P.M.

Shri Kendriya Vidyalaya Puri

Physics Project-Laws Of Motion

Name-Preeti Prajnya Raya
Class-XI B
Guided by-Mandira Biswas
Certificate-
This is to certify that Preeti Prajnya Raya of class 11th B
have successfully completed their project on topic Laws
Of Motion as prescribed by Physics Mam during the
academic year 2024-25 as per the guidelines given by
CBSE.

Teacher’s signature Principal’s signature

Acknowledgement -
I am very thankful to everyone who all supported me, I have
completed my project effectively and moreover on time. I am
over helmed in all humbleness and gratefulness to
acknowledge my depth to all those who have helped me to put
these ideas well.
I am equally grateful to my physics mam. She gave me moral
support and guided me in different matters regarding the topic.
With the help of her valuable suggestions, guidance and
encouragement, I was able to perform this project work. Last
but not the least I would like to thank my parents who helped
me a lot in gathering different information, collecting data and
guiding me from time to time in making this project despite of
their busy schedules, they gave us different ideas in making
this project unique.
Thanking you……
Preeti Prajnya Raya
Contents (Index)
Introduction to Laws of Motion

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Inertia and Types of Inertia

Force and its Types

Applications of Newton's Laws in Daily Life

Friction: Causes and Effects

Momentum and Impulse

Law of Conservation of Momentum

Circular Motion and Centripetal Force

Free Body Diagrams (FBD) and Problem Solving

Experimental Verification of Newton's Laws

Conclusion

References
Introduction-
Introduction to Laws of Motion

Motion is a fundamental concept in physics, defining the change in position of an object over
time. It is observed in various forms, from the simple act of a ball rolling down a hill to the
complex orbits of celestial bodies. Understanding motion is essential for describing and
predicting how objects interact in the universe. The study of motion and the forces that cause
it falls under the domain of classical mechanics, a branch of physics that emerged in the late
17th century.

Sir Isaac Newton, an influential figure in classical mechanics, revolutionized our

understanding of motion with his three laws, which collectively form the foundation of
modern physics. Published in his seminal work, "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia
Mathematica" in 1687, Newton's laws provided a comprehensive framework for analysing
motion. His work laid the groundwork for future developments in physics, influencing
various fields, including engineering, astronomy, and even economics.

At the heart of Newton's laws is the concept of force, which is defined as any interaction that,
when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. Force is a vector quantity,
characterized by both magnitude and direction. When a force acts on an object, it can cause
the object to accelerate, decelerate, remain at rest, or change direction. This interplay between
force and motion is encapsulated in Newton's second law, which states that the acceleration
of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting upon it and inversely proportional
to its mass (F = ma).

In summary, motion is a key concept in physics, deeply analysed through classical

mechanics. Newton's pioneering work established fundamental principles that govern the
behaviour of objects in motion, with force playing a crucial role in determining how and why
objects move. Understanding these laws is essential for grasping the complexities of physical
interactions in our universe.
Newton’s First Law of Motion
Newton's First Law of Motion, often called the Law of Inertia, states: "An object remains at
rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by a net external force."
This means that in the absence of a force, an object will continue to do what it is currently
doing. If the object is stationary, it will remain at rest. If it is in motion, it will continue
moving at the same speed and in the same direction. The only way to change this state is by
applying an external force.

The Concept of Inertia

The core idea behind Newton’s First Law is inertia, which refers to the tendency of an object
to resist changes in its state of motion. Essentially, inertia is the natural resistance of objects
to any change in their velocity (speed and direction). This property is directly related to the
object's mass. The greater the mass, the greater its inertia.

For example, a heavy object like a boulder is much harder to move from rest than a small
stone because the boulder has more mass and thus more inertia. Similarly, a fast-moving train
requires much more effort (force) to stop than a bicycle due to its larger mass and inertia.

Examples of Inertia

1. A Book on a Table

Consider a book resting on a table. According to Newton’s First Law, the book will remain at
rest as long as no external force acts upon it. The force of gravity pulls the book downwards,
but the table provides an equal and opposite force (called the normal force) that balances
gravity. In this scenario, there is no net force acting on the book, so it remains motionless.

However, if someone applies a force—say, by pushing the book—the net external force
causes the book to move. Once the force is removed, the book may eventually stop due to
friction, which is an opposing force acting between the book and the table surface. Without
friction or any other opposing force, the book would continue moving in the same direction
indefinitely.

2. Passengers in a Car When Brakes Are Applied

A common experience of inertia occurs when you're riding in a car, and the driver suddenly
applies the brakes. Before the brakes are applied, both you and the car are moving at the same
speed. Your body, according to Newton’s First Law, has inertia, meaning it wants to continue
moving forward at the same speed, even when the car starts slowing down.

When the brakes are applied, the car decelerates rapidly. However, because of inertia, your
body resists this sudden change in motion and tends to continue moving forward. This is why
you feel like you're being thrown forward in your seat when the car sudd enly stops. Seatbelts
are designed to counteract this effect by applying a force to keep you securely in place,
preventing injury by overcoming your body's inertia.
Inertia and Daily Life

Newton's First Law and the concept of inertia are ever-present in our daily lives. Whether it's
a soccer ball staying still until it's kicked or a coffee cup sliding across a table and eventually
stopping due to friction, inertia governs the behaviour of objects around us. The law serves as
a reminder that without forces like friction, gravity, or applied effort, objects would maintain
their state of motion indefinitely, highlighting the importance of external forces in shaping
the physical world.

