01-Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques & Examples

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect
data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is
the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you
will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. This is called
a sampling method. There are two primary types of sampling methods that you can
use in your research:

 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong

statistical inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section
of your paper or thesis, as well as how you approached minimizing research bias in
your work.

Population vs. sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample, and identify
the target population of your research.

 The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
 The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, or many other
characteristics.
 It can be very broad or quite
narrow: maybe you want to make inferences about the whole adult population of your
country; maybe your research focuses on customers of a certain company, patients with a
specific health condition, or students in a single school.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and
practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed, it

might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample. A lack of a representative sample
affects the validity of your results, and can lead to several research biases,
particularly sampling bias.

Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from.
Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that
population).

Example: Sampling frameYou are doing research on working conditions at a social media
marketing company. Your population is all 1000 employees of the company. Your sampling
frame is the company’s HR database, which lists the names and contact details of every
employee.

Sample size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various factors,
including the size and variability of the population and your research design. There are
different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to achieve
with statistical analysis.
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of
being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research. If you want to produce
results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling
techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators
or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: Simple random samplingYou want to select a simple random sample of 1000
employees of a social media marketing company. You assign a number to every employee in
the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100
numbers.

2. Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly
easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

Example: Systematic samplingAll employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order.
From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6
onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up
with a sample of 100 people.
If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern
in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups
employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk
that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is
skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling
Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may
differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity, age range, income
bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people
should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic
sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

Example: Stratified samplingThe company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company,
so you sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on
each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100
people.

4. Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage
sampling.

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is
more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between
clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative
of the whole population.

Example: Cluster samplingThe company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to
travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices –
these are your clusters.

Non-probability sampling methods

In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria,
and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk
of sampling bias. That means the inferences you can make about the population are
weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If
you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of
the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative

research. In these types of research, the aim is not to test ahypothesis about a broad
population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched
population.
1. Convenience sampling
A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell
if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results. Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling
bias and selection bias.

Example: Convenience samplingYou are researching opinions about student support services
in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete
a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed
students taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of
all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on
ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly
contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g. by responding to a public online
survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people
will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others, leading to self-selection bias.

Example: Voluntary response samplingYou send out the survey to all students at your
university and a lot of students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some
insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have
strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are
representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling
This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher
using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.

It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain detailed
knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or
where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must
have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion. Always make sure to describe
your inclusion and exclusion criteria and beware of observer bias affecting your
arguments.

Example: Purposive samplingYou want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number of students with
different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with
student services.

4. Snowball sampling
If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative your sample
is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This can lead to sampling
bias.

Example: Snowball samplingYou are researching experiences of homelessness in your city.

Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible.
You meet one person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact
with other homeless people that she knows in the area.

5. Quota sampling
Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a predetermined number or
proportion of units. This is called a quota.

You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups (called strata) and
then recruit sample units until you reach your quota. These units share specific
characteristics, determined by you prior to forming your strata. The aim of quota
sampling is to control what or who makes up your sample.

Example: Quota samplingYou want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce delivery
service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You divide the population into meat eaters,
vegetarians, and vegans, drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater
to all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary group. In this way, all dietary
preferences are equally represented in your research, and you can easily compare these
groups.You continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for each
subgroup.

02-P-Value: What It Is, How to Calculate

It, and Why It Matters
What Is P-Value?
In statistics, the p-value is the probability of obtaining results at least as
extreme as the observed results of a statistical hypothesis test, assuming
that the null hypothesis is correct. The p-value serves as an alternative to
rejection points to provide the smallest level of significance at which
the null hypothesis would be rejected. A smaller p-value means that there
is stronger evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis.

P-value is often used to promote credibility for studies or reports by

government agencies. For example, the U.S. Census Bureau stipulates
that any analysis with a p-value greater than 0.10 must be accompanied
by a statement that the difference is not statistically different from zero.
The Census Bureau also has standards in place stipulating which p-values
are acceptable for various publications.1

KEY TAKEAWAYS
  A p-value is a statistical measurement used to validate a hypothesis
against observed data.
 A p-value measures the probability of obtaining the observed results,
assuming that the null hypothesis is true.
 The lower the p-value, the greater the statistical significance of the
observed difference.
 A p-value of 0.05 or lower is generally considered statistically
significant.1
 P-value can serve as an alternative to—or in addition to—
preselected confidence levels for hypothesis testing.
03-What Is Data Analysis?
Data analysis is the process of collecting, modeling, and analyzing data using
various statistical and logical methods and techniques. Businesses rely on
analytics processes and tools to extract insights that support strategic and
operational decision-making.

Why Is Data Analysis Important?

Before we go into detail about the categories of analysis along with its methods and
techniques, you must understand the potential that analyzing data can bring to your
organization.

