Module 4: Electrical Machines

DC Motor

Direct Current Machine

A DC machine is an electro-mechanical energy conversion device. When it converts
mechanical power (ωT) into DC electrical power (EI), it is known as a DC generator. On the
other hand, when it converts DC electrical power into mechanical power it is known as a DC
motor.
Construction of DC Machine
The d.c. generators and d.c. motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the
machine is being assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a
d.c. generator or motor. Any d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor and vice-versa.
The complete assembly of various parts in a scattered form of a DC machine is shown in
Fig. 4.1. The essential parts of a DC machine are described below:

Fig-4.1 Disassembled parts of a DC machine

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke: The outer cylindrical frames to which main poles and inter
poles are fixed is called yoke. It also helps to fix the machine on the foundation. It serves
two purposes:
 (i) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the machine.
(ii) It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.
The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and for larger machines, it is made of
cast steel or fabricated rolled steel since these materials have better magnetic properties as
compared to cast iron.

Fig-4.2 Sectional view of DC machine

2. Pole Core and Pole Shoes: The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic
frame or yoke by bolts. They serve the following purposes:
(i) They support the field or exciting coils.
(ii) They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature periphery more uniformly.
(iii) Since pole shoes have larger X-section, the reluctance of magnetic path is reduced.
Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel or wrought iron laminations
which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure as shown in Fig- 4.3.

Fig-4.3 Field winding placed around pole core Fig-4.4 Magnetic circuit of DC machine
3. Field or Exciting Coils: Enameled copper wire is used for the construction of field or
exciting coils. The coils are wound on the former and then placed around the pole core as
shown in Fig. 4.3. When direct current is passed through the field winding, it magnetizes
the poles which produce the required flux. The field coils of all the poles are connected
in series in such a way that when current flows through them, the adjacent poles attain
opposite polarity as shown in Fig. 4.4.

4. Armature Core: It is cylindrical is shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer
periphery slots are cut, which accommodate the armature winding. The armature core
serves the following purposes:
(i) It houses the conductors in the slots.
(ii) It provides an easy path for magnetic flux.
Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes place in the core,
hence hysteresis losses are produced. To minimize these losses silicon steel material is
used for its construction. When it rotates, it cuts the magnetic field and an emf is
induced in it. This emf circulates eddy currents which results in eddy current loss in it.
To reduce these losses, armature core is laminated, in other words we can say that about
0.3 to 0.5 mm thick stampings are used for its construction. Each lamination or stamping is
insulated from the other by varnish layer.
5. Armature Winding: The insulated conductors housed in the armature slots are suitably
connected. This is known as armature winding. The armature winding acts as the heart
of a DC machine. It is a place where one form of power is converted to the other form
i.e., in case of generator, mechanical power is converted into electrical power and in case
of motor, electrical power is converted into mechanical power. On the basis of
connections, there are two types of armature windings named (i) Lap winding and (ii)
Wave winding.
(i) In lap winding the connections are such that the number of parallel paths is equal
to number of poles and the number of brushes is equal to the number parallel paths.
(ii) In wave winding, the connections are such that the numbers of parallel paths are
only two irrespective of the number of poles and the number of brushes is equal to
two i.e., number of parallel paths.

6. Commutator: It is an important part of a DC machine and serves the following purposes:

(i) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary external circuit
through brushes.
(ii) It converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit in generator action, whereas, it
converts the alternating torque into unidirectional (continuous) torque produced
in the armature in motor action.
The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-shaped hard drawn
copper segments. The segments are insulated from each other by a thin
 sheet of mica. The segments are held together by means of two V-shaped rings that fit
into the V-grooves cut into the segments. Each armature coil is connected to the
commutator segment.
7. Brushes: The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and form the connecting link
between the armature winding and the external circuit. They are usually made of high grade
carbon because carbon is conducting material and at the same time in powdered form
provides lubricating effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in particular
position around the commutator by brush holders and rocker.