In summary, Newton's First Law provides a fundamental understanding of how objects

behave when forces are absent or balanced. Inertia plays a critical role, and its effects can be
seen in various scenarios, from objects at rest to moving vehicles. This und erstanding helps
us analyse and predict the motion of objects, forming the foundation for much of classical
mechanics.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s Second Law of Motion states: “The rate of change of momentum of an object is
directly proportional to the net external force applied, and this change occurs in the
direction of the applied force.” In simpler terms, it describes how the velocity of an object
changes when a force is applied. This law provides a quantitative relationship between the
force acting on an object, its mass, and the resulting acceleration, which forms the foundation
for much of classical mechanics.

Derivation of the Formula: F=Formula used:

F=dp/dt
where, F is the force
dp/dt is the rate of change of momentum.
Initial momentum, pi=mu
Final momentum, pf=mv
Change in momentum, △p=pf−pi
⇒△p=mv−mu⇒ △p=m(v−u)
Time taken to cause change in momentum=△t=△t
∴∴ Rate of change of momentum=△p△t =m(v−u)
F=m[△v△t]

F=ma

Significance of Mass and Acceleration in Motion

Newton's Second Law highlights the role of both mass and acceleration in determining how
an object responds to a force.

1. Mass (m):

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object, and it also reflects the object's
inertia—its resistance to changes in motion. The larger the mass of an object, the greater the
force required to accelerate it. For example, pushing a truck requires significantly more force
than pushing a bicycle because the truck has much more mass. Thus, mass is a key factor in
determining how much force is needed to cause acceleration.

2. Acceleration (a):

Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. For a given force, the acceleration an object
experiences are inversely proportional to its mass. A smaller mass will experience greater
acceleration under the same force, whereas a larger mass will accelerate less. For example, if
you apply the same force to both a football and a heavy stone, the football, being lighter, will
accelerate much more than the stone.

Example: Kicking a Football vs. Kicking a Heavy Stone

Imagine kicking a football and a heavy stone with the same force. According to Newton’s
Second Law:

F=ma

• Football: The football has relatively low mass, so when you apply a force by kicking
it, the resulting acceleration is large. This is why the football moves rapidly in the
direction of the force.
• Stone: The stone, on the other hand, has a much larger mass. Even though the force
you apply with your foot may be the same as when kicking the football, the
acceleration will be much smaller because the mass of the stone is much larger. As a
result, the stone barely moves.

This example demonstrates how the same force can result in different accelerations
depending on the mass of the object being acted upon. The football, with less mass,
accelerates more and moves further, while the stone, with more mass, remains almost
stationary.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Newton’s Third Law of Motion states: “For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.” This fundamental principle explains that whenever one object exerts a force on
another, the second object exerts a force of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction on
the first object. These two forces are always paired together, often referred to as "action-
reaction pairs."

The key point in Newton’s Third Law is that the forces are equal in size but opposite in
direction, and they act on different objects. It’s important to note that these forces don't
cancel each other out because they act on separate entities.

Examples of Newton’s Third Law

1. Recoil of a Gun

One of the most common examples of Newton's Third Law is the recoil of a gun. When a
gun is fired, an explosive force pushes the bullet forward through the barrel. According to
Newton’s Third Law, as the bullet is propelled forward (the action), an equal and opposite
force is exerted on the gun (the reaction), causing the gun to "kick back" or recoil.

In this case:

• Action: The gun exerts a forward force on the bullet.

• Reaction: The bullet exerts an equal but opposite backward force on the gun.

The heavier mass of the gun compared to the bullet usually means that while the force is the
same, the acceleration of the gun (its recoil) is much smaller than that of the bullet, as per
Newton’s Second Law F=ma. This is why the bullet moves much faster than the gun does
when fired.

2. Rocket Propulsion

Another striking example of Newton’s Third Law is rocket propulsion. In space, where
there is no air or ground to push against, rockets still manage to move forward. This works
based on the principle of action and reaction.

• The rocket engine expels gas particles (the action) at high speed out of the rocket’s exhaust.
• In return, the expelled gases exert an equal and opposite force (the reaction) on the rocket,
pushing it forward.

This interaction is what allows rockets to travel through the vacuum of space. The expelled
gases have mass and are propelled backward, and the rocket moves in the opposite direction
in response, despite there being no medium to "push against."

3. Walking on the Ground

A more familiar example of Newton’s Third Law can be observed when we walk on the
ground. When you take a step, your foot pushes backward against the ground (the action). In
response, the ground pushes forward on your foot with an equal and opposite force (the
reaction), propelling you forward.

• Action: Your foot exerts a backward force on the ground.

• Reaction: The ground exerts an equal and opposite forward force on your foot.

Without this reaction force from the ground, walking would be impossible. This is why
walking becomes difficult on slippery surfaces, such as ice, where the friction between your
foot and the ground is minimal. The lack of friction means the ground can’t exert a strong
enough reaction force to propel you forward, and you may slip instead.

