 months. The progesterone stops the production of eggs. Injected contraceptives are useful for women
who have difficulties taking the pill or experience problems with other methods of contraception.

 Surgical Method (Sterilisation)

It involves a minor operation (in men is called Vasectomy; in females its called Tubal ligation). In males the spermducts are
tied & cut by a surgeon. The man can still ejaculate as the ducts are only cut below the seminal vesicles but the fluid
ejaculated will contain no sperms. This prevents the sperms from the reaching the egg.
In females the oviducts are tied & cut to prevent the passage of eggs from the ovaries.

 Natural Methods
a) Rhythm method (safe period)
This depends on the woman (and possibly her partner) understanding how her menstrual cycle works. She should be able to
calculate the times at which pregnancy is possible. In addition, the woman may also observe a slight increase in body
temperature when ovulation sets in. (the temperature rise at ovulation is 0.5 0C) unfortunately the menstrual cycle is always
unpredictable especially in teenagers.

b) Withdrawal method
This depends on the men, who should pull out his penis from the woman’s vagina before ejaculation. This is however an
unreliable method because some semen would have long passed into the vagina even before complete ejaculation.

 Other methods
c)Douching
It involves flushing or washing the vagina after intercourse. This is a useless method because sperms can reach the upper part
of the oviduct within 10 minutes.
c) Abstinence
This is the most effective way to avoid any pregnancy, since there is no sexual intercourse at all.
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SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

1. Syphilis
Caused by; a spirochete bacterium called Trepanema Pallidum
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Transmission – a) through unprotected sexual intercourse

b) From pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta

Symptoms (In both males & females)

I. First stage – painless sores appear on genitals or site of infection, which
can heal after 4 – 8 weeks.
II. Second stage – skin rash, lymph nodes enlarge, headache, aches &
pains in the bones.
III. Third stage – brain & heart damage which occur within 10 years of
original infection. During birth a baby’s eyes may become infected as it
passes through the cervix & vagina.

Treatment - Can be treated with penicillin

Control
I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner

2. Gonorrhea

Caused by; a bacterium called Nersseria gonorrhoeas / gonococcus

Transmission – a) through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected

person
b) from pregnant woman to foetus across the placenta
c) During delivery

Symptoms
In males
 Yellowish smelly discharge from the penis
 Painful urination
 May lead to the blockage of the urethra and sperm ducts leading to
sterility

In females
 Painful urination
 Yellowish & smelly discharge from the vagina.
 Oviducts may become blocked resulting in sterility
 Bacteria may invade the baby’s eyes at birth & cause blindness.
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 May not show any signs at first stage

Treatment – can be treated by using antibiotics like penicillin

Control
I. Abstinence
II. Condom use
III. Be faithful to your partner

3. AIDS

(i) Cause
It is caused by a virus called Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Transmission

 Unprotected sexual contact

 Mixing of infected blood with a non-infected one, e.g. by blood transfusion,
sharing unsterilized sharp instruments like needles & blades.
 Mother to child during pregnancy by breast feeding

(ii) Treatment

AIDS has no treatment; however, its unpleasant effects can be alleviated through the
use of antiretroviral therapy.

(iii) Prevention & Control

 Abstinence
 Using a condom during sexual contact
 Avoid sharing needles & blades
 Screening of blood before transfusion
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