Introduction to Computer Science

FUNDAMETALS OF COMPUTER
SCIENCE

SCHOOL: COMPUTER SCIENCE AND INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

ENG. O.R.G. Moring

UNIVERSITY OF JUBA
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
(COMPUTER SCIENCE)

APRIL 23, 2023

 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
INTRODUCTION
At the present time, computers are an essential part of our lives. They are used for the reservation of tickets for
airplanes and railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposit and withdrawal of money from banks,
processing of business data, forecasting of weather conditions, diagnosis of diseases, searching for information
on the Internet, etc. Computers are also used extensively in schools, universities, organizations, music industry,
movie industry, scientific research, law firms, fashion industry, etc.
The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate.
DEFINITION
 A COMPUTER is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by performing
calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results. Computer performs both simple
and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.
 A COMPUTER is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions (software) stored in
its own memory unit, that can accept data (input), manipulate data (process), and produce information
(output) from the processing. Generally, the term is used to describe a collection of devices that function
together as a system.
 A COMPUTER is an electronic machine that follows a set of instructions in order that it may be able to
accept and gather data and transform these into information through processing.

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
Science, any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world and its phenomena and that entails
unbiased observations and systematic experimentation. In general, a science involves a pursuit of knowledge
covering general truths or the operations of fundamental laws.
Science can be divided into different branches based on the subject of study. The physical sciences study the
inorganic world and comprise the fields of astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences. The
biological sciences such as biology and medicine study the organic world of life and its processes. Social
sciences like anthropology and economics study the social and cultural aspects of human behavior.
Science is further treated in a number of articles. For the history of Western and Eastern science, see science,
history of. For the conceptualization of science and its interrelationships with culture, see science, philosophy
of. For the basic aspects of the scientific approach, see physical science, principles of; and scientific method.
Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world
following a systematic methodology based on evidence.
In an era where practices such as homeopathy are becoming widespread, and 'detox' is an acceptable aim for a
diet, a definition creates a clear distinction between what is genuine science, and what is pseudoscience.
Science is an activity, related to the creation of new knowledge, rather than established knowledge itself.
Science is seen as a species of research. Yet a definition of science needs to define the nature of the knowledge
not the means of its creation only.
And, "The definition would include historical research and indeed some journalism! It does not demarcate
something called science from the humanities. This is a good and sensible thing
"Because 'science' denotes such a very wide range of activities a definition of it needs to be general; it certainly
needs to cover investigation of the social as well as natural worlds; it needs the words "systematic" and "evidence";
and it needs to be simple and short. The definition succeeds in all these respects admirably, and I applaud it
therefore."
Scientific methodology includes the following:
 Objective observation: Measurement and data (possibly although not necessarily using mathematics as a
tool)
 Evidence
 Experiment and/or observation as benchmarks for testing hypotheses
 Induction: reasoning to establish general rules or conclusions drawn from facts or examples
 Repetition
 Critical analysis
Verification and testing: critical exposure to scrutiny, peer review and assessment.

WHAT IS COMPUTER SCIENCE?

Computer Science, the study of computers and computing, including their theoretical and algorithmic
foundations, hardware and software, and their uses for processing information. The discipline of
computer science includes the study of algorithms and data structures, computer and network design, modeling
data and information processes, and artificial intelligence.
Computer science draws some of its foundations from mathematics and engineering and therefore incorporates
techniques from areas such as queueing theory, probability and statistics, and electronic circuit design.
Computer science also makes heavy use of hypothesis testing and experimentation during the
conceptualization, design, measurement, and refinement of new algorithms, information structures, and
computer architectures.
Computer science is considered as part of a family of five separate yet interrelated disciplines: computer
engineering, computer science, information systems, information technology, and software engineering. This
family has come to be known collectively as the discipline of computing. These five disciplines are interrelated
in the sense that computing is their object of study, but they are separate since each has its own research
perspective and curricular focus. (Since 1991 the Association for Computing Machinery [ACM], the IEEE
Computer Society [IEEE-CS], and the Association for Information Systems [AIS] have collaborated to develop
and update the taxonomy of these five interrelated disciplines and the guidelines that educational institutions
worldwide use for their undergraduate, graduate, and research programs.)
The major subfields of computer science include the traditional study of computer architecture, programming
languages, and software development. However, they also include computational science (the use of algorithmic
techniques for modeling scientific data), graphics and visualization, human-computer interaction, databases and
information systems, networks, and the social and professional issues that are unique to the practice of computer
science. As may be evident, some of these subfields overlap in their activities with other modern fields, such
as bioinformatics and computational chemistry. These overlaps are the consequence of a tendency among
computer scientists to recognize and act upon their field’s many interdisciplinary connections.
Development of computer science
Computer science emerged as an independent discipline in the early 1960s, although the electronic digital
computer that is the object of its study was invented some two decades earlier. The roots of computer science lie
primarily in the related fields of mathematics, electrical engineering, physics, and management information
systems.
Mathematics is the source of two key concepts in the development of the computer—the idea that all information
can be represented as sequences of zeros and ones and the abstract notion of a “stored program.” In the binary
number system, numbers are represented by a sequence of the binary digits 0 and 1 in the same way that numbers
in the familiar decimal system are represented using the digits 0 through 9. The relative ease with which two
states (e.g., high and low voltage) can be realized in electrical and electronic devices led naturally to the binary
digit, or bit, becoming the basic unit of data storage and transmission in a computer system.
Electrical engineering provides the basics of circuit design—namely, the idea that electrical impulses input to a
circuit can be combined using Boolean algebra to produce arbitrary outputs. (The Boolean algebra developed in
the 19th century supplied a formalism for designing a circuit with binary input values of zeros and ones [false or
true, respectively, in the terminology of logic] to yield any desired combination of zeros and ones as output.)
The invention of the transistor and the miniaturization of circuits, along with the invention of electronic, magnetic,
and optical media for the storage and transmission of information, resulted from advances in electrical engineering
and physics.
Finally, a particular concern of computer science throughout its history is the unique societal impact that
accompanies computer science research and technological advancements. With the emergence of the Internet in
the 1980s, for example, software developers needed to address important issues related to information security,
personal privacy, and system reliability. In addition, the question of whether computer software
constitutes intellectual property and the related question “Who owns it?” gave rise to a whole new legal area of
licensing and licensing standards that applied to software and related artifacts. These concerns and others form
the basis of social and professional issues of computer science, and they appear in almost all the other fields
identified above.

TYPES OF COMPUTER
A computer is one of the most brilliant inventions of mankind. Thanks to computer technology, we were able to
achieve storage and processing of huge amounts of data; we could rest our brains by employing computer memory
capacities for storage of information. Owing to computers, we have been able speed up daily work, carry out
critical transactions and achieve accuracy and precision at work. Computers of the earlier times were of the size
of a large room and were required to consume huge amounts of electric power. However, with the advancing
technology, computers have shrunk to the size of a small watch. Therefore, computers are of the following types:
On the basis of working principle (Operational Based)
1. Digital computer
2. Analog computer
3. Hybrid computer
TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON THE OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLE
Based on the operational (working) principle of computers, they are categorized as analog, digital and hybrid
computers.

Digital Computer
They use digital circuits and are designed to operate on two states, namely bits 0 and 1. They are analogous to
states ON and OFF. Data on these computers is represented as a series of 0s and 1s. Digital computers are suitable
for complex computation and have higher processing speeds. They are programmable. Digital computers are
either general purpose computers or special purpose ones. General purpose computers, as their name suggests,
are designed for specific types of data processing while general purpose computers are meant for general use.
Digital computers were invented to perform different calculations and logical operations at a very high speed.
These computers accept the raw data as input, done in binary numbers (0 and 1) or digitals.
After that, the device processes the information with programs that are already stored in the device's memory.
This process is followed to generate the output. Some examples of digital computers include laptops, desktops,
and other electronic devices like smartphones.
There are many advantages of digital computers. Some of those advantages are mentioned below.
 Digital computers allow users to store a large amount of information. The stored information can be
retrieved whenever it is required.
 New features can easily be added to the digital systems.
 Ability to change the program without making any changes in the hardware of the system.
  The cost of the hardware of digital computers is often less because of the advancement in the Integrated
Circuit (IC) technology.
 These systems process data digitally at a very high speed.
 Digital computers use error correction codes because of which these systems are very reliable.
 The output is not affected by humidity, noise, temperature, or other natural properties, leading to the
results' high reproducibility.

A digital computer is kind of computer that uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information
are represented using the digits 0s and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and offices are digital
computers.

Digital Computers

Analog Computer
An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. These are
almost extinct today. These are different from a digital computer because an analog computer can perform several
mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes
mechanical or electrical energy.
These computers were specifically designed to process analogue data. For readers who are not familiar with the
term, analogue data is a type of continuous data that continually changes and does not have discrete values.
It can also be said that analogue computers are used when the users are not familiar with the exact values like
temperature, speed, current, and pressure. An intriguing feature of analogue computers is accepting the measuring
device's data without converting it into relevant codes and numbers.
This feature allows analogue computers to measure continuous changes in physical quantity. In most cases, the
output of these computers is read on a dial or scale. Some examples of analogue computers are the mercury
thermometer and speedometer.
There are many advantages of using analog computers. Some of those advantages are as follows.
 These computers allow real-time computation and operations at the same time. Further, it continuously
represents all data within the range of the analog computer system.
  In some applications, analog computers help perform calculations without using transducers to convert
both the inputs and outputs to a digital electronic form and vice versa.
 Programmers can also scale the problem for the dynamic range of analog computers. This provides
excellent insight into the actual situation. It also helps in learning about any errors and their effects.
There are different types of analog computers. The various types of analog computers are discussed below.
 Slide Rules
The slide rule is one of the simplest types of mechanical analog computer systems. It was developed initially to
perform necessary mathematical calculations. These computer systems consist of two rods. When the computer
performs any calculation, the hashed rod slides to line up with the specific markings placed on another rod.
 Differential Analyzers
Differential analyzers are used to perform differential calculations. These computer systems perform integration
by using a wheel-and-disc mechanism. This helps in solving differential calculations.
 Castle Clock
According to various sources, the first castle clock was invented by Al-Jara. This computer system was made to
save all programming instructions. The original machine's height was around 11 feet, and it came with the display
of zodiac, time, and the lunar and solar orbits. These devices can also allow users to set the length of the day
according to the current season.
 Electronic Analog Computer
An electronic analog computer is a type of analog computer in which electrical signals flow through resistors and
capacitors. This simulates different physical phenomena. In these devices, mechanical interactions of computers
do not take place. Also, the voltage of the electrical signal is used to generate the correct displays in these devices.
Analog computer is a kind of computer that represents data as variable across a continuous range of values.
The earliest computers were analog computers. Analog computers are used for measuring of parameters that
vary continuously in real time, such as temperature, pressure and voltage. Analog computers may be more
flexible but generally less precise than digital computers. Slide rule is an example of an analog computer.

Analog Computers
Hybrid Computer
These computers are a combination of both digital and analog computers. In this type of computers, the digital
segments perform process control by conversion of analog signals to digital ones. A hybrid computer system
setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations.
Hybrid computers are devices that have features of both digital and analog computers. These devices are
similar in speed to analog computers and are identical to digital computers in their memory and accuracy.
Hybrid computers can process both discrete and continuous data. These devices work by accepting analog signals
and converting those signals into a digital form before processing. This is why these devices are popularly used
in specialized applications where both analog and digital data has to be processed.

For example, the processors used in petrol pumps convert fuel flow into values for both quantity and price. Similar
devices are used in hospitals, airplanes, and many scientific applications.
There are many benefits of using hybrid computers. A few of those benefits are mentioned below.
 The computing speed of hybrid computers is very high. This is due to the all-parallel configuration of the
analog subsystem.
 These computers help in online data processing.
 Hybrid computers can manage and solve large equations in real-time.
 The results are produced quickly and in a more efficient manner. The final results are both accurate and
useful.
Hybrid computer is a type of computer that offers the functionalities of both a digital and an analog computer.
It is designed to include a working analog unit that is powerful for calculations, yet has a readily available
digital memory. In large industries and businesses, a hybrid computer can be used to incorporate logical
operations as well as provide efficient processing of differential equations.

Hybrid Computers
 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

The main characteristics of a computer are:

1. Speed
A computer device’s speed is extremely fast, as it can perform any calculation in seconds. This is one of the key
characteristics of computers. This computer characteristic also enhances the versatility of the computer.
It can open any website or application in the blink of an eye. In real life, the computer is like our superhero, Flash.
It can travel at the speed of light.
The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per second. Some calculations that
would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.
For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather
forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of
various places, etc.
2. Accuracy
This is an incredible characteristic of computers, which is their high level of accuracy. It is capable of performing
100% accurate calculations. Nothing in this world is perfect or accurate, but the computer proves these statements
false with its precise results, calculations, and logic. The computer is comparable to our own Avenger Hawkeye,
whose shooting accuracy is unrivaled.
Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can accurately give the result of division
of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
3. Diligence
When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It can perform long and
complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
A computer is free of fatigue, lack of concentration, and so on. It can work for hours without making any mistakes.
It’s like a superman who can fly and fight for hours and hours without tiring.
4. Storage Capability
Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and also retrieved whenever required. A
limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy
disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.
5. Versatility
Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the same ease. At one moment you
can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the next moment you may play music or print a
document.
6. Communication
Computers have the ability to communicate, but of course there needs some sort of connection (either Wired or
Wireless connection). Two computers can be connected to send & receive data. Special software’s are used for
text and video chat. Friends & family can connect over the internet and share files, photos & videos online.
7. Multitasking
Multitasking is also a computer characteristic. Computers can perform several tasks at a time. For example you
can listen to songs, download movies, and prepare word documents all at the same time.
8. Reliability
A computer is a dependable machine that is capable of performing all tasks and operations at high speeds and
with near-perfect accuracy. Just like humans, computer software and hardware respond to the requests or demands
made by users. Spiderman and Iron Man have a relationship in which they are like mentors and students, and they
completely trust each other. Similarly, we are computer mentors, and the computer learns from us and is
completely dependable.
9. Memory
Memory on computers is comparable to that in the human brain. It is used to store data and directions. Computer
memory is the storage space on the computer where data to be processed and processing instructions are stored.
It has both primary and secondary memories.
The task we are currently working on is saved in the main memory, and the task we saved is saved until we delete
it.
10. Logical
A computer system has certain characteristics, such as the capability of thinking, reasoning, and learning. These
characteristics of computers help them perform tasks logically and these characteristics have been further
developed into what we today know as Artificial Intelligence.
For example, Batman uses his logical thinking and intelligence to create various gadgets using artificial
intelligence.
11. Automation
Automation is the use of technology to complete a task with as little human interaction as possible.
In computing, automation is typically accomplished through the use of a program, a script, or batch processing.
As in Guardians of the Galaxy, we have a baby Groot who can perform all of these tasks automatically without
the assistance of other people thanks to the available programming data stored in it. Computers also automatically
complete the instructed tasks.
12. Consistency
In the context of databases, consistency means that data cannot be written because it would violate the database’s
own rules for valid data.
Like Captain America, he follows the rules consistently, even if it means opposing everyone in the world. The
computer shows consistency through the set of rules already assigned.
 13. Remembrance Power
A computer is capable of storing an unlimited amount of information or data. Any information can be stored and
retrieved for as long as you need it, for an unlimited number of years.
It is entirely up to you how much data you want to store on a computer and when you want to lose or retrieve it.
Hulk is a scientist with an exceptional memory. When necessary, he remembers and recalls everything. Similarly,
another excellent computer feature is its ability to recall and memorize information. Precisely. All these features
of computers are responsible for providing the versatility of computers.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER

Advantages
◦ Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data
within a shorter time.
◦ It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many
months to perform the same task.
◦ In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. Computers perform all jobs with 100%
accuracy provided that the input is correct.
◦ Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can
work continuously without any error and boredom.
◦ It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
◦ This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields. At one instance, it may be
solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game.
◦ A computer is a very versatile machine. A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
◦ A computer is a reliable machine. Modern electronic components have long lives.
◦ Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
◦ Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically.
◦ Reduction in Paper Work and Cost. The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads
to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.
◦ As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large
number of paper files gets reduced.
◦ Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each
of its transaction.