Everyday Applications of Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s Third Law governs numerous interactions in everyday life. Whether it's the force
of an airplane’s engines pushing air backward and causing the plane to move forward, or the
simple act of rowing a boat (pushing water backward to move forward), this principle is
everywhere. Here are a few more everyday examples:

• Swimming: When you swim, you push the water backward with your hands and feet
(the action), and the water pushes your body forward (the reaction).
• Jumping off a boat onto a dock: As you jump off a boat, you push backward on the
boat (the action), and the boat moves slightly backward in response (the reaction),
while you are propelled forward toward the dock.

Inertia and Types of Inertia

Inertia is a property of matter that refers to the tendency of an object to resist changes in its
state of motion. This means that an object will remain at rest or continue moving at a constant
velocity unless acted upon by an external force. Inertia is directly related to an object’s
mass—the greater the mass, the greater the inertia, and therefore, the more difficult it is to
change the object’s state of motion.

Inertia plays a key role in Newton’s First Law of Motion, also known as the Law of Inertia,
which states that an object will stay at rest or move in a straight line at a constant speed
unless an unbalanced force acts upon it.

Types of Inertia

There are three types of inertia, depending on the state of the object:

1. Inertia of Rest

Inertia of rest refers to the tendency of an object to remain stationary unless an external
force is applied. This type of inertia is why an object at rest does not move on its own.

Example:

• A book on a table stays in place unless someone applies a force to move it.
• In a car, when the car suddenly starts moving, passengers may feel a backward push because
their bodies tend to remain in their original state of rest, resisting the sudden forward
motion.

2. Inertia of Motion

Inertia of motion is the tendency of a moving object to continue moving with the same
speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an external force. This is why a moving
object does not stop or change direction on its own.

Example:

• When a moving car suddenly stops, passengers inside feel a forward push because their
bodies tend to keep moving forward due to the inertia of motion.
• A train in motion will keep moving in a straight path unless a force like braking or friction
acts to slow it down or stop it.
3. Inertia of Direction

Inertia of direction refers to the tendency of an object to keep moving in the same direction
unless an external force changes its direction. This type of inertia is why an object moving in
a straight line will not change its course unless a force such as friction or another applied
force alters its path.

Example:

• When a car takes a sharp turn, passengers may feel a force pulling them outward. This occurs
because their bodies, due to the inertia of direction, want to keep moving in a straight line
while the car is changing direction.
• A stone tied to a string and swung in a circular motion tends to fly off tangentially if the
string is released, as it was trying to maintain its original straight-line path (inertia of
direction).

Force and Its Types

Force is defined as any interaction that, when unopposed, can change the motion of an
object. It can cause an object to accelerate, decelerate, remain stationary, or change its shape
or direction. Force is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction, and is
measured in newtons (N).

In terms of its effects on objects, force can either be balanced or unbalanced.

• Balanced Forces: When two or more forces acting on an object are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction, they cancel each other out, resulting in no change
in the object's motion. The object remains at rest or continues moving with a constant
velocity. For example, a book lying on a table experiences balanced forces—gravity
pulls it down, while the table provides an equal and opposite upward force (normal
force).
• Unbalanced Forces: When the forces acting on an object are not equal, there is a net
force that causes a change in the object's motion. This can result in acceleration,
deceleration, or a change in direction. For example, if you push a car with more force
than the opposing frictional forces, the car will start to move, indicating that
unbalanced forces are at play.

Types of Forces

There are several types of forces in nature, each acting under different circumstances. The
most common types include gravitational, electromagnetic, frictional, and tension forces.

1. Gravitational Force

Gravitational force is the force of attraction between two objects with mass. The strength of
this force depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. The more
massive an object, the stronger its gravitational pull. Gravitational force keeps planets in orbit
around the Sun and causes objects on Earth to fall toward the ground when dropped.
 • Example: When you drop a ball, it falls to the ground because Earth's gravity pulls it
downward.

The formula for gravitational force is:

F=Gm1m2/r2

where G is the gravitational constant, m1and m2 are the masses of the two objects, and r is
the distance between them.

2. Electromagnetic Force

Electromagnetic force includes both electric and magnetic forces. It is the force between
charged particles and is responsible for a wide range of phenomena, including the behaviour
of electric currents and the interaction between magnets. Unlike gravitational force,
electromagnetic forces can be both attractive and repulsive.

• Example: A magnet attracting or repelling another magnet, or the force between two
charged particles.

Electromagnetic forces are much stronger than gravitational forces but operate on smaller
scales. They are responsible for the chemical bonding between atoms and molecules.

3. Frictional Force

Frictional force is the resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over
another. Friction always opposes motion and acts to slow down or stop objects. There are two
main types of friction: static friction (the force that resists the initiation of motion) and
kinetic friction (the force that opposes motion once it has started).

• Example: When you push a box across the floor, friction between the box and the floor
resists the motion, making it harder to push.

Frictional forces depend on the surfaces in contact and the normal force pressing them
together. Lubricants, like oil, can reduce friction, while rough surfaces increase it.

4. Tension Force

Tension force is the pulling force transmitted through a string, rope, cable, or similar object
when it is pulled tight by forces acting at opposite ends. Tension acts along the length of the
object and keeps it taut.