8. Brush Rocker: It holds the spindles of the brush holders. It is fitted on to the stationary
frame of the machine with nut and bolts. By adjusting its position, the position of the
brushes over the commutator can be adjusted to minimise the sparking at the brushes.

9. End Housings: End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support
bearings. The front housing supports the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the
rear housing usually supports the bearing only.

10. Bearings: The bearings may be ball or roller bearings these are fitted in the end housings.
Their function is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts of the machine.
Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.

11. Shaft: The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength. The shaft is
used to transfer mechanical power from or to the machine. The rotating parts like armature
core, commutator, cooling fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.

DC Motor:
An electro-mechanical energy conversion device (electrical machine) that converts DC
electrical energy or power (EI) into mechanical energy or power ( T) is called a DC motor.
Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines, e.g., hammers, presses, drilling
machines, lathes, rollers in paper and steel industry, blowers for furnaces, etc., and domestic
appliances, e.g., refrigerators, fans, water pumps, toys, mixers, etc.

Working Principle of DC Motors:

The operation of a DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor
is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced by it. The direction of this force
is determined by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule and its magnitude is given by the relation:
F = Bil newton
 Fig- 4.5 Working principle of a motor
For simplicity, consider only one coil of the armature placed in the magnetic field produced by
a bipolar machine, see Fig. 4.5(a). When DC supply is connected to the coil, current flows
through it which sets up its own field as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). By the interaction of the two
fields (i.e., field produced by the main poles and the coil), a resultant field is set up as shown
in Fig. 4.5(c). The tendency of this is to come to its original position i.e., in straight line due to
which force is exerted on the two coil sides and torque develops which rotates the coil.
In actual machine, a large number of conductors are placed on the armature. All the conductors,
placed under the influence of one pole (say, North pole) carry the current in one direction
(outward). Whereas, the other conductors placed under the influence of other pole i.e., south
pole, carry the current in opposite direction as shown in Fig. 4.6. A resultant rotor field is
produced. Its direction is marked by the arrow-head Fr. This rotor field Fr tries to come in line
with the main field Fm and torque (Te) develops. Thus, rotor rotates.

Fig-4.6 Motor Action (Position of main field Fm and rotor field Fr)
It can be seen that to obtain a continuous torque, the direction of flow of current in each
conductor or coil side must be reversed when it passes through the magnetic neutral axis
(MNA). This is achieved with the help of a commutator.
The function of a commutator in DC motors is to reverse the direction of flow of current in
each armature conductor when it passes through the M.N.A. to obtain continuous torque.
Back emf
It has been seen that when current is supplied to the armature conductors, placed in the main
magnetic field, torque develops and armature rotates. Simultaneously, the armature conductors
cut across the magnetic field and an emf is induced in these conductors.
It can be seen that the direction of this induced emf is opposite to the applied voltage. That
is why this induced emf is called back emf (Eb). The magnitude of this induced emf is given
by the relation;

𝑁 𝐸𝑏 shows that speed of motor is inversely proportional to magnetic field or flux.



Significance of Back emf

The current flowing through the armature is given by the relation:
𝑉 − 𝐸𝑏
𝐼𝑎 =
𝑅𝑎
Where, Ia = armature current; V = applied voltage; Eb =
back emf and Ra = armature resistance
When mechanical load applied on the motor increases, its speed decreases which reduces the
value of Eb. As a result the value (V – Eb) increases which consequently increases Ia. Hence,
motor draws extra current from the mains.
Thus, the back emf regulates the input power as per the extra load.

Torque produced in DC motor:

Assuming the losses to be negligibly small the power developed by the de motor is given by
Electrical Power P = Eb * Ia = a/60A

Mechanical Power P = ω T = 2πNT/60 (as ω = 2πN/60 where N=speed in rpm)

Hence a/60A = 2πNT/60
or T= a/2πA =K Ta
where K = PZ/2πA constant for a dc machine.