Disadvantages
◦ No I.Q.
◦ A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
 ◦ Each instruction has to be given to the computer.
◦ A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
◦ Dependency
◦ It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.
◦ Environment
◦ The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
◦ No Feeling
◦ Computers have no feelings or emotions. It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste,
experience, and knowledge unlike humans.
◦ Online Cyber-Crimes
◦ As with any device, cybercrimes occur on computers. Data stealing is one of the major threats
in the world of computers. It may occur online or via an offline removable device like that a
USB.
◦ Health-Issues
◦ Prolonged use of personal computers results in many health-related issues. Eye strain,
headache, back pain, etc. are some of them.
◦ Fake News
◦ Computers enable a wide array of data-sharing options. But, this becomes a medium for the
spread of spurious news. Many cases are there when fake news is shared among people using
messaging apps.
◦ E-waste
◦ The use of computers is nothing but a form of e-waste. This contributes negatively by releasing
harmful toxic materials.
◦ Lack of Concentration and Irritation
◦ As multitasking makes our lives easier, but it comes with its disadvantages. We try to focus on
multiple tasks and notifications. This leads to a decrease in attention span and a lack of
concentration on one particular task. Also, addictive games played on the computer contribute
to irritability when not allowed to play.

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

People used sticks, stones, and bones as counting tools before computers were invented. More computing devices
were produced as technology advanced and the human intellect improved over time. Let us look at a few of the
early-age computing devices used by mankind.
 1. Abacus
Abacus was invented by the Chinese around 4000 years ago. It’s a wooden rack with metal rods with beads
attached to them. The abacus operator moves the beads according to certain guidelines to complete arithmetic
computations.
2. Napier’s Bone
John Napier devised Napier’s Bones, a manually operated calculating apparatus. For calculating, this instrument
used 9 separate ivory strips (bones) marked with numerals to multiply and divide. It was also the first machine to
calculate using the decimal point system.
3. Pascaline
Pascaline was invented in 1642 by Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician and philosopher. It is thought to be the
first mechanical and automated calculator. It was a wooden box with gears and wheels inside.
4. Stepped Reckoner or Leibniz wheel
In 1673, a German mathematician-philosopher named Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on Pascal’s invention
to create this apparatus. It was a digital mechanical calculator known as the stepped reckoner because it used
fluted drums instead of gears.
5. Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, Charles Babbage created the Difference Engine. It was a mechanical computer that could do
basic computations. It was a steam-powered calculating machine used to solve numerical tables such as
logarithmic tables.
6. Analytical Engine
Charles Babbage created another calculating machine, the Analytical Engine, in 1830. It was a mechanical
computer that took input from punch cards. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing data
in an indefinite memory.
7. Tabulating machine
An American Statistician – Herman Hollerith invented this machine in the year 1890. Tabulating Machine was a
punch card-based mechanical tabulator. It could compute statistics and record or sort data or information.
Hollerith began manufacturing these machines in his company, which ultimately became International Business
Machines (IBM) in 1924.
8. Differential Analyzer
Vannevar Bush introduced the first electrical computer, the Differential Analyzer, in 1930. This machine is made
up of vacuum tubes that switch electrical impulses in order to do calculations. It was capable of performing 25
calculations in a matter of minutes.
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

The computer has evolved from a large—sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but much more powerful
machine. The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in terms of the generations of computer. Each
generation of computer is designed based on a new technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and
smaller computers that are more powerful, faster and efficient than their predecessors. Currently, there are five
generations of computer. In the following subsections, we will discuss the generations of computer in terms of
1. The technology used by them (hardware and software)
2. Computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second)
3. Physical appearance
4. Their applications
First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes
• Hardware Technology The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes (Figure 1.4) for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was through punched cards and
paper tapes. The output was displayed as printouts.

Figure 1.4 Vacuum tube

• Software Technology The instructions were written in machine language. Machine language uses
0s and 1s for coding of the instructions. The first generation computers could solve one problem at a time.
• Computing Characteristics The computation time was in milliseconds.
• Physical Appearance These computers were enormous in size and required a large room for
installation.
• Application They were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest computing device
of their time.
• Examples UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).
The first generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus generated a lot of heat. They
consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to operate. The machines were prone to frequent
malfunctioning and required constant maintenance. Since first generation computers used machine language, they
were difficult to program.
Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
• Hardware Technology Transistors (Figure 1.5) replaced the vacuum tubes of the first generation
of computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, energy efficient and
reliable. The second generation computers used magnetic core technology for primary memory. They used
magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage. The input was still through punched cards and
the output using printouts. They used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in
the memory of computer.

Figure 1.5 Transistors

• Software Technology The instructions were written using the assembly language. Assembly
language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for coding of the instructions.
It is easier to write instructions in assembly language, as compared to writing instructions in machine
language. High-level programming languages, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were
also developed during this period.
• Computing Characteristics The computation time was in microseconds.
• Physical Appearance Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus, the size of
the computer was also reduced.
• Application The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high, though less
than the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled manually in second generation
computers.
• Examples PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.
Second generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than the first generation computers. They
required less maintenance than the first generation computers.
Third Generation (1964-1971)
Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits
 • Hardware Technology The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.
Figure 1.6 shows IC chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon chip. Silicon is a type
of semiconductor. The use of IC chip increased the speed and the efficiency of computer, manifold. The
keyboard and monitor were used to interact with the third generation computer, instead of the punched
card and printouts.

Figure 1.6 IC chips

• Software Technology The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the operating system.
Operating system allowed different applications to run at the same time. High-level languages were used
extensively for programming, instead of machine language and assembly language.
• Computing Characteristics The computation time was in nanoseconds.
• Physical Appearance The size of these computers was quite small compared to the second
generation computers.
• Application Computers became accessible to mass audience. Computers were produced
commercially, and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. Examples IBM 370, PDP 11.
The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the second generation computers.
The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual components of the computer were not required to
be assembled manually. The maintenance cost of the computers was also less compared to their predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971-Present)
Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors
• Hardware Technology They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small silicon chip using LSI
technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to be integrated in a small chip. This era
is marked by the development of microprocessor. Microprocessor is a chip containing millions of
transistors and components, and designed using LSI and VLSI technology. A microprocessor chip is
shown in Figure 1.7. This generation of computers gave rise to Personal Computer (PC). Semiconductor
memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory, resulting in fast random access to memory. Secondary
storage device like magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger in capacity. The linking of
computers is another key development of this era. The computers were linked to form networks that led
 to the emergence of the Internet. This generation also saw the development of pointing devices like mouse,
and handheld devices.

Figure 1.7 Microprocessors

• Software Technology Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and MS-
Windows developed during this time. This generation of computers supported Graphical User Interface (GUI).
GUI is a user-friendly interface that allows user to interact with the computer via menus and icons. High-level
programming languages are used for the writing of programs.
• Computing Characteristics The computation time is in picoseconds.
• Physical Appearance They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation. Some can
even fit into the palm of the hand.
• Application They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal computers became
available to the home user.
• Examples The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the computer like
Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip. In 1981, IBM introduced the
first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.
The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaper than their
predecessors. The fourth generation computers are also portable and more reliable. They generate much lesser
heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors.
GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking has resulted in resource
sharing and communication among different computers.
Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence
The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and self-organization.
The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are able to store millions of
components on a single chip. These computers have large memory requirements.
This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed in parallel,
instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processing speed. The Intel dual core
microprocessor uses parallel processing.
The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate the human way of
thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System
(ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Micro Computers
Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU, input unit, output
unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-alone machines, they can be connected
together to create a network of computers that can serve more than one user. IBM PC based on Pentium
microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop
computers, notebook computers or laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook.

Microcomputers

Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC)

Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) is the most common type of microcomputer. It is a stand-alone
machine that can be placed on the desk. Externally, it consists of three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system
unit containing the CPU, memory, hard disk drive, etc. It is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a
single user at home, small business units, and organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell and Lenovo are some of
the PC manufacturers.

Notebook Computers or Laptop

Notebook Computers or Laptop resemble a notebook. They are portable and have all the features of a desktop
computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size (can be put inside a briefcase), can be carried
anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the functionality of the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap
while working (hence the name). Laptops are costlier than the desktop machines.

Netbook
Netbook These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are designed for accessing web-
based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in late 2007, they have gained significant popularity now.
Netbooks deliver the performance needed to enjoy popular activities like streaming videos or music, emailing,
Web surfing or instant messaging. The word netbook was created as a blend of Internet and notebook.

Tablet Computer
Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a stylus or a pen instead of
the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer. Tablet computer are the new kind of PCs.

Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small computer that can be held on the top of the
palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a pen or a stylus for input. PDAs do not have a disk
drive. They have a limited memory and are less powerful. PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless
connection. Casio and Apple are some of the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs have merged
into mobile phones to create smart phones.

Smart Phones
Smart Phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They may use a stylus or a pen,
or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the Internet wirelessly. They are used to access the
electronic-mail, download music, play games, etc. Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the
manufacturers of smart phones.

Mini Computers
Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They have high processing speed and
high storage capacity than the microcomputers. It is a class of small computers that was introduced into the world
in the mid-1960s. A midsized computer, in size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and
mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred,
however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer
is a multiprocessing system.
A minicomputer is a midsize, multi-processing system. Minicomputers are capable of supporting up to 4 - 200
users at the same time. The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or terminal. They are used for
real-time applications in industries, research centers, etc. PDP 11, IBM (8000 series) are some of the widely used
minicomputers. Usually, these devices have two or more processors.
It is common for minicomputers to be employed in institutes and departments related to accounting, inventory
management, and billing. Some experts also believe that minicomputers lie somewhere between a microcomputer
and a mainframe because minicomputers are smaller than a mainframe but more extensive than a microcomputer.
Minicomputers are lighter in weight. These devices can easily fit anywhere and are portable. These devices are
less expensive and very fast compared to their size. Minicomputers tend to remain charged for long intervals and
can function in an environment without controlled operations.
You might also want to learn that minicomputers are primarily used to perform three functions. These three
functions are mentioned below.

 Processing Control
Minicomputers are mainly used to possess control in manufacturing. These devices performed the functions of
collecting data and feedback. In case of any abnormalities during the process, the minicomputer detects the
abnormality and makes the necessary adjustment to fix the situation.

 Managing Data
Small organizations use minicomputers to collect, store, and share data. For example, local hotels and hospitals
use minicomputers to record their customers and patients, respectively.

 Communications Portal
Minicomputers also can play the role of a communication device in larger organizations. A minicomputer
achieves this aim by serving as a portal between the central processor or computer and the human operator.

Minicomputer

Advantages of minicomputer
» They are easy to use
» They can fit anywhere
» They are small and very portable
» They are easy to carry
» As compared to their size, they are fast» They hold a charge for a long time
» They did not require a carefully controlled operational environment
» They are more reliable

Disadvantages of minicomputer
» Some minicomputers don’t have USB ports
» Minicomputers do not have any CD/DVD drive
» The user may not be familiar with the operating system
» The keyboard can be small for fast typists
» In this, generally, there is not much storage on board
» It can be too small to do certain projects

Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance computers. They operate at a
very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the workload of many users. Mainframe
computers are large and powerful systems generally used in centralized databases. The user accesses the
mainframe computer via a terminal that may be a dumb terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal
cannot store data or do processing of its own. It has the input and output device only. An intelligent terminal has
the input and output device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of its own. The dumb and the intelligent
terminal use the processing power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer. Mainframe computers are
used in organizations like banks or companies, where many people require frequent access to the same data. Some
examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBM ES000 series.

A mainframe can be described as a costly and extensive computer system. A mainframe is usually capable of
supporting hundreds and thousands of users at the same time. These devices concurrently execute various
programs and support multiple simultaneous executions of programs.
Due to these above-mentioned features, mainframe computers are usually used in large organizations that need
to process and manage high volumes of data - For example, telecom and banking sector industries.
Mainframe computers usually have a very long life. A mainframe device can run smoothly for up to 50 years after
its installation. It can also provide excellent performance with large-scale memory management.
Mainframe computers also can distribute or share their workload among other processors or input and output
terminals. When it comes to errors, then there are fewer chances of errors in these devices.
However, if any error occurs, then it is quickly fixed by the system. These devices protect the stored data and any
ongoing exchange of data or information. From this extensive description, it must be quite evident that mainframe
computers have a lot of applications. We have created a list of some of those applications, and that list is given
below.
 In the field of defense, mainframe computers allow defense departments to share a large amount of
sensitive information with other branches of defense.
 In the retail sector, large retail organizations often have a vast customer base. This is why departments use
mainframe computers to execute and handle information related to their customer management, inventory
management, and huge transactions within a short period.
  In health care, mainframe computers help hospitals by maintaining an extensive record of millions of
patients. This feature goes a long way in assisting hospitals in contacting their patients for treatment or
any other appointment related to medicine or disease updates.
 In the field of education, mainframe devices allow large educational institutes to store, manage, and
retrieve data related to admissions, courses, teachers, students, affiliated schools, affiliated colleges, and
employees.