• Example: When you pull on a rope during a game of tug-of-war, tension is created in the
rope. Each team exerts force on opposite ends, and the tension in the rope balances the
forces.

Tension can be thought of as the force that keeps objects connected through a flexible
medium like a cable or string, and it acts to resist being stretched further.

Contact and Non-Contact Forces

Forces can be broadly classified into two categories: contact forces and non-contact forces.

1. Contact Forces

Contact forces are forces that occur when two objects are physically touching each other.
These forces result from the interaction between the surfaces of the objects.

• Examples of contact forces include:

o Frictional force: The resistance between surfaces in contact.
o Tension force: The pulling force in a rope or cable.
o Normal force: The force exerted by a surface perpendicular to an object resting on it,
such as a book lying on a table.
o Applied force: Any force applied to an object by another object or person, such as
pushing a box.

In contact forces, the objects must be in physical contact, and the interaction is generally due
to mechanical or surface interactions.

2. Non-Contact Forces

Non-contact forces are forces that act on objects without the need for physical contact.
These forces can operate over a distance, sometimes even vast distances like those in space.

• Examples of non-contact forces include:

o Gravitational force: The attraction between masses, such as Earth pulling objects
toward its centre.
o Electromagnetic force: The force between charged particles or magnetic objects that
doesn't require them to touch, like magnets repelling or attracting each other.
o Electrostatic force: The force between two charged objects, such as a balloon
sticking to a wall after being rubbed against your hair.

Non-contact forces are fundamental forces that govern large-scale interactions in the
universe, such as planetary orbits and electromagnetic phenomena.

Applications of Newton’s Laws in

Daily Life
Newton’s three laws of motion are fundamental to understanding the mechanics behind
everyday activities. Whether it's riding a bicycle, driving a car, walking, or playing sports,
Newton’s laws govern how objects move and interact with forces. Let’s explore how each of
these laws applies to common scenarios in daily life.

1. Riding a Bicycle

Riding a bicycle is an excellent example of how Newton’s laws of motion come into play.

• Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia): When you’re riding at a constant speed and
stop pedaling, the bike will continue to move forward until friction from the tires and
 air resistance (external forces) slows it down and eventually brings it to a stop. This is
inertia at work—the bike keeps moving in a straight line unless acted upon by a force.
• Newton’s Second Law (F = ma): When you pedal harder, you apply a greater force,
which increases the bike’s acceleration. The heavier the bike and rider, the more force
you need to accelerate. This explains why it's harder to pedal uphill, as you need more
force to overcome both the bike’s inertia and gravity.
• Newton’s Third Law (Action-Reaction): As you push down on the pedals (action),
the pedals push back on your feet (reaction), propelling the bike forward. The tires
push backward on the ground, and the ground pushes the bike forward in response.

2. Driving a Car

Driving a car demonstrates all three of Newton’s laws of motion as well.

• Newton’s First Law: When you take your foot off the gas pedal, the car doesn't
instantly stop but continues moving forward due to inertia. It only slows down
because of friction between the tires and the road, and air resistance acting against the
car.
• Newton’s Second Law: The car’s acceleration depends on both the force exerted by
the engine and the car’s mass. A heavier vehicle requires more force to accelerate, and
conversely, a lighter car can accelerate faster with less force.
• Newton’s Third Law: When you press the gas pedal, the engine exerts force on the
wheels, pushing them backward against the road. In response, the road pushes the car
forward, allowing it to accelerate.

3. Walking

Walking is another activity that relies on Newton’s laws of motion.

• Newton’s First Law: When you're standing still, you remain at rest until you apply a
force by stepping forward. Once you’re walking at a constant pace, you maintain that
motion unless another force (like stopping or tripping) changes it.
• Newton’s Second Law: The more force you exert with your legs, the faster you
accelerate. For instance, walking slowly requires less force, but running requires more
force to increase your speed.
• Newton’s Third Law: As you step forward, your foot pushes backward against the
ground (action), and the ground pushes your foot forward with an equal and opposite
force (reaction), propelling your body forward.

4. Playing Sports

In sports, Newton’s laws explain how athletes move and interact with objects like balls or
racquets.

• Newton’s First Law: A ball at rest will stay at rest unless kicked, hit, or thrown.
Once the ball is in motion, it continues moving until friction or another force, like a
player stopping it, acts on it.
• Newton’s Second Law: The harder you throw or kick a ball, the more force you
apply, and the faster the ball accelerates. A heavier ball, like a medicine ball, requires
more force to move than a lighter ball, like a tennis ball.
 • Newton’s Third Law: In sports like soccer or tennis, when you hit a ball with your
foot or racquet (action), the ball exerts an equal and opposite force on your foot or
racquet (reaction). This explains why you feel the impact when hitting or kicking a
ball.

Friction: Causes and Effects

Friction is the force that resists the relative motion or tendency to move between two
surfaces in contact. It acts in the opposite direction to the motion of an object and is a
fundamental force in everyday life. Without friction, most of the activities that rely on
movement and control would be impossible. Friction arises due to the microscopic roughness
of surfaces, even those that appear smooth. When surfaces come into contact, these tiny
irregularities lock into each other, resisting motion.