1. Informed decision-making: From a management perspective, you can

benefit from analyzing your data as it helps you make decisions based on
facts and not simple intuition. For instance, you can understand where to
invest your capital, detect growth opportunities, predict your income, or tackle
uncommon situations before they become problems. Through this, you can
extract relevant insights from all areas in your organization, and with the help
of dashboard software, present the data in a professional and interactive way
to different stakeholders.
2. Reduce costs: Another great benefit is to reduce costs. With the help of
advanced technologies such as predictive analytics, businesses can spot
improvement opportunities, trends, and patterns in their data and plan their
strategies accordingly. In time, this will help you save money and resources
on implementing the wrong strategies. And not just that, by predicting different
scenarios such as sales and demand you can also anticipate production and
supply.
3. Target customers better: Customers are arguably the most crucial element
in any business. By using analytics to get a 360° vision of all aspects related
to your customers, you can understand which channels they use to
communicate with you, their demographics, interests, habits, purchasing
behaviors, and more. In the long run, it will drive success to your marketing
strategies, allow you to identify new potential customers, and avoid wasting
resources on targeting the wrong people or sending the wrong message. You
can also track customer satisfaction by analyzing your client’s reviews or your
customer service department’s performance.
 4. Identify: Before you get your hands dirty with data, you first need to identify
why you need it in the first place. The identification is the stage in which you
establish the questions you will need to answer. For example, what is the
customer's perception of our brand? Or what type of packaging is more
engaging to our potential customers? Once the questions are outlined you are
ready for the next step.
5. Collect: As its name suggests, this is the stage where you start collecting the
needed data. Here, you define which sources of data you will use and how
you will use them. The collection of data can come in different forms such as
internal or external sources, surveys, interviews, questionnaires, and focus
groups, among others. An important note here is that the way you collect the
data will be different in a quantitative and qualitative scenario.
6. Clean: Once you have the necessary data it is time to clean it and leave it
ready for analysis. Not all the data you collect will be useful, when collecting
big amounts of data in different formats it is very likely that you will find
yourself with duplicate or badly formatted data. To avoid this, before you start
working with your data you need to make sure to erase any white spaces,
duplicate records, or formatting errors. This way you avoid hurting your
analysis with bad-quality data.
7. Analyze: With the help of various techniques such as statistical analysis,
regressions, neural networks, text analysis, and more, you can start analyzing
and manipulating your data to extract relevant conclusions. At this stage, you
find trends, correlations, variations, and patterns that can help you answer the
questions you first thought of in the identify stage. Various technologies in the
market assist researchers and average users with the management of their
data. Some of them include business intelligence and visualization software,
predictive analytics, and data mining, among others.
8. Interpret: Last but not least you have one of the most important steps: it is
time to interpret your results. This stage is where the researcher comes up
with courses of action based on the findings. For example, here you would
understand if your clients prefer packaging that is red or green, plastic or
paper, etc. Additionally, at this stage, you can also find some limitations and
work on them.

Now that you have a basic understanding of the key data analysis steps, let’s look at
the top 17 essential methods.

05-Software for data analysis

NVivo
MAXQDA
QDA Miner
Dedoose
SPSS
SIMSTAT
Quirkos
SAS Business Intelligence

06-How questionnaires are used in research

The questionnaire is viewed as a primary research tool for researchers to gather
data from a target audience.

Questionnaires typically include open ended questions, closed ended questions, or a

combination of both. This allows researchers to collect data that is qualitative and
quantitative in nature depending on their needs.

Advantages of questionnaires
When it comes to the benefits of questionnaires in research the positives are wide-
ranging particularly with online questionnaires.

Cost savings:

Compared with a face-to-face questionnaire delivered on site, over the phone, or by

post, there are no labour, paper, printing, phone or postage expenses to worry about
with the online questionnaire, making it a much more cost-efficient approach.

Reach people quickly:

With a wide choice of mediums with which to distribute your questionnaire, from
emailing and texting it, to putting a link to it on your website, or making it
downloadable via a QR code, you can reach out and gain feedback quickly from your
respondents.

Scalability:

Thanks to the internet, it’s quick and simple to ramp up the audience for your online
questionnaire and literally target them anywhere in the world. All you need to do is
send them a link to your questionnaire, which could be executed through an
automated email in a customer onboarding or lead nurturing campaign.

Respondent anonymity:

Compared with other approaches including face-to-face and over the telephone
questioning, the ability to provide anonymity with an online questionnaire is a
significant benefit, particularly when you are looking to survey respondents on
sensitive issues.

When anonymity is provided it immediately puts respondents at ease and

encourages them to answer truthfully, which is great when you’re trying to get a
more honest and accurate picture of your subject of investigation, such as when
you’re surveying employees about your company culture.
Flexibility for respondents over where and when to complete their
questionnaire:

The great thing about the online questionnaire, is that respondents can choose when
and where they will complete your questionnaire. With more time to fill-in your survey
and even the flexibility to start it and then come back to it at another time to finish it
off, can help boost your overall response rates.

Data accuracy:

While methods such as face-to-face and over the telephone questionnaires require
the interviewer to process respondent answers, with the online questionnaire
answers are automatically inserted into spreadsheets, databases, or other software
packages reducing the risk of human error and enabling automatic validation of the
data.

Create a free survey with SmartSurvey

Create great looking surveys with our free online survey maker. Our Basic plan is
free forever and perfect for personal use, students, micro businesses, or for anyone
looking to test the water.

07-Type I and Type II errors

 Type I errors, also known as false positives, occur when you see
things that are not there.
 Type II errors, or false negatives, occur when you don’t see
things that are there
08-conceptual framework with independent & dependent variables