Mainframe Computers
Advantages of mainframe computer
» High response time
» Increased processing power
» This type of computer can be divided into different logical partitions i.e. virtual machines
» Reliability, availability, and serviceability (RAS)
» These systems have an extra level of security for protecting organization data
» High-end scalability
» Continuing compatibility
» Long lasting performance
Disadvantages of mainframe computer
» High skilled people are required to manage these systems
» Such computers have not good user interface (Not good GUI)
» The cost of this system is significantly high.
» As these computers are large in size as compared to PC they require more space.
» Due to high performance, such computers need to be placed in a cool place where they do not heat up quickly.
Super Computers
The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and self-organization.
The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are able to store millions of
components on a single chip. These computers have large memory requirements.
This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed in parallel,
instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processing speed. The Intel dual-.core
microprocessor uses parallel processing.

Symbolic Image of Artificial Intelligence

The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate the human way of
thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System (ES), Natural Language
Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.

Fifth Generation Computer

Advantages of Fifth Generation of Computer

» Very large storage capacity.
» Long bit processor builds.
» Artificial Intelligence Language developed.
» Advancement in Parallel Processing.
» Advancement in Superconductor technology.
» These computers are much smaller in size than other generation computers
Disadvantages of Fifth Generation of Computer
» They can give more power to companies to watch what you are doing and even allow them to infect your
computer.
» They tend to be sophisticated and complex tools.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these data
under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the
future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations with speed and
accuracy.
Computer is derived from a Latin word “computare” which means to “to calculate”, “to count”, “to sum up” or
“to think together”. So, more precisely the word computer means a "device that performs computation".
Charles Babbage is called the "Grand Father" of the computer. The First mechanical computer designed by
Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine. It uses read-only memory in the form of punch cards.
The computer system consists of four parts:

HARDWARE
The Hardware consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a machine. The hardware consists
of physical devices of the computer. The devices are required for input, output, storage and processing of the data.
Keyboard, monitor, hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, printer, processor and motherboard are some of the
hardware devices.
SOFTWARE
Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed and how these tasks are to
be performed. Program is a set of instructions, written in a language understood by the computer, to perform a
specific task. A set of programs and documents are collectively called software. The hardware of the computer
system cannot perform any task on its own. The hardware needs to be instructed about the task to be performed.
Software instructs the computer about the task to be performed. The hardware carries out these tasks. Different
software can be loaded on the same hardware to perform different kinds of tasks.
DATA
Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have no much significance. For example, the data like
29, January, and 2023 just represent values. The data is provided as input to the computer, which is processed to
generate some meaningful information. For example, 29, January and 2023 are processed by the computer to give
the date of birth of a person.
USERS
Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer. They are also known as skinware,
liveware, humanware or peopleware. Programmers, data entry operators, system analyst and computer hardware
engineers fall into this category.

THE INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT CONCEPT

Conventional and assistive computer technologies are similar in that both employ the core concepts
of input, information processing, and output (ATA, 2000). Understanding these concepts is essential to
understanding how AT helps individuals with disabilities access a computer. Each system first must have a means
to input information. This information is then processed. From the processed information, the computer produces
some type of output. Input or output devices can be modified to provide access to individuals with disabilities
who cannot use standard input or output devices. To provide a better understanding of input, output, and
processing, these concepts are defined as follows.
Input - the information entered into a computer system, examples include: typed text, mouse clicks, etc.
Processing - the process of transforming input information into and output.
Output – the visual, auditory, or tactile perceptions provided by the computer after processing the provided
information. Examples include: text, images, sound, or video displayed on a monitor or through speaker as well
as text or Braille from printers or embossers.
Input Device – any device that enters information into a computer from a external source. Examples include:
keyboards, touch screens, mouse, trackballs, microphones, scanners, etc.
Processing Device – the electronics that process or transform information provided as an input to a computer to
an output. Examples include: the Central Processing Unit (CPU), operating systems (e.g. Windows, Apple
software), microprocessors (e.g. Intel, Pentium), memory cards (RAM), graphic and other production application
or programs (Adobe, Microsoft Word, etc.).
Output Device - a device used by a computer to communicate information in a usable form. Examples include:
monitors, speakers, and printers, etc.
The following is an example showing how these three concepts work together:
To access a website, the user opens an internet browser and, using the keyboard, enters a web address into the
browser (input). The computer then uses that information to find the correct website (information processing) and
the content of the desired site is displayed in the web browser (output).
AT for computer access can be applied by adapting either the input or output component of a computer system.
Doing this provides an individual with a disability with a tool that utilizes his or her abilities to access a computer.
An example of adapting an input device is providing an individual who does not have use of his or her hands with
speech recognition software to enter text into a computer as opposed to a keyboard. As for adapting an output
device, an individual with a visual impairment can use either a screen magnifier or screen reader to access output
on a computer screen. Information processing, in terms of a computer, does not involve a human element and
thus does not require assistive technology adaptations.

DATA AND INFORMATION

What is data?
Data refers to the raw information. In the context of information technology (IT) and computing, it is information
that a software application collects and records. Data is typically stored in a database and includes the fields,
records and other information that make up the database. It can be accessed and manipulated digitally, and it is
quick and easy to transfer among computers.
Data is collected from a variety of sources, such as computers, sensors and devices. It is typically used in business,
science and engineering. Data is often presented in the form of numbers, but it can also come as text, visuals,
graphics and sounds. Data can also be analyzed and used to create information that could not be obtained by just
looking at the original data.
The most common types of data in data science are the following:
 Quantitative data is numerical data, or data that can be expressed mathematically. Discreet and
continuous data are types of quantitative data.
 Qualitative data is data that cannot be measured, counted or easily expressed with numbers. It is data
that comes from text, audio or images. It can be shared using data visualization tools, such as timelines,
infographics and word clouds.
  Nominal data is the simplest form of data in statistics. It is data that is used to name or label a variable;
it isn't used to measure things or put them in any order. Examples of nominal data include ethnicity,
gender, eye color.
 Ordinal data is data that takes on values within a known range and follows a natural order. A common
example of ordinal data is income levels where incomes are ranked in specific ranges, such as $0-$50K,
$50K-$75K, $75K-$100K, etc. The purpose of ordinal data is to rank items in order of priority or value.
The numbers are not used for calculations.
 Discrete data, also called categorical data, is data that is divided into discrete categories, or groups, that
are distinctly different from each other. With discrete data, only a specific number of values are possible,
and those values cannot be subdivided. For example, the number of people a company employs is a
discrete data point.
 Continuous data is a term used to describe data that is measurable and observable in real time. It can be
measured on a scale or a continuum and subdivided into finer values. Continuous data is often recorded
at set intervals and then analyzed using statistical software. The amount of time it takes to complete a task
is an example of continuous data.
What is the data processing cycle?
The data processing cycle is the framework that data center managers use to make data accessible and useful to
users. It is a portion of the data lifecycle. Data enters the data center where it is processed, and then it is sent to
the user who makes use of it in a business application.
The part of the data lifecycle referred to as the data processing cycle is divided into the following three stages:
1. This is the stage where data is collected from multiple sources -- point-of-sale locations, call centers and
sensors, for example.
2. The data is sorted, organized, cleansed and entered into a database or system. It is then transformed into a
format that users can understand and make use of.
3. The newly processed and transformed data is sent to users or stored in a way that they will have access to
it when needed.

Converting data to information

Data and information are not the same. Data refers to numerical and qualitative observations. Information is
created when data is presented in a way that has meaning to the recipient. To turn data into information, it must
be processed and organized. Presenting data in a way that has meaning and value is called information design,
and it is an important field in both Information architecture and human-computer interaction.
Five characteristics of data quality and high-quality information in a database include the following:
 Information must come from a reliable source of information.
 Information cannot be partial or have details missing.
  Mechanisms must be in place to ensure that new data doesn't contradict existing data.
 Information must be distinctive and add value to a database.
 Information in a database must be timely and up to date.
What is information?
Information is stimuli that has meaning in some context for its receiver. When information is entered into and
stored in a computer, it is generally referred to as data. After processing -- such as formatting and printing --
output data can again be perceived as information. When information is compiled or used to better understand
something or to do something, it becomes knowledge.
The data-information-knowledge-wisdom model illustrates this hierarchy. Structured as a pyramid, the model
was created to show that data can be captured in different formats, analyzed and converted into different forms.
Each level of the pyramid represents a different perspective or level of abstraction as follows:
 The discrete, raw facts about a given situation with no analysis or interpretation applied.
 Applying description and meaning to data to make it useful.
 Information that has insight, context and a frame of reference applied so it can be interpreted.
 Knowledge is converted into wisdom by applying judgment and action to the information.

See how a real-world example of the data-information-knowledge-wisdom pyramid works.

What is data?
Data refers to the raw information. In the context of information technology (IT) and computing, it is information
that a software application collects and records. Data is typically stored in a database and includes the fields,
records and other information that make up the database. It can be accessed and manipulated digitally, and it is
quick and easy to transfer among computers.
Data is collected from a variety of sources, such as computers, sensors and devices. It is typically used in business,
science and engineering. Data is often presented in the form of numbers, but it can also come as text, visuals,
graphics and sounds. Data can also be analyzed and used to create information that could not be obtained by just
looking at the original data.
The most common types of data in data science are the following:
 Quantitative data is numerical data, or data that can be expressed mathematically. Discreet and
continuous data are types of quantitative data.
 Qualitative data is data that cannot be measured, counted or easily expressed with numbers. It is data
that comes from text, audio or images. It can be shared using data visualization tools, such as timelines,
infographics and word clouds.
 Nominal data is the simplest form of data in statistics. It is data that is used to name or label a variable;
it isn't used to measure things or put them in any order. Examples of nominal data include ethnicity,
gender, eye color.
 Ordinal data is data that takes on values within a known range and follows a natural order. A common
example of ordinal data is income levels where incomes are ranked in specific ranges, such as $0-$50K,
$50K-$75K, $75K-$100K, etc. The purpose of ordinal data is to rank items in order of priority or value.
The numbers are not used for calculations.
 Discrete data, also called categorical data, is data that is divided into discrete categories, or groups, that
are distinctly different from each other. With discrete data, only a specific number of values are possible,
and those values cannot be subdivided. For example, the number of people a company employs is a
discrete data point.
 Continuous data is a term used to describe data that is measurable and observable in real time. It can be
measured on a scale or a continuum and subdivided into finer values. Continuous data is often recorded
at set intervals and then analyzed using statistical software. The amount of time it takes to complete a task
is an example of continuous data.
What is the data processing cycle?
The data processing cycle is the framework that data center managers use to make data accessible and useful to
users. It is a portion of the data lifecycle. Data enters the data center where it is processed, and then it is sent to
the user who makes use of it in a business application.
The part of the data lifecycle referred to as the data processing cycle is divided into the following three stages:
1. This is the stage where data is collected from multiple sources -- point-of-sale locations, call centers and
sensors, for example.
2. The data is sorted, organized, cleansed and entered into a database or system. It is then transformed into a
format that users can understand and make use of.
 3. The newly processed and transformed data is sent to users or stored in a way that they will have access to
it when needed.

Get to know the six steps of the data lifecycle.

Converting data to information
Data and information are not the same. Data refers to numerical and qualitative observations. Information is
created when data is presented in a way that has meaning to the recipient. To turn data into information, it must
be processed and organized. Presenting data in a way that has meaning and value is called information design,
and it is an important field in both Information architecture and human-computer interaction.
Five characteristics of data quality and high-quality information in a database include the following:
 Information must come from a reliable source of information.
 Information cannot be partial or have details missing.
 Mechanisms must be in place to ensure that new data doesn't contradict existing data.
 Information must be distinctive and add value to a database.
 Information in a database must be timely and up to date.
Converting information to knowledge and wisdom
Knowledge is information that has been processed, analyzed and interpreted, and can be used to make decisions.
The concept of knowledge involves not just the information, but the ability to access it, as well. For example,
most applications, including models and simulations, include a form of stored knowledge.
Wisdom is the synthesis of information, knowledge and experience in a way that applies knowledge to real-life
situations. The concept of wisdom enables the understanding of patterns and their driving factors. It ultimately
enables the prediction of future events.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has enabled computers to learn, problem-solve and perform tasks that usually require
human intelligence. These technologies enable computers to take actions based on what the data provided
indicates is the best course of action. AI is used in expert systems to diagnose disease, buy and sell stock and play
chess better than a human. However, IT has not yet attained a level of human wisdom.
Learn how AI technology is evolving to combine symbolic reasoning and deep learning to capitalize on the power
of neural networks.

HOW COMPUTER KNOWS WHAT TO DO

 It must be given a detailed list of instructions, called a computer program or software that tells it exactly
what to do.
 Before processing a specific job, the computer program corresponding to that job must be stored in
memory.
 Once the program is stored in memory the computer can start the operation by executing the program
instructions one after the other.