Friction plays a crucial role by:

• Slowing down or stopping moving objects.

• Allowing us to walk without slipping.
• Enabling the use of tools and machines by providing the necessary resistance for control.

Types of Friction

There are several types of friction, each acting under different conditions:

1. Static Friction

Static friction is the frictional force that prevents an object from moving when a force is
applied. It acts between stationary surfaces and must be overcome to start moving the object.
Static friction is generally stronger than kinetic friction because the microscopic "bonds"
between the two surfaces are intact when they are not moving.

• Example: Trying to push a heavy box that doesn’t move initially due to static friction.

2. Kinetic Friction

Kinetic friction (or sliding friction) occurs once an object is already in motion. This
frictional force opposes the sliding of two surfaces past one another. It is generally weaker
than static friction but still significant in slowing down moving objects.

• Example: Once the heavy box starts sliding, kinetic friction opposes its movement and slows
it down.

3. Rolling Friction

Rolling friction occurs when an object rolls over a surface. It is much smaller than both
static and kinetic friction. This is why wheels and ball bearings are commonly used in
vehicles and machinery to reduce friction and make movement more efficient.
 • Example: The rolling friction between car tires and the road allows cars to move smoothly
with less resistance compared to dragging an object without wheels.

Applications of Friction in Daily Life

Friction plays a vital role in numerous everyday activities:

1. Car Tires

Friction between the car tires and the road surface allows cars to move, turn, and stop. The
grip from tire friction is essential for accelerating and decelerating safely. When friction is
reduced, such as on icy or wet roads, cars can skid because the tires lose their grip on the
surface.

2. Walking

Walking is possible due to the friction between our feet and the ground. As we step, our feet
push backward against the ground, and friction prevents slipping, allowing us to move
forward. Without enough friction, walking on slippery surfaces like ice becomes difficult.

3. Machines

Friction is both helpful and harmful in machinery. In some cases, like in belts and pulleys,
friction is necessary for operation. However, excessive friction in machine parts causes wear
and tear, energy loss as heat, and reduces efficiency. This is why lubricants, such as oil, are
used in machines to reduce friction and allow parts to move more smoothly.

Momentum and Impulse

Momentum

Momentum is a measure of the motion of an object. It depends on two factors: the mass of
the object and its velocity. The momentum of an object is directly proportional to both its
mass and velocity, meaning heavier objects or faster-moving objects have more momentum.

The formula for momentum is:

p=m⋅v

Where:

• p is the momentum,
• m is the mass of the object (in kilograms),
• v is the velocity of the object (in meters per second).

Momentum is a vector quantity, which means it has both a magnitude and a direction. The SI
unit of momentum is kilogram meters per second (kg·m/s). In simple terms, momentum
tells us how hard it is to stop an object in motion; the more momentum an object has, the
more force is required to stop it.
Impulse

Impulse refers to the change in momentum of an object when a force is applied over a period
of time. It is closely related to Newton’s Second Law of Motion, which states that the force
acting on an object is equal to the rate of change of its momentum. Impulse describes the
effect of this force over time and is represented by the following equation:

J=F⋅Δt

Where:

• J is the impulse (measured in newton-seconds, N·s),

• F is the force applied (in newtons, N),
• Δt is the time over which the force is applied (in seconds).

Impulse is also a vector quantity, with both magnitude and direction. The relationship
between impulse and momentum is that impulse is equal to the change in momentum:

J=Δp

This equation means that the impulse applied to an object results in a change in its
momentum. If a larger force is applied over a longer time, the impulse increases, leading to a
greater change in the object's momentum.

Example of Impulse:

Imagine pushing a heavy box. If you apply a small force for a short time, the box will move
only a little, causing a small change in momentum. However, if you push harder or for a
longer time, the box will move more, resulting in a larger change in momentum. The impulse,
in this case, depends on both the size of the force and how long you apply it.

Example: A Cricket Player Catching a Ball

A cricket player catching a fast-moving ball is a real-life example of momentum and impulse
in action. Let’s consider the scenario step by step.

• A player moves his hands backward to reduce the effect of the force of fast cricket
ball on his hands. A fast-moving ball has a high momentum, and when the player
catches the ball, the momentum of the ball changes to zero in a very short span of
time. That's why it hits his hands. Hence, to reduce the effect of the force, the player
pulls his hands back so that he can increase the time in which the momentum of the
ball falls to zero. By increasing the time, rate of change of momentum decreases
which impacts less force on the hands of the player.

Mass of the ball = 150 g = 0.15 kg

Initial velocity of the ball = 30 m/s

Final velocity of the ball = 0 m/s

 Time taken by the ball to stop = 0.05 s

Force exerted by the ball on the hand of the player = Rate of change of momentum of
the ball = Initial momentum-Final momentum/Time taken

Force =0.15kg×30m/s-0.15kg×00.05s=4.5kgm/s0.05s=90N

Hence, the force exerted by the ball on the hand of the player is 90 N. The player
needs to catch the ball, which means they must bring the ball’s momentum to zero
(stop the ball). To do this, the player applies a force over a period of time.