Hence torque in a de machine is proportional to the product of flux per pole in the air
gap and the armature current
Types of DC Motors:
On the basis of the connections of armature and their field winding, DC motors can be
classified as;

1. Separately excited DC motors: The conventional diagram of a separately

excited DC motor is shown Fig. 4.7.
Eb = V – Ia Ra – 2vb (where vb is voltage drop per brush)

2. Self excited DC motors: These motors can be further classified as;

(i) Shunt motors: Their conventional diagram is shown in Fig.4.8. The field winding
is connected in parallel with the armature. Its voltage equation will be;
Ish = V/Rsh
Ia = I L –
Ish
Eb = V – Ia Ra – 2vb (where vb is voltage drop per brush)

Fig-4.7 Separately excited DC Fig-4.8 DC shunt motor Fig-4.9 DC series motor

motor

(ii) Series motor: Its conventional diagram is shown in Fig. 4.9. In dc series motor
the field winding is connected in series with the armature. Therefore, series field
winding carries the armature current. The current passing through the series field
winding, armature winding and load will be same.
Important relations:
IL = Ia = Ise
Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2vb

(iii) Compound motor: Its conventional diagram (for long shunt) is shown in
Fig. 4.10
Ish = V/Rsh ; Ia = IL – Ish; Eb = V – Ia (Ra + Rse) – 2vb
The compound motor can be further subdivided as;
(a) Cumulative compound motors
 (b) Differential compound motors:

Characteristics of DC Motors:
The performance of a DC motor can be easily judged from its characteristic
curves, known as motor characteristics. The characteristics of a motor are those
curves which show relation between the two quantities. On the basis of these
quantities, the following characteristics can be obtained:
1. Speed and Armature current i.e., N – Ia Characteristics: It is the curve drawn between
speed N and armature current Ia. It is also known as speed characteristics.
2. Torque and Armature current i.e., T–Ia Characteristics: It is the curve drawn between
torque developed in the armature T and armature current Ia. It is also known as electrical
characteristic.
3. Speed and Torque i.e., N–T characteristics: It is the curve drawn between speed N and
torque developed in the armature T. It is also known as mechanical characteristics.

a) Characteristics of Separately excited DC motors /DC Shunt Motors:

N-Ia Characteristics T-Ia Characteristic N-T Characteristics

b) Characteristics of Series Motors:

Speed Control of DC Motors
1. By varying flux per pole, This is known as flux or field control method.
2. By varying the armature drop, i.e., by varying the resistance of armature
circuit. This is known as armature control method.

Flux control or field control method:

It is based on the fact that by varying the flux, the motor speed can be changed and
hence the name flux control method. In this method, a variable resistance is placed in
series with field winding as shown in Fig. 4.11 (a).

(a) Circuit diagram (b) N-Ia characteristics

Fig-4.11 Field control method

The field rheostat reduces the field current Ish and hence the flux. Therefore, we can
only raise the speed of the motor above the normal speed Fig. 4.9 (b).
Advantages
(i) This is an easy and convenient method.
(ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the field
rheostat due to relatively small value of Ish.
(iii) The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the
machine.
Disadvantages
(i) Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained since the total field
circuit resistance cannot be reduced below Rsh—the field winding resistance.
(ii) There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if
the flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.
Armature control method
The flux is constant when applied terminal voltage and shunt field resistance are
constant. Therefore, speed of the motor is directly proportional to induced emf (i.e., N
Eb and Eb= V – Ia Ra). The value of Eb depends upon the drop in the armature
circuit. When a variable resistance is connected in series with the armature as
shown in Fig. 4.12(a) the induced emf [Eb = V – 1a (Ra + R)] is reduced and hence
the speed. Thus, the motor runs at a speed lower than the normal speed as shown in
Fig-4.12 (b).

(b) N-Ia characteristics

(a) Circuit diagram
Fig- 4.12 Armature control method
By this method, a wide range of speeds (below normal) can be obtained. Moreover,
motor develops any desired torque over its operating range since torque depends only
upon the armature current (flux remaining unchanged).
The major disadvantage of this method of speed control is that there is heavy loss of
power in the control rheostat. So, the output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.