AREAS OF APPLICATION OF COMPUTER

It is a binding fact that are computers are very productive, efficient and make our personal and professional lives
more rewarding. These 'magical' machines can do just about anything imaginable, moreover they really excel in
certain areas. Below is the list of some of the principal applications of the computer systems:
Businesses
Businessmen make bar graphs and pie charts from tedious figures to convey information with far more impact
than numbers alone can covey. Furthermore, computers help businesses to predict their future sales, profits, costs
etc. making companies more accurate in their accounts. Computers may also play a vital role in aiding thousands
of organizations to make judgmental and hard-provoking decisions concerning financial problems and
prospective trends.
Buildings
Architects use computer animated graphics to experiment with possible exteriors and to give clients a visual walk-
through of their proposed buildings. The computers provide architects a numerous amount of facilities to create
different buildings with greater accuracy, better designing and editing tools, and work done at the fastest speed
possible. Finally, a new kind of artist has emerged, one who uses computers to express his or her creativity.
Education
Most good schools in the world have computers available for use in the classroom. It has been proved that learning
with computers has been more successful and this is why numerous forms of new teaching methods have been
introduced. This enhances the knowledge of the student at a much faster pace than the old traditional methods.
Likewise, colleges and various universities have extended the use of computers as many educators prefer the
'learning by doing' method - an approach uniquely suited to the computer.
Energy
Energy companies use computers to locate oil, coal, natural gas and uranium. With the use of these technological
machines, these companies can figure out the site of a natural resource, its concentration and other related figures.
Electric companies use computers to monitor vast power networks. In addition, meter readers use hand held
computers to record how much energy is used each month in homes and offices.
Law Enforcement
Recent innovation in computerized law enforcement include national fingerprint files, a national file on the mode
of operation of serial killers, and computer modeling of DNA, which can be used to match traces from an alleged
criminal's body, such as blood at a crime scene. In addition, computers also contain a complete databases of all
the names, pictures and information of such people who choose to break the law.
Transportation
Computers are used in cars to monitor fluid levels, temperatures and electrical systems. Computers are also used
to help run rapid transit systems, load containerships and track railroads cars across the country. An important
part is the air control traffic systems, where computers are used to control the flow of traffic between airplanes
which needs a lot of precision and accuracy to be dealt with.
Money
Computers speed up record keeping and allow banks to offer same-day services and even do-it yourself banking
over the phone and internet. Computers have helped fuel the cashless economy, enabling the widespread use of
credit cards, debit cards and instantaneous credit checks by banks and retailers. There is also a level of greater
security when computers are involved in money transactions as there is a better chance of detecting forged bank
cheque and using credit/debit cards illegally etc.
Agriculture
Farmers use small computers to help with billing, crop information, and cost per acre, feed combinations, and
market price checks. Cattle ranchers can also use computers for information about livestock breeding and
performance.
Government
Among other tasks, the federal government uses computers to forecast the weather, to manage parks and historical
sites, to process immigrants, to produce social security checks and to collect taxes. The most important use of the
computer system in in this field is perhaps the Army, the Air Force and the Navy. The computers have to be very
powerful and in order to be run they have to be very accurate and precise. E.g. in the use of missiles and other
likes, every nanosecond counts, which may save trillions of lives on this planet. The government also uses
computers in various simulations like the spread of influenza in a particular locality.
The Home
People having a computer in the home justifies the fact that it is not only useful and efficient, but it is also revered
as a learning system. Personal computers are being used for innumerous tasks nowadays, for example, to keep
records, write letters and memos, prepare budgets, produce presentations, draw pictures, publish newsletters and
most importantly - connect with other in the rest of plant earth.
Health and Medicine
Computers are helping immensely to monitor thee extremely ill in the intensive care unit and provide cross-
sectional views of the body. This eliminates the need for hired nurses to watch the patient twenty-four hours a
day, which is greatly tiring and error prone. Doctors use computers to assist them in diagnosing certain diseases
of the sort. This type of computer is called the Expert System, which is basically a collection of accumulated
expertise in a specific area of field. Computers are now able to map, in exquisite detail, the structure of the human
cold virus - the first step towards the common cold. Furthermore, computers are used greatly in managing patients,
doctors, wards and medicine records, as well as deal with making appointments, scheduling surgeries and other
likes.
Manufacturing Industries
Computers have made their way towards jobs that were unpleasant or too dangerous for humans to do, such as
working hundreds of feet below the earth or opening a package that might contain an explosive device. In other
industries, computers are used to control the production of resources very precisely. All robots and machinery are
now controlled by various computers, making the production process faster and cheaper. All the stages of
manufacturing, from designing to production, can be done with the use of computer technology with greater
diversity.
The Human connection
The computers have evolved in such prosperity that it is now able to assist or aid with humans who are disabled
- both physically and mentally. The handicapped are now able to express their missing sense with the aid of
computer technology. For example, a deaf and dumb person is able to communicate extensively with other people
by using a specially designed computer system. This gives the disabled a chance to live out life and gradually
catch up with the other fortunate people living on earth.
Scientific Research
This is very important for mankind and with the development of computers; scientific research has propelled
towards the better a great deal. Because of high-speed characteristics of computer systems, systems, researchers
can simulate environments, emulate physical characteristics and allow scientists to proof of their theories in a
cost-effective manner. Also many test lab animals are spared since computers have taken over their roles in
extensive research.
Communication with the World
The computes are most popular for their uses to connect with others on the World Wide Web. Therefore,
communication between two or more parties is possible which is relatively cheap considering the old fashioned
methods. Emailing, teleconferencing and the use of voice messages are very fast, effective and surprisingly
cheaper as well. When connected to the Internet, people can gain various amounts of knowledge, and know about
world events as they occur. Purchasing on the Internet is also becoming very popular, and has numerous
advantages over the traditional shopping methods.
Training
It is much cheaper and effective to teach pilots how to fly in a computerized cockpit or simulators, than is real
airplanes. This is because the learning pilots will feel much more relaxed and confident due to the fact that no life
is at risk at that moment. Railway engineers can also be given some kind of training on how to run a train with
the help of a computerized system. Training simulations are relatively cheaper and are always available on one-
to-one basis making way for personal training.
Paperwork
Computer systems will increasingly cut down the paperwork that is involved in millions of industries around the
world. If a business is run on a manual system, then the amount of papers or registers involved is a great deal,
making the administration process more tedious and error prone. If it is replaced by a computer system, then all
the necessary data and information is transferred into the memory of the computer. This makes managing various
tasks easier, faster and more effective than the manual system. Organizations that involve administrative tasks
such as a hotel, school, hospitals, clubs, libraries etc. will become more efficient if a computer system is
implemented.
Real Time systems
Many computers provide an environment, which is completely based on real time. This means processing of one
entity is done so quickly and effectively, that another entity is not effected. For example Airline systems and
Banking systems will come under this category. These systems are immensely huge because they interact with
all other airlines or baking systems in the world. A computer system, therefore, becomes more than just necessary
in daily uses.
There are so many applications of computers, that it is impractical to mention all of them. This is the Computer
Age and these machines are beginning to affect our lives in many ways. Computers are now becoming faster,
more reliable, effective and whole lot cheaper than they had been ever before.

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

Definition
 Computer system means the composition of computer. Computer system components are
classified as hardware and software. The physical equipment that goes together to make up a
computer is usually referred to as hardware.
Hardware: is the part that you can touch .or the physical make up of the computer.
Software: is the set of instruction called a program that directs the computer.

Computer System

Hardware Software

I/O Unit Processing Unit Memory Unit Application Software System Software

It is a collection of entities (hardware, software and liveware) that are designed to receive, process, manage and
present information in a meaningful format.
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and information.
Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device.
Computer Hardware
Computer hardware is a collection of separate items working together as team. Some of these components are
essential: others simply make working more pleasant and efficient. Adding extra item expands the variety of tasks
you accomplish with your machine. Your hardware computer system is classified in to two parts:
Main or basic components: parts of the hardware that must be present so that the computer performs its basic
operator.
Hardware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major
functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output, secondary storage (for
data and programs), and communication.
Input / Output device
An input/output (I/O) device is a hardware device that has the ability to accept inputted, outputted or other
processed data. It also can acquire respective media data as input sent to a computer or send computer data to
storage media as storage output.
Input devices provide input to a computer, while output devices provide a way for a computer to output data for
communication with users or other computers. An I/O device is a device with both functionalities.
Because I/O device data is bi-directional, such devices are usually categorized under storage or communications.
Examples of I/O storage devices are CD/DVD-ROM drives, USB flash drives and hard disk drives. Examples of
communication I/O devices are network adapters, Bluetooth adapters/dongles and modems.
The input devices
All computer peripheral devices which use to input data and instructions to the computer are called Input Devices.
An Input devices accept data and instructions from the user and convert information or data in to a form which
can be understood by the computer.
A good input device should provide accurate, timely and useful data to the main memory of the computer for
processing.
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
Keyboard, Mouse, Light Pen, Trackball, Joystick, Scanners, Optical Mark Reader, Optical Character Reader,
Barcode Reader, Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, Voice Recognition Systems and Digital Cameras
The output devices
An output device is an electromechanical device that receives information from the CPU and presents it to the
user in the desired from. The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit,
which then converts it into a form that can be understood by the user.
Output Device can be broadly classified into following categories:
• Hard Copy Devices
» Printer
» Plotter
» Computer Output on Microfilm (microfiche)
• Soft Copy Devices
» Monitor
» Visual Display Terminal
» Video Output
» Audio Response
CPU (Processing Unit)
Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is also often called the brain of computer. CPU consists of
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). In addition, CPU also has a set of registers which are
temporary storage areas for holding data, and instructions. ALU performs the arithmetic and logic operations on
the data that is made available to it. CU is responsible for organizing the processing of data and instructions. CU
controls and coordinates the activity of the other units of computer. CPU uses the registers to store the data,
instructions during processing.
CPU executes the stored program instructions, i.e. instructions and data are stored in memory before execution.
For processing, CPU gets data and instructions from the memory. It interprets the program instructions and
performs the arithmetic and logic operations required for the processing of data. Then, it sends the processed data
or result to the memory. CPU also acts as an administrator and is responsible for supervising operations of other
parts of the computer.
The CPU is fabricated as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip, and is also known as the microprocessor. The
microprocessor is plugged into the motherboard of the computer (Motherboard is a circuit board that has
electronic circuit etched on it and connects the microprocessor with the other hardware components).

Central Processing Unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit
» ALU consists of two units — arithmetic unit and logic unit.
» The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made available to it. Some of the arithmetic
operations supported by the arithmetic unit are—addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
» The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations. Logic unit performs comparisons of
numbers, letters and special characters. Logic operations include testing for greater than, less than or equal to
condition.
» ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, and uses registers to hold the data that is being processed.
Control Unit
» The control unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of data. It organizes the processing of data
and instructions. It acts as a supervisor and, controls and coordinates the activity of the other units of computer.
» CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to carry out stored program
instructions by communicating with the ALU and the registers. CU uses the instructions in the Instruction Register
(IR) to decide which circuit needs to be activated. It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic
operations. When a program is run, the Program Counter (PC) register keeps track of the program instruction to
be executed next.
» CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the results, the sequencing of events
during processing etc.
» CU also holds the CPU’s Instruction Set, which is a list of all operations that the CPU can perform.
The function of a (CU) can be considered synonymous with that of a conductor of an orchestra. The conductor in
an orchestra does not perform any work by itself but manages the orchestra and ensures that the members of
orchestra work in proper coordination.
CPU Registers
» Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU, but have the least storage capacity. Registers are not
referenced by their address, but are directly accessed and manipulated by the CPU during instruction execution.
» Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of processing. Registers are often referred
to as the CPU’s working memory.
» The data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the registers of CPU before they can be
processed. For example, if two numbers are to be added, both numbers are brought in the registers, added and the
result is also placed in a register.
» Registers are used for different purposes, with each register serving a specific purpose.
Some of the important registers in CPU are as follows —
• Accumulator (ACC) stores the result of arithmetic and logic operations.
• Instruction Register (IR) contains the current instruction most recently fetched.
• Program Counter (PC) contains the address of next instruction to be processed.
• Memory Address Register (MAR) contains the address of next location in the memory to be accessed.
• Memory Buffer Register (MBR) temporarily stores data from memory or the data to be sent to memory.
• Data Register (DR) stores the operands and any other data.
Memory Unit
The computer’s memory stores data, instructions required during the processing of data, and output results.
Storage may be required for a limited period of time, instantly, or, for an extended period of time. Different types
of memories, each having its own unique features, are available for use in a computer. The cache memory,
registers, and RAM are fast memories and store the data and instructions temporarily during the processing of
data and instructions. The secondary memory like magnetic disks and optical disks have large storage capacities
and store the data and instructions permanently, but are slow memory devices. The memories are organized in
the computer in a manner to achieve high levels of performance at the minimum cost.

Following are generally Computer Memory:

1. Primary Memory/Main Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. CPU Registers
4. Cache Memory
PRIMARY MEMORY
Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the main area in a computer in which data is stored
for quick access by the computer's processor. It is a chip mounted on the motherboard of computer.
Primary memory is categorized into two main types-
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Read Only Memory (ROM)
SECONDARY MEMORY
The secondary memory is also called the storage device of computer. Secondary storage devices, as indicated by
the name, save data after it has been saved by the primary storage device. Secondary storage is non-volatile and
has lower cost per bit stored but it generally has an operating speed far slower than that of primary storage. It is
used primarily to store large volume of data on permanent basis that can be partially transferred to primary storage,
whenever required for processing.
General Secondary Memories are:
• Hard Disk
• Floppy Disk
• Zip Disk
• Optical Disk
• Magnetic Disk

Memory Hierarchy
 DATA REPRESENTATION
Data refers to the symbols that represent people, events, things, and ideas. Data can be a name, a number, the
colors in a photograph, or the notes in a musical composition.
Data Representation refers to the form in which data is stored, processed, and transmitted. • Devices such as
smartphones, iPods, and computers store data in digital formats that can be handled by electronic circuitry
Digitization is the process of converting information, such as text, numbers, photo, or music, into digital data that
can be manipulated by electronic devices.
The Digital Revolution has evolved through four phases, beginning with big, expensive, standalone computers,
and progressing to today’s digital world in which small, inexpensive digital devices are everywhere.
The 0s and 1s used to represent digital data are referred to as binary digits — from this term we get the word bit
that stands for binary digit.
A bit is a 0 or 1 used in the digital representation of data.
A digital file, usually referred to simply as a file, is a named collection of data that exits on a storage medium,
such as a hard disk, CD, DVD, or flash drive.
NUMBER SYSTEM
The number system or the numeral system is the system of naming or representing numbers. We know that a
number is a mathematical value that helps to count or measure objects and it helps in performing various
mathematical calculations. There are different types of number systems in Maths like decimal number system,
binary number system, octal number system, and hexadecimal number system. In this article, we are going to
learn what is a number system in Maths, different types, and conversion procedures with many number system
examples in detail. Also, check mathematics for grade 12 here.
What is Number System in Maths?
A number system is defined as a system of writing to express numbers. It is the mathematical notation for
representing numbers of a given set by using digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. It provides a unique
representation of every number and represents the arithmetic and algebraic structure of the figures. It also allows
us to operate arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
The value of any digit in a number can be determined by:
 The digit
 Its position in the number
 The base of the number system
Before discussing the different types of number system examples, first, let us discuss what is a number?
What is a Number?
A number is a mathematical value used for counting or measuring or labelling objects. Numbers are used to
performing arithmetic calculations. Examples of numbers are natural numbers, whole numbers, rational and
irrational numbers, etc. 0 is also a number that represents a null value.
A number has many other variations such as even and odd numbers, prime and composite numbers. Even and odd
terms are used when a number is divisible by 2 or not, whereas prime and composite differentiate between the
numbers that have only two factors and more than two factors, respectively.
In a number system, these numbers are used as digits. 0 and 1 are the most common digits in the number system,
that are used to represent binary numbers. On the other hand, 0 to 9 digits are also used for other number systems.
Let us learn here the types of number systems.
Types of Number Systems
There are various types of number systems in mathematics. The four most common number system types are:
1. Decimal number system (Base- 10)
2. Binary number system (Base- 2)
3. Octal number system (Base-8)
4. Hexadecimal number system (Base- 16)
Now, let us discuss the different types of number systems with examples.
Decimal Number System (Base 10 Number System)
The decimal number system has a base of 10 because it uses ten digits from 0 to 9. In the decimal number system,
the positions successive to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. This
system is expressed in decimal numbers. Every position shows a particular power of the base (10).
Example of Decimal Number System:
The decimal number 1457 consists of the digit 7 in the units position, 5 in the tens place, 4 in the hundreds
position, and 1 in the thousands place whose value can be written as:
(1×103) + (4×102) + (5×101) + (7×100)
(1×1000) + (4×100) + (5×10) + (7×1)
1000 + 400 + 50 + 7
1457
Binary Number System (Base 2 Number System)
The base 2 number system is also known as the Binary number system wherein, only two binary digits exist,
i.e., 0 and 1. Specifically, the usual base-2 is a radix of 2. The figures described under this system are known as
binary numbers which are the combination of 0 and 1. For example, 110101 is a binary number.
We can convert any system into binary and vice versa.
Example
Write (14)10 as a binary number.
Solution:
Base 2 Number System Example
∴ (14)10 = 11102
Octal Number System (Base 8 Number System)
In the octal number system, the base is 8 and it uses numbers from 0 to 7 to represent numbers. Octal numbers
are commonly used in computer applications. Converting an octal number to decimal is the same as decimal
conversion and is explained below using an example.
Example: Convert 2158 into decimal.
Solution:
2158 = 2 × 82 + 1 × 81 + 5 × 80
= 2 × 64 + 1 × 8 + 5 × 1
= 128 + 8 + 5
= 14110
Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16 Number System)
In the hexadecimal system, numbers are written or represented with base 16. In the hexadecimal system, the
numbers are first represented just like in the decimal system, i.e. from 0 to 9. Then, the numbers are represented
using the alphabet from A to F. The below-given table shows the representation of numbers in the hexadecimal
number system.

Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F

Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number System Chart
In the number system chart, the base values and the digits of different number systems can be found. Below
is the chart of the numeral system.
Number System Chart
Number System Conversion
Numbers can be represented in any of the number system categories like binary, decimal, hexadecimal, etc. Also,
any number which is represented in any of the number system types can be easily converted to another. Check
the detailed lesson on the conversions of number systems to learn how to convert numbers in decimal to binary
and vice versa, hexadecimal to binary and vice versa, and octal to binary and vice versa using various examples.
With the help of the different conversion procedures explained above, now let us discuss in brief about the
conversion of one number system to the other number system by taking a random number.
Assume the number 349. Thus, the number 349 in different number systems is as follows:
1. The number 349 in the binary number system is 101011101
2. The number 349 in the decimal number system is 349.
3. The number 349 in the octal number system is 535.
4. The number 349 in the hexadecimal number system is 15D
Number System Solved Examples
Example 1:
Convert (1056)16 to an octal number.
Solution:
Given, 105616 is a hex number.
First we need to convert the given hexadecimal number into decimal number
(1056)16
= 1 × 163 + 0 × 162 + 5 × 161 + 6 × 160
= 4096 + 0 + 80 + 6
= (4182)10
Now we will convert this decimal number to the required octal number by repetitively dividing by 8.
8 4182 Remainder
8 522 6
8 65 2
8 8 1
8 1 0
0 1
Therefore, taking the value of the remainder from bottom to top, we get;
(4182)10 = (10126)8
Therefore,
(1056)16 = (10126)8
Example 2:
Convert (1001001100)2 to a decimal number.
Solution:
(1001001100)2
= 1 × 29 + 0 × 28 + 0 × 27 + 1 × 26 + 0 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 20
= 512 + 64 + 8 + 4
= (588)10
Example 3:
Convert 101012 into an octal number.
Solution:
Given,
101012 is the binary number
We can write the given binary number as,
010 101
Now as we know, in the octal number system,
010 → 2
101 → 5
Therefore, the required octal number is (25)8
Example 4:
Convert hexadecimal 2C to decimal number.
Solution:
We need to convert 2C16 into binary numbers first.
2C → 00101100
Now convert 001011002 into a decimal number.
101100 = 1 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 × 20
= 32 + 8 + 4
= 44
6,727
Number System Questions
1. Convert (242)10 into hexadecimal. [Answer: (F2)16]
2. Subtract 11012 and 10102. [Answer: 0010]
3. Represent 5C6 in decimal. [Answer: 1478]
4. Represent binary number 1.1 in decimal. [Answer: 1.5]
Computer Numeral System (Number System in Computers)
When we type any letter or word, the computer translates them into numbers since computers can understand
only numbers. A computer can understand only a few symbols called digits and these symbols describe different
values depending on the position they hold in the number. In general, the binary number system is used in
computers. However, the octal, decimal and hexadecimal systems are also used sometimes.
More Topics Related to Number Systems
Frequently Asked Questions on Number System
Q1
What is Number System and it’s Types?
The number system is simply a system to represent or express numbers. There are various types of number
systems and the most commonly used ones are decimal number system, binary number system, octal number
system, and hexadecimal number system.
Q2
Why is the Number System Important?
The number system helps to represent numbers in a small symbol set. Computers, in general, use binary numbers
0 and 1 to keep the calculations simple and to keep the amount of necessary circuitry less, which results in the
least amount of space, energy consumption and cost.
Q3
What is Base 1 Number System Called?
The base 1 number system is called the unary numeral system and is the simplest numeral system to represent
natural numbers.
Q4
What is the equivalent binary number for the decimal number 43?
To find the equivalent binary number, we need to divide 43 by 2, until we get 0 as the result. Therefore, (43) 10 =
1010112
Q5
How to convert 308 into a decimal number?
308 = (3 × 81) + (0 × 80) = 24
A number system in base r or radix r uses unique symbols for r digits. One or more digits are combined to get a
number. The base of the number decides the valid digits that are used to make a number. In a number, the position
of digit starts from the right-hand side of the number. The rightmost digit has position 0, the next digit on its left
has position 1, and so on. The digits of a number have two kinds of values
• Face value
• Position value
Face Value
The face value of a digit is the digit located at that position. For example, in decimal number 52, face value at
position 0 is 2 and face value at position 1 is 5.
Position Value
The position value of a digit is (base position).
Example: In decimal number 52, the position value of digit 2 is 100 and the position value of digit 5 is 10 1.
Decimal numbers have a base of 10.
The number is calculated as the sum of, face value * baseposition, of each of the digits. For decimal number 52, the
number is 5*101 + 2*100 = 50 + 2 = 52.
In computers, we are concerned with four kinds of number systems, as follows
• Decimal Number System — Base 10
• Binary Number System — Base 2
• Octal Number System — Base 8
• Hexadecimal Number System — Base 16
The numbers given as input to computer and the numbers given as output from the computer, are generally in
decimal number system, and are most easily understood by humans. However, computer understands the binary
number system, i.e., numbers in terms of 0s and 1s. The binary data is also represented, internally, as octal
numbers and hexadecimal numbers due to their ease of use.
KINDS OF NUMBER SYSTEMS
1. Decimal Number System
• It consists of 10 digits—0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
• All numbers in this number system are represented as combination of digits 0—9.
Example: 34, 5965 and 867321.
• The position value and quantity of a digit at different positions in a number are as follows—

2. Binary Number System

• The binary number system consists of two digits—0 and 1.
• All binary numbers are formed using combination of 0 and 1.
Example: 1001, 11000011 and 10110101.
• The position value and quantity of a digit at different positions in a number are as follows—

3. Octal Number System

• The octal number system consists of eight digits—0 to 7.
• All octal numbers are represented using these eight digits.
Example: 273, 103, 2375, etc.
• The position value and quantity of a digit at different positions in a number are as follows—

4. Hexadecimal Number System

• The hexadecimal number system consists of sixteen digits—0 to 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, where (A is for 10, B is for
11, C-12, D-13, E-14, F-15).
• All hexadecimal numbers are represented using these 16 digits.
Example: 3FA, 87B, 113, etc.
• The position value and quantity of a digit at different positions in a number are as follows—
Converting Decimal Integer to Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal
A decimal integer is converted to any other base, by using the division operation. To convert a decimal integer
to—
• Binary - divide by 2
• Octal - divide by 8
• Hexadecimal - divide by 16
Convert 25 from Base 10 to Base 2 (Decimal to Binary).
1. Make a table as shown below. Write the number in center and to Base on the left side.

2. Divide the number with to Base. After each division, write the remainder on right-side column and
quotient in the next line in the middle column. Continue dividing till the quotient is 0.

3. Write the digits in remainder column starting from downwards to upwards,

The binary equivalent of number (25)10 is (11001)2.

Note: The steps shown above are followed to convert a decimal integer to a number in any other base.
Convert 23 from Base 10 to Base 2, 8, 16

Converting Decimal Fraction to Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal

A fractional number is a number less than 1. It may be .5, .00453, .564, etc. We use the multiplication operation
to convert decimal fraction to any other base.

To convert a decimal fraction to—

• Binary - multiply by 2
• Octal - multiply by 8
• Hexadecimal - multiply by 16
Steps for conversion of a decimal fraction to any other base are—
1. Multiply the fractional number with the Base, to get a resulting number.
2. The resulting number has two parts, non-fractional part and fractional part.
3. Record the non-fractional part of the resulting number.
4. Repeat the above steps at least four times.
5. Write the digits in the non-fractional part starting from upwards to downwards.
Convert 0.2345 from Base 10 to Base 2

The binary equivalent of (0.2345)10 is (0.001111)2.

Convert 0.865 from Base 10 to Base 2, 8 and 16.

Converting Decimal Integer Fraction to Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal

A decimal integer fraction number has both integer part and fraction part. The steps for conversion of a decimal
integer fraction to any other base are—
1. Convert decimal integer part to the desired base following the steps shown in Converting Decimal Integer to
Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal.
2. Convert decimal fraction part to the desired base following the steps shown in Converting Decimal Fraction to
Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal.
3. The integer and fraction part in the desired base is combined to get integer fraction.
Convert 34.4674 from Base 10 to Base 2.

Convert 34.4674 from Base 10 to Base 8.

Convert 34.4674 from Base 10 to Base 16.

Conversion of Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal to Decimal
A binary, octal or hexadecimal number has two parts — integer part and fraction part. For example, a binary
number could be 10011, 0.011001 or 10011.0111. The numbers 45, .362 or 245.362 are octal numbers. A
hexadecimal number could be A2, .4C2 or A1.34.

The method used for the conversion of integer part and fraction part of binary, octal or hexadecimal number to
decimal number is the same; multiplication operation is used for the conversion. The conversion mechanism
uses the face value and position value of digits. The steps for conversion are as follows—
Find the sum of the Face Value * (from Base) position for each digit in the number.
1. In a non-fractional number, the rightmost digit has position 0 and the position increases as we go towards
the left.
2. In a fractional number, the first digit to the left of decimal point has position 0 and the position increases as
we go towards the left. The first digit to the right of the decimal point has position –1 and it decreases as we go
towards the right (−2, −3, etc.)

Example
Convert 1011 from Base 2 to Base 10.
Convert 62 from Base 8 to Base 10.
Convert C15 from Base 16 to Base 10.
Conversion of Binary to Octal, Hexadecimal
A binary number can be converted into octal or hexadecimal number using a shortcut method.
The shortcut method is based on the following information—
• An octal digit from 0 to 7 can be represented as a combination of 3 bits, since 23 = 8.
• A hexadecimal digit from 0 to 15 can be represented as a combination of 4 bits, since 24 = 16.
The Steps for Binary to Octal Conversion are—
1. Partition the binary number in groups of three bits, starting from the right-most side.
2. For each group of three bits, find its octal number.
3. The result is the number formed by the combination of the octal numbers.
The Steps for Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion are—
1. Partition the binary number in groups of four bits, starting from the right-most side.
2. For each group of four bits, find its hexadecimal number.
3. The result is the number formed by the combination of the hexadecimal numbers.
Convert the binary number 1110101100110 to octal.
Given binary number 1110101100110

1. Partition binary number in groups of three bits, starting from the right-most side.
1 110 101 100 110
2. For each group find its octal number.
1 110 101 100 110
1 6 5 4 6
3. The octal number is 16546.
Convert the binary number 1110101100110 to hexadecimal
Given binary number - 1110101100110

1. Partition binary number in groups of four bits, starting from the right-most side.
1 1101 0110 0110
2 For each group find its hexadecimal number.
1 1101 0110 0110
1 D 6 6
3 The hexadecimal number is 1D66.

Conversion of Octal, Hexadecimal to Binary

The conversion of a number from octal and hexadecimal to binary uses the inverse of the steps defined for the
conversion of binary to octal and hexadecimal.
The Steps for Octal to Binary Conversion are—
1. Convert each octal number into a three-digit binary number.
2. The result is the number formed by the combination of all the bits.
The Steps for Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion are—
1. Convert each hexadecimal number into a four-digit binary number.
2. The result is the number formed by the combination of all the bits.
Convert the hexadecimal number 2BA3 to binary.
1. Given number is 2BA3
2. Convert each hexadecimal digit into four digit binary number.
2 B A 3
0010 1011 1010 0011
3. Combine all the bits to get the result 0010101110100011.
Convert the octal number 473 to binary.
1. Given number is 473
2. Convert each octal digit into three digit binary number.
4 7 3
100 111 011
3. Combine all the bits to get the result 100111011.

How to convert octal to hexadecimal

Using the below two methods, we can convert the octal number system into the hexadecimal number system.
1. Convert the octal number into binary and then convert the binary into hexadecimal.
2. Convert the octal number into decimal and then convert the decimal into hexadecimal.
Let's convert the octal number into the hexadecimal number system.
Octal Binary Hexadecimal
Let's convert (56)8 into hexadecimal
Step 1: Convert (56)8 into Binary
In order to convert the octal number into binary, we need to express every octal value using 3 binary bits.
Binary equivalent of 5 is (101)2.
Binary equivalent of 6 is (110)2.
= (56)8
= (101)(110)
= (101110)2
Step 2: Convert (101110)2 into Hexadecimal
In order to convert the binary number into hexadecimal, we need to group every 4 binary bits and calculate the
value [From left to right].
(101110)2 in hexadecimal
= (101110)2
= (10)(1110)
= (2)(14)
= (2e)16
14 equivalent hexadecimal is e.
This method is relatively easy compared to the below method.
Octal Decimal Hexadecimal
Step 1: Convert (56)8 into Decimal
= 5*81+6*80
= 40+6
= (46)10
Step 2: Convert (46)10 into hexadecimal
16|46
----
16|2 - 14
= (2e)16

Binary to Octal Conversion

In binary to octal conversion, we learn to convert base 2 number system into base 8 number system. We cannot
directly convert binary to octal, so we first convert binary to decimal, then the decimal number to the
equivalent octal number system. Binary numbers are commonly used in computers, in the form of bits and
bytes, since the computer understand the language of 0 and 1 only. At the same time, octal numbers are used in
electronics. Before going to the conversion, we have to learn about octal and binary numbers.
What are Binary Numbers?
Numbers to base 2 is called binary numbers. It uses only two digits, 0 and 1. It is denoted by a2, where a is a
number with 0’s and 1’s.
Examples:
 1111102
 11111112
 10110012
What are Octal numbers?
The number to the base 8 is called octal numbers. It uses the numbers from 0 to 7. The numbers 8 and 9 are not
included in the octal number system. It is denoted by a8 where a is a number with digits 0 to 7.
Examples:
  21458
 71658
 468
Conversion from Binary to Octal
In number system, you will come across different types of numbers such as binary, octal, decimal and
hexadecimal. To convert binary numbers to octal numbers, follow the below steps:
 Take the given binary number
 Multiply each digit by 2n-1 where n is the position of the digit from the decimal
 The resultant is the equivalent decimal number for the given binary number
 Divide the decimal number by 8
 Note the remainder
 Continue the above two steps with the quotient till the quotient is zero
 Write the remainder in the reverse order
 The resultant is the required octal number for the given binary number
Also read:
 Number System Conversion
 Convert Octal To Binary
 Convert Decimal To Octal
Here is a table for decimal number and equivalent octal number, to solve the problems based on their
conversion more quickly.