Role of Impulse in Catching the Ball:

When the player catches the ball, they provide an impulse to change the ball’s momentum
from its initial value (3 kg·m/s) to zero. If the player catches the ball quickly and abruptly,
the time Δt for which the force is applied is very short. This requires a large force to stop the
ball, which can cause discomfort or even injury to the player's hands.

To reduce the force, the cricket player extends their hands backward while catching the
ball. By increasing the time over which the force is applied, the player reduces the impact
force. This is an example of how impulse can be managed by controlling the time over which
the force acts.

J=F⋅Δt=Δp

By increasing Δt the required force F to stop the ball decreases, making the catch more
comfortable.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

Statement of the Law

The Law of Conservation of Momentum states that:

“The total momentum of a closed system remains constant unless acted upon by an
external force.”

This means that in an isolated system, where no external forces like friction or air resistance
are present, the total momentum of all the interacting bodies remains unchanged, regardless
of the interactions between the bodies. Momentum, a measure of the motion of an object, is
conserved in such a system. This principle applies to various types of interactions, including
collisions.

This law is crucial in physics because it helps explain and predict the outcome of interactions,
particularly collisions, between bodies. It is a direct consequence of Newton’s Third Law of
Motion, which asserts that forces between two objects are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.
Explanation

Momentum is the product of an object’s mass and velocity. For a system of interacting
objects, the total momentum is the sum of the individual momenta of all the objects. In an
isolated system, if no external forces act on the objects, the total momentum before and after
any interaction must be the same.

Mathematically, if we consider two interacting bodies, A and B, with momenta pAand pB ,

the total momentum of the system is given by:

Ptotal=pA+pB

If no external forces act on the system, the total momentum remains constant:

Pinitial=Pfinal

In other words, the sum of the momenta before the interaction equals the sum of the momenta
after the interaction.

Derivation of the Conservation of Momentum Equation

Let’s derive the conservation of momentum equation for two bodies, A and B, interacting
with each other.

1. Before Interaction:
o Let the initial velocities of bodies A and B be uA and uB, respectively.
o The initial momentum of body A is mA⋅uA and the initial momentum of body B is
mB⋅uB.
o The total initial momentum of the system is:

Pinitial=mA⋅uA+mB⋅uB

2. After Interaction:
o Let the final velocities of bodies A and B after the interaction be vA and vB
respectively.
o The final momentum of body A is mA⋅vA and the final momentum of body B is
mB⋅vB.
o The total final momentum of the system is:

Pfinal=mA⋅vA+mB⋅vB

3. Applying Conservation of Momentum: Since the total momentum of the system remains
constant, the total initial momentum equals the total final momentum:

mA⋅uA+mB⋅uB=mA⋅vA+mB⋅vBm_

This is the equation for the conservation of momentum, showing that the total momentum
before and after an interaction between two bodies remains the same, as long as no external
forces are acting on the system.
Example: Collisions Between Two Bodies

Collisions provide a classic example of the conservation of momentum. There are two main
types of collisions: elastic and inelastic. Both follow the law of conservation of momentum,
but they differ in how kinetic energy behaves.

1. Elastic Collision

In an elastic collision, both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved. The two bodies
bounce off each other, and no kinetic energy is lost to heat, sound, or deformation.

2. Inelastic Collision

In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. Some of the
kinetic energy is converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or sound. In a perfectly
inelastic collision, the two bodies stick together after the collision and move with a common
velocity.

Circular Motion?
A body moving along the circumference of the circle with a constant speed is said to be
exhibiting a circular motion.
For example, a car has a circular motion with a speed of 8 m/s along the circumference of 24
meters.
At a uniform speed, it will complete one cycle in 3 seconds.
It means in every circle, around the 24 m circumference of the circle, a body would take the
same time of 4 seconds.
So, this relationship between the circumference of a circle, the time to complete one revolution,
and the speed of the body can be described in terms of average speed.
So, Average speed = distance/time = circumference/time = 2 * π * r/T
As circumference = 2 * π * r
Dynamics of Circular Motion
Consider a body, moving along the circular path of radius r, in a clockwise direction in the
plane of a paper.
Let's say the axis of the circular motion is passing through the center O, perpendicular to the
plane of a paper.
The angle traced from P to Q is called the angular displacement, given by,
Ө = PQ/r = S/r
It is a vector quantity.
Its direction can be given by the right-hand rule.
Right-Hand Rule
It states that if the fingers are curled in the direction of motion as if they are gripping the axis
of rotation. The thumb that is held perpendicular to the curvature of the fingers represents the
direction of the angular displacement vector.
As it exhibits a circular motion, it has a velocity too, and that velocity is the angular velocity.
Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular displacement. It is symbolized by ω.
Where ω = v/r
It is a vector quantity.
By the right-hand rule, the thumb represents the direction of angular velocity.
For a body having anticlockwise rotation, by the right-hand rule, the direction of ω is along the
axis of a circular path and directed upwards, while for clockwise rotation, ω is directed
downwards.

Dynamics of Uniform Circular Motion

The natural tendency of the body is to move uniformly in a straight line.
When we apply a centripetal force to it, it is forced to move along the circle.
Let’s consider a body, uniformly moving along the circumference of the circle when a pseudo-
force is applied to it.
The pseudo-force that acts along the radius and is directed towards thecenter of the circle is
called the centripetal force.
According to Newton’s first law of motion , the body cannot change its direction of motion, an
external force is required to maintain its circular motion.
However, this body continuously changes its direction of motion by itself, and there is a change
in the velocity as well, that’s why it undergoes acceleration, called the radial centripetal
acceleration.
a = v2/r
We know that F = ma
F = mv2/r

Dynamic of Uniform Circular Motion

While moving along the circle, the body has a constant tendency to regain its natural linear
path. The tendency gives rise to a centrifugal force.
We can consider the centripetal force as the reaction of the centripetal force.
This means the centrifugal force is always equal and opposite to the centripetal force.
So, centrifugal force = mv2/r, and it acts along the radius, but away from the center of the
circle.
The centripetal and the centrifugal forces are the forces of action and reaction, respectively.
Let’s say a stone is tied to one end of the string and the other end is rotated in a circle.
When a centripetal force F1 is applied to the stone by the hand. It is pulled outward by
centrifugal force, F2 acting on it because it tends to regain its natural linear motion.
Dynamics of Non-Uniform Circular Motion
Consider a body moving with an angular velocity, ω.

It can change either its direction (clockwise or anticlockwise) or change its magnitude, while
the axis of rotation remains fixed.
So, the position vector ‘r’ remains constant.
Since v = rω
Now, differentiating it with respect to time, we get,
dv/dt = ωdr/dt + rdω/dt
As a = dvdt, dr/dt = v, α (angular acceleration) = dω/dt
= vω + rα
a = ac + at
Here, ac = radial or centripetal acceleration, which is the measure of the rate of change of the
velocity of the particle in the radial direction.
at = tangential acceleration, which is the measure of the rate of change of the magnitude of the
velocity of the particle in the tangential direction.
The magnitude of the resultant acceleration in the circular motion is given by,
 a = |a| = √ac^2 + √at ^2

Free Body Diagrams (FBD) and

Problem Solving
Concept of Free Body Diagrams (FBD)

A Free Body Diagram (FBD) is a simplified representation of an object (or a "body")

isolated from its surroundings, with all the external forces acting on it depicted as vectors. It
helps visualize the forces and is a critical tool in solving mechanics problems. The forces
typically represented in an FBD include gravitational forces, normal forces, frictional forces,
tension, and applied forces.

By isolating the body and showing only the forces acting on it, FBDs make it easier to apply
Newton’s laws of motion to analyze the situation and solve problems involving force,
acceleration, and equilibrium.

Steps to Draw a Free Body Diagram

1. Identify the Object: First, identify the object whose motion or equilibrium you are analyzing.
Imagine it as being isolated from everything else.
2. Draw the Object: Represent the object as a simple shape, often a box or a point.
3. Draw All Forces Acting on the Object: Add arrows to indicate all forces acting on the object.
The length of the arrow shows the magnitude of the force, and the direction of the arrow
shows the direction of the force.
4. Label the Forces: Label the forces to identify what each arrow represents (e.g., weight,
normal force, tension, friction).

Example 1: Block on an Inclined Plane

Consider a block resting on an inclined plane. The forces acting on the block are:

• Gravitational force (mg): Acts vertically downward.

• Normal force (N): Acts perpendicular to the surface of the incline.
• Frictional force (f): Opposes the motion of the block (if any).

FBD for Block on an Inclined Plane:

1. Draw the block as a rectangle.

2. Draw the weight (mg) vector pointing vertically downward.
3. Draw the normal force (N) perpendicular to the surface of the incline.
4. Draw the friction force (f) parallel to the incline, opposing motion (if the block is moving or
trying to move).
5. If the block is at rest or sliding down the plane, resolve the weight into two components: one
parallel to the incline (causing the block to slide down) and one perpendicular to the surface
(counteracted by the normal force).
Example 2: Tension in Ropes (Two Ropes Holding a Weight)

Consider an object hanging by two ropes at an angle. The forces acting on the object are:

• Gravitational force (mg): Acting downward due to the weight of the object.
• Tension in the ropes (T1 and T2): Acting along the direction of each rope.

Experimental Verification of
Newton's Laws
Newton’s laws of motion have been fundamental in understanding and describing the
behavior of objects in motion. Various experiments and observations can demonstrate and
verify these laws. Let’s look at simple experiments that correspond to each of Newton's three
laws of motion.

1. Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia): Tablecloth Pulling Experiment

Statement: “An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net
external force.”

Experiment: The Tablecloth Pulling Experiment is a classic demonstration of Newton’s

First Law. Here’s how it works:

• Place various objects (such as plates, cups, or cutlery) on a smooth tablecloth on a flat
surface.
• Quickly and sharply pull the tablecloth from under the objects without disturbing them.

Observation: The objects on the tablecloth remain stationary (or nearly stationary) as the
tablecloth is pulled away. This demonstrates inertia, the property of an object to resist
changes in its state of motion. Since the objects are at rest and no net external force is acting
directly on them (other than a brief frictional force), they tend to stay at rest.

Explanation: This experiment visually demonstrates Newton's First Law: without a

sufficient external force to disturb them, the objects remain at rest even though the tablecloth
beneath them is removed. The force acting on the objects is minimal due to the quick motion
of the tablecloth, and the inertia of the objects keeps them from moving.