Decimal Number Octal Number

0 0

1 01

2 010

3 011

4 100

5 101

6 110

7 111

Binary to Octal conversion Examples

Example 1: Convert 10101012 to octal
Solution:
Given binary number is 10101012
First, we convert given binary to decimal
10101012 = (1 * 26) + (0 * 25 ) + (1 * 24) + (0 * 23) + (1 * 22) + (0 * 21) + (1 * 20)
= 64 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 64 + 21
0101012= 85 (Decimal form)
Now we will convert this decimal to octal form

Therefore, the equivalent octal number is 1258.

Example 2: Convert 011012 to octal
Solution:
Given binary number is 011012
First we convert given binary to decimal
011012 = (0 * 24) + (1 * 23) + (1 * 23) + (0 * 2) + (1 *20)
= 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 +1
011012= 13 (Decimal form)
Now we will convert this decimal to octal form

Therefore, the equivalent octal number is 158.

 USER AND COMPUTER INTERACTION

SOFTWARE
Computer needs to be given instructions to perform any task. A set of instructions for a specific task is termed a
routine and a complete set of instructions to execute a related set of tasks is a program. Software refers to the set
of computer programs, procedures that describe the programs, how they are to be used. We can say that it is the
collection of programs, which increase the capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at every
step where to start and stop during a particular job. The process of software development is called programming.

What is a software?
Software can be best defined as a set of instructions, technically referred to as programs, that perform operations
and specific tasks based on the commands of the user. Every single task that a user intends to perform is regulated
by software. Made of binary language (ones and zeroes), there is a variety of software for different tasks. With
that said, here’s everything about software that you should know.
 Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed and how
these tasks are to be performed.
 Program is a set of instructions, written in a language understood by the computer, to perform a
specific task.
 A set of programs and documents are collectively called software. Software instructs the computer
about the task to be performed.
 Different software can be loaded on the same hardware to perform different kinds of tasks.

System Software
System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling all operations required
to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with printers, card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the
use of various hardware like memory, CPU etc. Also system software are essential for the development of
applications software. System Software allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and
effort.
Remember that it is not possible to run application software without system software.

System Software are three types:

1. System Management Programs
2. System Support Programs
 3. System Development Programs

Types of System Software

 Operating systems: - Operating system software helps you for the effective utilization of all hardware
and software components of a computer system.
 Programming language translators: - Transforms the instructions prepared by developers in a
programming language into a form that can be interpreted or compiled and executed by a computer system.
 Communication Software: – Communication software allows us to transfer data and programs from one
computer system to another.
 Utility programs: – Utility programs are a set of programs that help users in system maintenance tasks,
and in performing tasks of routine nature.

Features of System Software

An important feature of System Software are:
 System Software is closer to the system
 Generally written in a low-level language
 The system software is difficult to design and understand
 Fast in speed
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Hard to manipulate

Application Software
Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a specific application. For example, payroll
is an application software for an organization to produce pay slips as an output. Application software is useful for
word processing, billing system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis of numerous data in research,
weather forecasting, etc. In later modules you will learn about MS WORD, Lotus 1-2-3 and BASE III Plus. All
these are application software.

Types of Application Software

Here, are some important types of Application Software
 Word-processing software: - It makes use of a computer for creating, modifying, viewing, storing,
retrieving, and printing documents.
  Spreadsheet software: - Spreadsheet software is a numeric data-analysis tool that allows you to create a
computerized ledger.
 Database software: - A database software is a collection of related data that is stored and retrieved
according to user demand.
 Graphics software: - It allows computer systems for creating, editing, drawings, graphs, etc.
 Education software: - Education software allows a computer to be used as a learning and teaching tool.
 Entertainment software: - This type of app allows a computer to be used as an entertainment tool.
Features of Application Software
An important feature of Application Software:
 Perform more specialized tasks like word processing, spreadsheets, email, photo editing, etc.
 It needs more storage space as it is bigger in size
 Easy to design and more interactive for the user
 Generally written in a high-level language

OPERATING SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION

An Operating System (OS) acts as an interface connecting a computer user with the computer's hardware. An
operating system falls under the category of system software that performs all the fundamental tasks like file
management, memory handling, process management, handling the input/output, and governing and managing
the peripheral devices like disk drives, networking hardware, printers, etc. Some well-liked Operating Systems
are Linux, Windows, OS X, Solaris, OS/400, Chrome OS, etc.
FEATURES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Here is a list of some significant functions of an Operating System, which is found common in almost all operating
systems:
1. Resource management: Operating systems manage the computer's resources, such as its memory,
processor, and storage, and allocate them to different tasks as needed.
2. Memory management: Operating systems manage the computer's memory and ensure that each program
or process has access to the memory it needs to run.
3. Process management: Operating systems create and manage processes, which are units of work executed
by the computer.
4. File management: Operating systems manage the files on the computer, including organizing them and
providing access for different programs and users.
 5. Security: Operating systems include security features to protect the computer from unauthorized access
and viruses.
6. User interface: Operating systems provide an interface for users to interact with the computer, such as
through a graphical user interface (GUI) or command-line interface (CLI).
7. Networking: Many operating systems include support for networking, allowing the computer to
communicate and exchange data with other devices over a network, such as the internet or a local area
network (LAN).
8. Device management: Operating systems manage the devices connected to the computer, such as printers,
keyboards, and storage devices.
9. Power management: Operating systems include features to manage the power usage of the computer and
conserve energy when possible.
10. Software installation and updates: Operating systems provide a mechanism for installing and updating
software applications.

Functions of OS
Operating system is a large and complex software consisting of several components. Each component of the
operating system has its own set of defined inputs and outputs. Different components of OS perform specific tasks
to provide the overall functionality of the operating system
Main functions of the operating system are as follows:

Process Management
The process management activities handled by the OS are—
1. Control access to shared resources like file, memory, I/O and CPU
2. Control execution of applications
3. Create, execute and delete a process (system process or user process)
4. Cancel or resume a process
5. Schedule a process
6. Synchronization, communication and deadlock handling for processes.
Memory Management
The activities of memory management handled by OS are—
1. Allocate memory
2. Free memory
3. Re-allocate memory to a program when a used block is freed
4. Keep track of memory usage
File Management
The file management tasks include —
1. Create and delete both files and directories
2. Provide access to files
3. Allocate space for files
4. Keep back-up of files
5. Secure files
Device Management
The device management tasks handled by OS are—
1. Open, close and write device drivers
2. Communicate, control and monitor the device driver
Protection and Security
OS protects the resources of system. User authentication, file attributes like read, write, encryption, and back-up
of data are used by OS to provide basic protection.
User Interface or Command Interpreter
Operating system provides an interface between the computer user and the computer hardware. The user interface
is a set of commands or a graphical user interface via which the user interacts with the applications and the
hardware.

These are just a few examples of features commonly found in operating systems. The specific features of an
operating system depend on the particular system and its intended use.
OBJECTIVES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system consists of unique programs that control the execution of software. The OS acts as an
intermediary between applications and hardware components. OS can be thought of as having three objectives.
These are:
 Convenience: It makes a computer more suitable to use.
 Efficiency: It provides the computer system resources with efficiency and in easy to use format.
 Ability to develop: It should be built in such a way that it permits the efficient development, testing, and
installation of new system functions without interfering with service.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
At an upper level of any computer architecture, a computer is supposed to have a processor, memory, and some
I/O components, with one or more quantities of each type. These components are interrelated and connected in a
way to achieve the significant function of the computer, which is to execute programs.
There are four key structural elements of any computer. These are:
 Processor: It controls the processes within the computer and carries out its data processing functions.
When there is only one processor available, it is in combination termed as the central processing unit
(CPU), which you must be familiar with.
 Main memory: It stores data and programs within it. This memory is typically volatile and is also called
primary memory. This is because when the computer is shut down, the contents within the memory get
lost. In contrast, the contents of disk memory are kept hold of even when the computer system is turned
off, which you call a shutting down of the Operating system or computer. Main memory is also termed
real memory.
 Input/output (I/O) devices: This moves the data within the computer to its peripheral external
environment. The external environment is supposed to have a variety of devices, including secondary
memory devices (e.g., pen drives, CDs, etc.), communications equipment (such as LAN cable), terminals,
etc.
 System bus: It provides communication between processors, main memory, and I/O modules.
These are some of the essential elements of a computer system. There may be other components, depending on
the specific design and configuration of the system.
OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES
An Operating System supplies different kinds of services to both the users and to the programs as well. It also
provides application programs (that run within an Operating system) an environment to execute it freely. It
provides users the services run various programs in a convenient manner.
Here is a list of common services offered by an almost all operating systems:
 User Interface
  Program Execution
 File system manipulation
 Input / Output Operations
 Communication
 Resource Allocation
 Error Detection
 Accounting
 Security and protection
This chapter will give a brief description of what services an operating system usually provide to users and those
programs that are and will be running within it.
User Interface of Operating System
Usually Operating system comes in three forms or types. Depending on the interface their types have been further
subdivided. These are:
 Command line interface
 Batch based interface
 Graphical User Interface
Let's get to know in brief about each of them.
The command line interface (CLI) usually deals with using text commands and a technique for entering those
commands. The batch interface (BI): commands and directives are used to manage those commands that are
entered into files and those files get executed. Another type is the graphical user interface (GUI): which is a
window system with a pointing device (like mouse or trackball) to point to the I/O, choose from menus driven
interface and to make choices viewing from a number of lists and a keyboard to entry the texts.
Program Execution in Operating System
The operating system must have the capability to load a program into memory and execute that program.
Furthermore, the program must be able to end its execution, either normally or abnormally / forcefully.
File System Manipulation in Operating System
Programs need has to be read and then write them as files and directories. File handling portion of operating
system also allows users to create and delete files by specific name along with extension, search for a given file
and / or list file information. Some programs comprise of permissions management for allowing or denying access
to files or directories based on file ownership.
I/O operations in Operating System
A program which is currently executing may require I/O, which may involve file or other I/O device. For
efficiency and protection, users cannot directly govern the I/O devices. So, the OS provide a means to do I/O
Input / Output operation which means read or write operation with any file.
Communication System of Operating System
Process needs to swap over information with other process. Processes executing on same computer system or on
different computer systems can communicate using operating system support. Communication between two
processes can be done using shared memory or via message passing.
Resource Allocation of Operating System
When multiple jobs running concurrently, resources must need to be allocated to each of them. Resources can be
CPU cycles, main memory storage, file storage and I/O devices. CPU scheduling routines are used here to
establish how best the CPU can be used.
Error Detection
Errors may occur within CPU, memory hardware, I/O devices and in the user program. For each type of error,
the OS takes adequate action for ensuring correct and consistent computing.
Accounting
This service of the operating system keeps track of which users are using how much and what kinds of computer
resources have been used for accounting or simply to accumulate usage statistics.
Protection and Security
Protection includes in ensuring all access to system resources in a controlled manner. For making a system secure,
the user needs to authenticate him or her to the system before using (usually via login ID and password).

DATABASES

WHAT IS A DATABASE?
Database defined
A database is a collection of logically-related and similar data. Database stores similar kind of data, for a specific
purpose that is organized in such a manner that any information can be derived from it, when needed. The database
is accessed for the retrieval, insertion, deletion, or updating of data. Database Management System (DBMS) is a
software system for creating, organizing, and managing the database. DBMS provides an environment to the user
to perform operations on the database for creation, insertion, deletion, updating, and retrieval of data.

A database management system (DBMS) refers to the technology for creating and managing databases. DBMS
is a software tool to organize (create, retrieve, update, and manage) data in a database.
The main aim of a DBMS is to supply a way to store up and retrieve database information that is both convenient
and efficient. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded and that have embedded meaning. Usually,
people use software such as DBASE IV or V, Microsoft ACCESS, or EXCEL to store data in the form of a
database. A datum is a unit of data. Meaningful data combined to form information. Hence, information is
interpreted data - data provided with semantics. MS. ACCESS is one of the most common examples of database
management software.

More on Data, Information, and Knowledge

Knowledge refers to the useful use of information. As you know, that information can be transported, stored, and
shared without any problems and difficulties, but the same cannot be said about knowledge. Knowledge
necessarily involves personal experience and practice.
Database systems are meant to handle an extensive collection of information. Management of data involves both
defining structures for storage of information and providing mechanisms that can do the manipulation of those
stored information. Moreover, the database system must ensure the safety of the information stored, despite
system crashes or attempts at unauthorized access.

Why Use DBMS?

 To develop software applications in less time.
 Data independence and efficient use of data.
 For uniform data administration.
 For data integrity and security.
 For concurrent access to data, and data recovery from crashes.
 To use user-friendly declarative query language.

Where is a Database Management System (DBMS) being used?

 Airlines: reservations, schedules, etc.
 Telecom: calls made, customer details, network usage, etc.
 Universities: registration, results, grades, etc.
 Sales: products, purchases, customers, etc.
 Banking: all transactions etc.