2. Newton’s Second Law (F = ma): Pulley and Weights Experiment

Statement: “The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the net
external force applied, and this change occurs in the direction of the applied force.”

Experiment: To demonstrate Newton's Second Law, you can use a pulley and weights
system.

• Set up a pulley with a mass hanging on one side and a trolley or a cart on a flat surface
attached to the other side via a string.
 • Add different masses to the hanging weight and observe the motion of the trolley as the
weights pull it across the surface.

Observation: When the hanging mass increases, the acceleration of the trolley also increases.
By measuring the force applied (based on the weight of the hanging mass) and the
acceleration of the trolley, you can verify that F=ma.

Explanation: This experiment directly verifies Newton’s Second Law. The force applied by
the hanging weight causes the trolley to accelerate. By varying the mass or force, and
measuring the corresponding acceleration, you observe that the force is proportional to
acceleration, as predicted by F=ma.

3. Newton’s Third Law (Action-Reaction Law): Balloon Propulsion Experiment

Statement: “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

Experiment: A simple demonstration of Newton’s Third Law can be seen using a Balloon
Propulsion Experiment.

• Inflate a balloon and hold the neck closed.

• Release the balloon, allowing the air to escape, and observe the balloon’s motion.

Observation: As the air rushes out of the balloon in one direction, the balloon moves in the
opposite direction. This demonstrates the principle of action and reaction.

Explanation: The force of the air escaping from the balloon (the action) generates an equal
and opposite reaction, which propels the balloon forward. This experiment clearly verifies
Newton's Third Law, showing that forces always come in action-reaction pairs. The escaping
air exerts a force on the surrounding air, and in turn, the surrounding air exerts an equal and
opposite force on the balloon, causing its motion.

Conclusion
Newton's laws of motion are fundamental to understanding the physical world. These three
laws, formulated by Sir Isaac Newton in the 17th century, provide the framework for
analyzing the forces and motion of objects. They have not only shaped the field of classical
mechanics but have also laid the foundation for much of modern physics.

Importance of Newton's Laws

• Newton’s First Law (Inertia) explains how objects behave when no external force is
acting on them, emphasizing the natural tendency of objects to remain at rest or in
uniform motion unless influenced by an external force. This concept of inertia is
crucial for understanding why objects move or remain still in everyday life, and it
forms the basis for the study of equilibrium and statics in mechanics.
• Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) quantifies the relationship between force, mass, and
acceleration. It allows us to calculate how objects move when forces are applied to
them, enabling precise predictions about how objects will behave under different
 conditions. This law is especially important for designing machines, vehicles, and
understanding complex systems in engineering and physics.
• Newton’s Third Law (Action and Reaction) reveals the interconnectedness of
forces in interactions. It explains why, in every interaction, forces always occur in
pairs, making it possible to understand a wide range of phenomena, from the simple
mechanics of walking to the propulsion of rockets into space.

Foundational for Further Studies in Physics

Newton’s laws serve as the bedrock for more advanced concepts in physics, including fluid
dynamics, electromagnetism, and modern astrophysics. They are the starting point for
understanding more complex theories, such as Einstein’s theory of relativity, which extends
and refines Newtonian mechanics to account for extreme conditions like high speeds and
strong gravitational fields.

In fields like engineering, architecture, and aerospace, Newton’s laws are essential for
designing and optimizing structures and systems. Moreover, they play a crucial role in
studying the motion of planets, the mechanics of machines, and the behavior of materials.

In conclusion, Newton’s laws of motion provide the essential principles that govern the
movement of objects in our universe. By offering clear rules for how forces and motion are
related, they have enabled us to comprehend, predict, and manipulate the physical world.
These laws are not only vital for solving practical problems but also serve as the foundation
for further exploration in all areas of physics.

References
1. Textbooks:
o Halliday, D., Resnick, R., & Walker, J. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics. 10th
Edition. Wiley.
o Serway, R. A., & Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics. 10th Edition. Cengage Learning.
o Tipler, P. A., & Mosca, G. (2008). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 6th
Edition. W. H. Freeman and Company.
2. Websites:
o Khan Academy. (n.d.). Newton's Laws of Motion. Retrieved from Khan
Academy
o HyperPhysics. (n.d.). Newton's Laws of Motion. Retrieved from HyperPhysics
o Physics Classroom. (n.d.). Newton's Laws of Motion. Retrieved from Physics
Classroom
3. Research Papers:
o Einstein, A. (1916). Relativity: The Special and General Theory. Retrieved
from Archive.org
o Newton, I. (1687). Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. Retrieved
from Project Gutenberg
4. Videos and Documentaries:
o The Elegant Universe. (2003). PBS Documentary. Retrieved from PBS
o MinutePhysics. (2012). Newton's Laws of Motion. YouTube. Retrieved from
YouTube
 5. Other Resources:
o OpenStax. (2016). University Physics Volume 1. OpenStax CNX. Retrieved
from OpenStax

This list compiles various educational resources that provided the foundational knowledge
and insights necessary for the preparation of this project on Newton’s laws of motion. Each
reference has contributed to a deeper understanding of the principles governing motion and
force in physics.