Advantages of DBMS
A DBMS manages data and has many benefits. These are:

 Data independence: Application programs should be as free or independent as possible from details of
data representation and storage. DBMS can supply an abstract view of the data for insulating application
code from such facts.
 Efficient data access: DBMS utilizes a mixture of sophisticated concepts and techniques for storing and
retrieving data competently. This feature becomes important in cases where the data is stored on external
storage devices.
  Data integrity and security: If data is accessed through the DBMS, the DBMS can enforce integrity
constraints on the data.
 Data administration: When several users share the data, integrating the administration of data can offer
significant improvements. Experienced professionals understand the nature of the data being managed and
can be responsible for organizing the data representation to reduce redundancy and make the data to
retrieve efficiently.
Components of DBMS
 Users: Users may be of any kind such as DB administrator, System developer, or database users.
 Database application: Database application may be Departmental, Personal, organization's and / or
Internal.
 DBMS: Software that allows users to create and manipulate database access,
 Database: Collection of logical data as a single unit.
A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data, typically stored electronically in a
computer system. A database is usually controlled by a database management system (DBMS). Together, the data
and the DBMS, along with the applications that are associated with them, are referred to as a database system,
often shortened to just database.
Data within the most common types of databases in operation today is typically modeled in rows and columns in
a series of tables to make processing and data querying efficient. The data can then be easily accessed, managed,
modified, updated, controlled, and organized. Most databases use structured query language (SQL) for writing
and querying data.
What is Structured Query Language (SQL)?
SQL is a programming language used by nearly all relational databases to query, manipulate, and define data, and
to provide access control. SQL was first developed at IBM in the 1970s with Oracle as a major contributor, which
led to implementation of the SQL ANSI standard, SQL has spurred many extensions from companies such as
IBM, Oracle, and Microsoft. Although SQL is still widely used today, new programming languages are beginning
to appear.
Evolution of the database
Databases have evolved dramatically since their inception in the early 1960s. Navigational databases such as the
hierarchical database (which relied on a tree-like model and allowed only a one-to-many relationship), and the
network database (a more flexible model that allowed multiple relationships), were the original systems used to
store and manipulate data. Although simple, these early systems were inflexible. In the 1980s, relational
databases became popular, followed by object-oriented databases in the 1990s. More recently, NoSQL
databases came about as a response to the growth of the internet and the need for faster speed and processing of
unstructured data. Today, cloud databases and self-driving databases are breaking new ground when it comes to
how data is collected, stored, managed, and utilized.
What’s the difference between a database and a spreadsheet?
Databases and spreadsheets (such as Microsoft Excel) are both convenient ways to store information. The primary
differences between the two are:
 How the data is stored and manipulated
 Who can access the data
 How much data can be stored
Spreadsheets were originally designed for one user, and their characteristics reflect that. They’re great for a single
user or small number of users who don’t need to do a lot of incredibly complicated data manipulation. Databases,
on the other hand, are designed to hold much larger collections of organized information—massive amounts,
sometimes. Databases allow multiple users at the same time to quickly and securely access and query the data
using highly complex logic and language.
Types of databases
There are many different types of databases. The best database for a specific organization depends on how the
organization intends to use the data.
Relational databases
 Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. Items in a relational database are organized as a set
of tables with columns and rows. Relational database technology provides the most efficient and flexible
way to access structured information.
Object-oriented databases
 Information in an object-oriented database is represented in the form of objects, as in object-oriented
programming.
Distributed databases
 A distributed database consists of two or more files located in different sites. The database may be stored
on multiple computers, located in the same physical location, or scattered over different networks.
Data warehouses
 A central repository for data, a data warehouse is a type of database specifically designed for fast query
and analysis.
NoSQL databases
 A NoSQL, or nonrelational database, allows unstructured and semistructured data to be stored and
manipulated (in contrast to a relational database, which defines how all data inserted into the database
must be composed). NoSQL databases grew popular as web applications became more common and more
complex.
Graph databases
  A graph database stores data in terms of entities and the relationships between entities.
 OLTP databases. An OLTP database is a speedy, analytic database designed for large numbers of
transactions performed by multiple users.
These are only a few of the several dozen types of databases in use today. Other, less common databases are
tailored to very specific scientific, financial, or other functions. In addition to the different database types, changes
in technology development approaches and dramatic advances such as the cloud and automation are propelling
databases in entirely new directions. Some of the latest databases include
Open source databases
 An open source database system is one whose source code is open source; such databases could be SQL
or NoSQL databases.
Cloud databases
 A cloud database is a collection of data, either structured or unstructured, that resides on a private, public,
or hybrid cloud computing platform. There are two types of cloud database models: traditional and
database as a service (DBaaS). With DBaaS, administrative tasks and maintenance are performed by a
service provider.
Multimodel database
 Multimodel databases combine different types of database models into a single, integrated back end. This
means they can accommodate various data types.
Document/JSON database
 Designed for storing, retrieving, and managing document-oriented information, document databases are a
modern way to store data in JSON format rather than rows and columns.
Self-driving databases
 The newest and most groundbreaking type of database, self-driving databases (also known as autonomous
databases) are cloud-based and use machine learning to automate database tuning, security, backups,
updates, and other routine management tasks traditionally performed by database administrators.
Learn more about self-driving databases
What is database software?
Database software is used to create, edit, and maintain database files and records, enabling easier file and record
creation, data entry, data editing, updating, and reporting. The software also handles data storage, backup and
reporting, multi-access control, and security. Strong database security is especially important today, as data theft
becomes more frequent. Database software is sometimes also referred to as a “database management system”
(DBMS).
Database software makes data management simpler by enabling users to store data in a structured form and then
access it. It typically has a graphical interface to help create and manage the data and, in some cases, users
can construct their own databases by using database software.
What is a database management system (DBMS)?
A database typically requires a comprehensive database software program known as a database management
system (DBMS). A DBMS serves as an interface between the database and its end users or programs, allowing
users to retrieve, update, and manage how the information is organized and optimized. A DBMS also facilitates
oversight and control of databases, enabling a variety of administrative operations such as performance
monitoring, tuning, and backup and recovery.
Some examples of popular database software or DBMSs include MySQL, Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL
Server, FileMaker Pro, Oracle Database, and dBASE.
What is a MySQL database?
MySQL is an open source relational database management system based on SQL. It was designed and optimized
for web applications and can run on any platform. As new and different requirements emerged with the internet,
MySQL became the platform of choice for web developers and web-based applications. Because it’s designed to
process millions of queries and thousands of transactions, MySQL is a popular choice for ecommerce businesses
that need to manage multiple money transfers. On-demand flexibility is the primary feature of MySQL.
MySQL is the DBMS behind some of the top websites and web-based applications in the world, including Airbnb,
Uber, LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.

Using databases to improve business performance and decision-making

With massive data collection from the Internet of Things transforming life and industry across the globe,
businesses today have access to more data than ever before. Forward-thinking organizations can now use
databases to go beyond basic data storage and transactions to analyze vast quantities of data from multiple
systems. Using database and other computing and business intelligence tools, organizations can now leverage the
data they collect to run more efficiently, enable better decision-making, and become more agile and scalable.
Optimizing access and throughput to data is critical to businesses today because there is more data volume to
track. It’s critical to have a platform that can deliver the performance, scale, and agility that businesses need as
they grow over time.
The self-driving database is poised to provide a significant boost to these capabilities. Because self-driving
databases automate expensive, time-consuming manual processes, they free up business users to become more
proactive with their data. By having direct control over the ability to create and use databases, users gain control
and autonomy while still maintaining important security standards.
Database challenges
Today’s large enterprise databases often support very complex queries and are expected to deliver nearly instant
responses to those queries. As a result, database administrators are constantly called upon to employ a wide variety
of methods to help improve performance. Some common challenges that they face include:
  Absorbing significant increases in data volume. The explosion of data coming in from sensors,
connected machines, and dozens of other sources keeps database administrators scrambling to manage
and organize their companies’ data efficiently.
 Ensuring data security. Data breaches are happening everywhere these days, and hackers are getting
more inventive. It’s more important than ever to ensure that data is secure but also easily accessible to
users.
 Keeping up with demand. In today’s fast-moving business environment, companies need real-time
access to their data to support timely decision-making and to take advantage of new opportunities.
 Managing and maintaining the database and infrastructure. Database administrators must continually
watch the database for problems and perform preventative maintenance, as well as apply software
upgrades and patches. As databases become more complex and data volumes grow, companies are faced
with the expense of hiring additional talent to monitor and tune their databases.
 Removing limits on scalability. A business needs to grow if it’s going to survive, and its data
management must grow along with it. But it’s very difficult for database administrators to predict how
much capacity the company will need, particularly with on-premises databases.
 Ensuring data residency, data sovereignty, or latency requirements. Some organizations have use
cases that are better suited to run on-premises. In those cases, engineered systems that are pre-configured
and pre-optimized for running the database are ideal. Customers achieve higher availability, greater
performance and up to 40% lower cost with Oracle Exadata, according to Wikibon’s recent analysis
(PDF).
Addressing all of these challenges can be time-consuming and can prevent database administrators from
performing more strategic functions.
How autonomous technology is improving database management
Self-driving databases are the wave of the future—and offer an intriguing possibility for organizations that want
to use the best available database technology without the headaches of running and operating that technology.
Self-driving databases use cloud-based technology and machine learning to automate many of the routine tasks
required to manage databases, such as tuning, security, backups, updates, and other routine management tasks.
With these tedious tasks automated, database administrators are freed up to do more strategic work. The self-
driving, self-securing, and self-repairing capabilities of self-driving databases are poised to revolutionize how
companies manage and secure their data, enabling performance advantages, lower costs, and improved security.
Future of databases and autonomous databases
The first autonomous database was announced in late 2017, and multiple independent industry analysts quickly
recognized the technology and its potential impact on computing.
A Wikibon 2021 report (PDF) praised autonomous database technology, saying, “Oracle has by far the best
Tier-1 Cloud Database Platform Wikibon believes Oracle has the strongest Cloud Database Platform with
Autonomous Database.”
And Kuppinger Cole’s 2021 Leadership Compass (PDF) said, "The Oracle Autonomous Database, which
completely automates provisioning, management, tuning, and upgrade processes of database instances without
any downtime, not just substantially increases security and compliance of sensitive data stored in Oracle
Databases but makes a compelling argument for moving this data to the Oracle Cloud." Because Oracle
Autonomous Database is built on the highly available and scalable architecture of Oracle Exadata, it’s possible
to easily scale the database deployment as needs grow.

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND THE INTERNET

COMPUTER NETWORK
A computer network is defined as a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting and
sharing information.
What Is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system that connects two or more computing devices for transmitting and sharing
information. Computing devices include everything from a mobile phone to a server. These devices are connected
using physical wires such as fiber optics, but they can also be wireless.
The first working network, called ARPANET, was created in the late 1960s and was funded by the U.S.
Department of Defense. Government researchers used to share information at a time when computers were large
and difficult to move. We have come a long way today from that basic kind of network. Today’s world revolves
around the internet, which is a network of networks that connects billions of devices across the world.
Organizations of all sizes use networks to connect their employees’ devices and shared resources such as printers.
An example of a computer network at large is the traffic monitoring systems in urban cities. These systems alert
officials and emergency responders with information about traffic flow and incidents. A simpler example is
using collaboration software such as Google Drive to share documents with colleagues who work remotely. Every
time we connect via a video call, stream movies, share files, chat with instant messages, or just access something
on the internet, a computer network is at work.
Computer networking is the branch of computer science that deals with the ideation, architecture, creation,
maintenance, and security of computer networks. It is a combination of computer science, computer engineering,
and telecommunication.
A computer network is interconnection of various computer systems located at different places. In computer
network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data communication devices for the
purpose of communication data and sharing resources. The computer that provides resources to other computers
on a network is known as server. In the network the individual computers, which access shared network resources,
are known as nodes.
Parts of a network
There are five basic components of a network: clients, servers, channels, interface devices and operating systems:
» Servers
Sometimes called host computers, servers are powerful computers that store data or applications and connect to
resources that are shared by the users of a network.
» Clients
These computers are used by the users of the network to access the servers and shared resources (such as hard
disks and printers). These days, it is typical for a client to be a personal computer that the users also use for their
own non-network applications.
» Channels
Called the network circuit, the channel is the pathway over which information travels between the different
computers (clients and servers) that comprises the network.
» Interface devices
These are hardware devices that connect clients and servers (and sometimes other networks) to the channel.
Examples include modems and network interface cards.
» Operating systems
The network operating system is the software of the network. It serves a similar purpose that the operating system
serves in a stand-alone computer.
Importance of Networking
Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and provides access to information.
» Resource Sharing
In an organization, resources such as printers, fax machines and scanners are generally not required by each person
at all times. Moreover, for small organizations it may not be feasible to provide such resources to each individual.
Such resources can be made available to different users of the organization on the network. It results in availability
of the resource to different users regardless of the physical location of the resource or the user, enhances optimal
use of the resource, leads to easy maintenance, and saves cost too.
» Sharing of Information
In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking facilitates sharing of information. Information stored
on networked computers located at same or different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers
connected to the network.
» As a Communication Medium
Networking helps in sending and receiving of electronic-mail (email) messages from anywhere in the world. Data
in the form of text, audio, video and pictures can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to communicate online
in a faster and cost effective manner. Video conferencing is another form of communication made possible via
networking. People in distant locations can hold a meeting, and they can hear and see each other simultaneously.
» For Back-up and Support
Networked computers can be used to take back-up of critical data. In situations where there is a requirement of
always-on computer, another computer on the network can take over in case of failure of one computer.
Components of a Computer Network
From a broader lens, a computer network is built with two basic blocks: nodes or network devices and links. The
links connect two or more nodes with each other. The way these links carry the information is defined by
communication protocols. The communication endpoints, i.e., the origin and destination devices, are often called
ports.

Main Components of a Computer Network

1. Network Devices
Network devices or nodes are computing devices that need to be linked in the network. Some network devices
include:
 Computers, mobiles, and other consumer devices: These are end devices that users directly and
frequently access. For example, an email originates from the mailing application on a laptop or mobile
phone.
 Servers: These are application or storage servers where the main computation and data storage occur. All
requests for specific tasks or data come to the servers.
 Routers: Routing is the process of selecting the network path through which the data packets traverse.
Routers are devices that forward these packets between networks to ultimately reach the destination. They
add efficiency to large networks.
  Switches: Repeaters are to networks what transformers are to electricity grids—they are electronic devices
that receive network signals and clean or strengthen them. Hubs are repeaters with multiple ports in them.
They pass on the data to whichever ports are available. Bridges are smarter hubs that only pass the data to
the destination port. A switch is a multi-port bridge. Multiple data cables can be plugged into switches to
enable communication with multiple network devices.
 Gateways: Gateways are hardware devices that act as ‘gates’ between two distinct networks. They can be
firewalls, routers, or servers.
2. Links
Links are the transmission media which can be of two types:
 Wired: Examples of wired technologies used in networks include coaxial cables, phone lines, twisted-
pair cabling, and optical fibers. Optical fibers carry pulses of light to represent data.
 Wireless: Network connections can also be established through radio or other electromagnetic signals.
This kind of transmission is called ‘wirelesses. The most common examples of wireless links include
communication satellites, cellular networks, and radio and technology spread spectrums. Wireless LANs
use spectrum technology to establish connections within a small area.
3. Communication protocols
A communication protocol is a set of rules followed by all nodes involved in the information transfer. Some
common protocols include the internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), IEEE 802, Ethernet, wireless LAN, and cellular
standards. TCP/IP is a conceptual model that standardizes communication in a modern network. It suggests four
functional layers of these communication links:
 Network access layer: This layer defines how the data is physically transferred. It includes how hardware
sends data bits through physical wires or fibers.
 Internet layer: This layer is responsible for packaging the data into understandable packets and allowing
it to be sent and received.
 Transport layer: This layer enables devices to maintain a conversation by ensuring the connection is
valid and stable.
 Application layer: This layer defines how high-level applications can access the network to initiate data
transfer.
Most of the modern internet structure is based on the TCP/IP model, though there are still strong influences of
the similar but seven-layered open systems interconnection (OSI) model.
IEEE802 is a family of IEEE standards that deals with local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area networks
(MAN). Wireless LAN is the most well-known member of the IEEE 802 family and is more widely known as
WLAN or Wi-Fis.
4. Network Defense
While nodes, links, and protocols form the foundation of a network, a modern network cannot exist without its
defenses. Security is critical when unprecedented amounts of data are generated, moved, and processed across
networks. A few examples of network defense tools include firewall, intrusion detection systems (IDS), intrusion
prevention systems (IPS), network access control (NAC), content filters, proxy servers, anti-DDoS devices, and
load balancers.
Types of Computer Networks
Computer networks can be classified based on several criteria, such as the transmission medium, the network
size, the topology, and organizational intent. Based on a geographical scale, the different types of networks are:
1. Nanoscale networks: These networks enable communication between minuscule sensors and actuators.
2. Personal area network (PAN): PAN refers to a network used by just one person to connect multiple
devices, such as laptops to scanners, etc.
3. Local area network (LAN): The local area network connects devices within a limited geographical area,
such as schools, hospitals, or office buildings.
4. Storage area network (SAN): SAN is a dedicated network that facilitates block-level data storage. This
is used in storage devices such as disk arrays and tape libraries.
5. Campus area network (CAN): Campus area networks are a collection of interconnected LANs. They are
used by larger entities such as universities and governments.
6. Metropolitan area network (MAN): MAN is a large computer network that spans across a city.
7. Wide area network (WAN): Wide area networks cover larger areas such as large cities, states, and even
countries.
8. Enterprise private network (EPN): An enterprise private network is a single network that a large
organization uses to connect its multiple office locations.
9. Virtual private network (VPN): VPN is an overlay private network stretched on top of a public network.
10. Cloud network: Technically, a cloud network is a WAN whose infrastructure is delivered via cloud
services.
Based on organizational intent, networks can be classified as:
1. Intranet: Intranet is a set of networks that is maintained and controlled by a single entity. It is generally
the most secure type of network, with access to authorized users alone. An intranet usually exists behind
the router in a local area network.
2. Internet: The internet (or the internetwork) is a collection of multiple networks connected by routers and
layered by networking software. This is a global system that connects governments, researchers,
corporates, the public, and individual computer networks.
3. Extranet: An extranet is similar to the intranet but with connections to particular external networks. It is
generally used to share resources with partners, customers, or remote employees.
 4. Darknet: The darknet is an overlay network that runs on the internet and can only be accessed by
specialized software. It uses unique, customized communication protocols.
Objectives of Creating and Deploying a Computer Network
There is no industry—education, retail, finance, tech, government, or healthcare—that can survive without well-
designed computer networks. The bigger an organization, the more complex the network becomes. Before taking
on the onerous task of creating and deploying a computer network, here are some key objectives that must be
considered.

Objectives of Deploying a Computer Network

1. Resource sharing
Today’s enterprises are spread across the globe, with critical assets being shared across departments, geographies,
and time zones. Clients are no more bound by location. A network allows data and hardware to be accessible to
every pertinent user. This also helps with interdepartmental data processing. For example, the marketing team
analyzes customer data and product development cycles to enable executive decisions at the top level.
2. Resource availability & reliability
A network ensures that resources are not present in inaccessible silos and are available from multiple points. The
high reliability comes from the fact that there are usually different supply authorities. Important resources must
be backed up across multiple machines to be accessible in case of incidents such as hardware outages.
3. Performance management
A company’s workload only increases as it grows. When one or more processors are added to the network, it
improves the system’s overall performance and accommodates this growth. Saving data in well-architected
databases can drastically improve lookup and fetch times.
4. Cost savings
Huge mainframe computers are an expensive investment, and it makes more sense to add processors at strategic
points in the system. This not only improves performance but also saves money. Since it enables employees to
access information in seconds, networks save operational time, and subsequently, costs. Centralized network
administration also means that fewer investments need to be made for IT support.
5. Increased storage capacity
Network-attached storage devices are a boon for employees who work with high volumes of data. For example,
every member in the data science team does not need individual data stores for the huge number of records they
crunch. Centralized repositories get the job done in an even more efficient way. With businesses seeing record
levels of customer data flowing into their systems, the ability to increase storage capacity is necessary in today’s
world.
6. Streamlined collaboration & communication
Networks have a major impact on the day-to-day functioning of a company. Employees can share files, view each
other’s work, sync their calendars, and exchange ideas more effectively. Every modern enterprise runs on internal
messaging systems such as Slack for the uninhibited flow of information and conversations. However, emails are
still the formal mode of communication with clients, partners, and vendors.
7. Reduction of errors
Networks reduce errors by ensuring that all involved parties acquire information from a single source, even if
they are viewing it from different locations. Backed-up data provides consistency and continuity. Standard
versions of customer and employee manuals can be made available to a large number of people without much
hassle.
8. Secured remote access
Computer networks promote flexibility, which is important in uncertain times like now when natural disasters
and pandemics are ravaging the world. A secure network ensures that users have a safe way of accessing and
working on sensitive data, even when they’re away from the company premises. Mobile handheld devices
registered to the network even enable multiple layers of authentication to ensure that no bad actors can access the
system.
Computer Network Management
Network management is the process of configuring, monitoring, and troubleshooting everything that pertains to
a network, be it hardware, software, or connections. The five functional areas of network management are fault
management, configuration management, performance management, security management, and (user) accounting
management.
Computer networks can quickly become unruly mammoths if not designed and maintained from the beginning.
Here are the top 10 practices for proper computer network management.

Network Management Best Practices

1. Pick the right topology
Network topology is the pattern or hierarchy in which nodes are connected to each other. The topology can speed
up, slow down, or even break the network based on the company’s infrastructure and requirements. Before setting
up a network from scratch, network architects must choose the right one. Some common topologies include:
 Bus network: Each node is linked to only one other node.
 Ring network: Each node is linked to two other nodes, thus forming a ring.
 Mesh network: Each node must strive to be connected to every other node in the system.
 Star network: A central node server is linked to multiple other nodes. This is faster since data doesn’t
have to travel through each node.
 Tree network: Here, nodes are arranged in hierarchies.
2. Document & update constantly
Documentation of the network is vital since it is the backbone of operations. The documentation must include:
 Technical specifications of equipment, including wires, cables, and connectors
 Hardware
  The software used to enable the hardware and the smooth and secure flow of data
 Firmware
 A formal record of policies and procedures with respect to network operators and users
This must be audited at scheduled intervals or during rehauls. Not only does this make network management
easier, but it also allows for smoother compliance audits.
3. Use the right tools
The network topology is just the first step toward building a robust network. To manage a highly available and
reliant network, the appropriate tools must be placed at the right locations. Must-have tools in a network are:
 Network monitoring solutions: A network monitoring solution gives complete visibility into the
network. Visual maps help gauge network performance. It can track packets, provide a granular look into
network traffic, and help spot anomalies. Newer monitoring systems leverage artificial intelligence to
predict scaling requirements and cyber threats using historic and real-time data.
 Configuration management tools: A network contains many components that interface with each other.
This results in a lot of configuration parameters to keep track of. Configuration management tools resolve
this by providing configuration tools that span across the entire network. They also allow network
managers to ensure that all compliance requirements have been fulfilled.
 IP address managers: Bigger networks need to have an IP address manager (IPAM) to plan, track, and
manage information associated with a network’s IP addresses.
 Security solutions: Firewalls, content filtering systems, intrusion detection and prevention systems—
these are all tools that safeguard networks that are carrying increasingly sensitive loads. No network is
complete without them. However, just acquiring these tools is not enough. They must also be properly
placed within the network. For example, a firewall must be placed at every network junction. Anti-DDoS
devices must be placed at the perimeters of the network. Load balancers need to be placed at strategic
locations based on the infrastructure, such as before a cluster of database servers. This must be an explicit
part of the network architecture.
4. Establish baseline network & abnormal behavior
A baseline allows admins to know how the network normally behaves in terms of traffic, user accesses, etc. With
an established baseline, alerts can be set up in appropriate places to flag anomalies immediately. The normal range
of behavior must be documented at both, user and organizational levels. Data required for the baseline can be
acquired from routers, switches, firewalls, wireless APs, sniffers, and dedicated collectors.
5. Protect the network from insider threats
Firewalls and intrusion prevention systems ensure that bad actors remain out of the network. However, insider
threats need to be addressed as well, particularly with cybercriminals targeting those with access to the network
using various social engineering ploys. One way of doing this is to operate on a least-privilege model for access
management and control. Another is to use stronger authentication mechanisms such as single sign-on
(SSO) and two-factor authentication (2FA). Besides this, employees also need to undergo regular training to deal
with security threats. Proper escalation processes must be documented and circulated widely.
6. Use multiple vendors for added security
While it makes sense to stick to one hardware vendor, a diverse range of network security tools is a major plus
for a large network. Security is a dynamic and ever-involving landscape. Hardware advancements are rapid and
cyber threats also evolve with them. It is impossible for one vendor to be up to date on all threats. Additionally,
different intrusion detection solutions use different detection algorithms. A good mix of these tools strengthens
security; however, you must ensure that they are compatible and allow for common logging and interfacing.
7. Segregate the network
Enterprise networks can become large and clunky. Segregation allows them to be divided into logical or functional
units, called zones. Segregation is usually done using switches, routers, and virtual LAN solutions. One advantage
of a segregated network is that it reduces potential damage from a cyberattack and keeps critical resources out of
harm’s way. Another plus is that it allows for more functional classification of networks, such as separating
programmer needs from human resources needs.
8. Use centralized logging
Centralized logs are key to capturing an overall view of the network. Immediate log analysis can help the security
team flag suspicious logins and IT admin teams to spot overwhelmed systems in the network.
9. Consider using honeypots & honeynets
Honeypots are separate systems that appear to have legitimate processes and data but are actually a decoy for
insider and outsider threats. Any breach of this system does not cause the loss of any real data. A honeynet is a
fake network segment for the same cause. While this may come at an additional cost to the network, it allows the
security team to keep an eye out for malicious players and make appropriate adjustments.
10. Automate wherever possible
New devices are added to systems regularly, and old ones are retired. Users and access controls keep changing
frequently. All of these must be automated to ensure that human error does not occur and there are no vulnerable
zombie systems in the network, costing money and security. Automation with respect to security is also crucial.
It is a good practice to automate responses to attacks, including blocking IP addresses, terminating connections,
and gathering additional information about attacks.
Takeaway
A successful network enhances productivity, security, and innovation with the least overhead costs. This comes
only with robust design and implementation with a clear picture of the business needs. While network creation
may purely seem like a technical endeavor, it requires business input, especially in the beginning stages. Network
management also involves evolving workflows and growing and morphing with evolving technologies.
THE INTERNET
 The internet is defined as a global network of linked computers, servers, phones, and smart appliances
that communicate with each other using the transmission control protocol (TCP) standard to enable the
fast exchange of information and files, along with other types of services.
What Is the Internet?
The internet is a global network of interconnected computers, servers, phones, and smart appliances that
communicate with each other using the transmission control protocol (TCP) standard to enable a fast exchange
of information and files, along with other types of services.

How Internet Works

The internet is a global hub of computer networks — a network of connections wherein users at any workstation
may, with authorization, receive data from every other system (and often interact with users working on other
computers).
Internet infrastructure comprises optical fiber data transmission cables or copper wires, as well as numerous
additional networking infrastructures, such as local area networks (LAN), wide area networks (WAN),
metropolitan area networks (MAN), etc. Sometimes wireless services such as 4G and 5G or WiFi necessitate
similar physical cable installations for internet access.
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) in the United States controls the internet and
its associated technologies, such as IP addresses.
How was the internet developed?
The internet was first envisioned in the form of ARPANET by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
of the U.S. government in 1969. The initial goal was to create a network that would enable users of a research
computer at one institution to “communicate” with research computers at another institution. Since
communications can be sent or diverted across several directions, ARPANet could continue to operate even if a
military strike or any other calamity damages portions of the network.
ARPANET used the new packet switching technology to create low-cost, interactive interactions between
computers, which generally communicate in short data bursts. Packet switching broke down large transmissions
(or portions of computer data) into smaller, more manageable parts (called packets) that could travel
independently across any accessible circuit to the destination where they were reassembled. Consequently, unlike
conventional voice services, packet switching doesn’t require a separate dedicated connection between a pair of
users.
In the 1970s, corporate packet networks were launched, although their primary purpose was to enable efficient
access to distant computers through specialized terminals. They replaced expensive long-distance modem
connections with “virtual” lines via packet networks.
Today, the internet is a globally accessible, collaborative, and self-sustaining public resource available to tens of
millions of individuals. Countless people utilize it as their primary source of data consumption, spurring the
development and expansion of their own community through social networking and content exchange. However,
private versions of the internet do exist, which are primarily used by large organizations for secure and regulated
information exchange.
See More: What Is NAS (Network Attached Storage)? Working, Features, and Use Cases
Key features of the internet
The internet is a vast, interconnected network of computers and other network-enabled devices, which is:
 Globally available: The internet is an international service with universal access. People living in isolated
areas of an archipelago or even in the depths of Africa can now access the internet.
 Easy to use: The software used to connect to the internet (web browser) is user-friendly and easy to
understand. It’s also relatively easy to create.
 Compatible with other types of media: The internet provides a high level of engagement with photos
and videos, among other media.
 Affordable: Internet service development, as well as maintenance costs, are modest.
 Flexible: Internet-based communication is highly adaptable. It supports text, audio, and video
communication. These services are available at both individual and organizational levels.
How Does the Internet Work?
The internet delivers different types of information and media across networked devices. It operates using an
internet protocol (IP) and a transport control protocol (TCP) packet routing network. Whenever you visit a
website, your computer or mobile device requests the server using such protocols.
A server is where web pages are stored, and it functions similarly to the hard drive of a computer, except with far
greater processing power. The server accesses the web page and delivers the right information to your computer
whenever the request arrives. This is broadly the end-to-end user experience. Let us now look at the more technical
details of how the internet works.
1. Connecting computers
The basic foundation of the internet is an interconnected network of computers. When two computers interact,
they must be physically (often via an Ethernet connection) or wirelessly connected (via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth). All
modern systems can support any of these connections to establish a core network.
2. Scaling computer networks
The computer network, as described above, is not restricted to two PCs. One can link several computers. However,
as you expand, it may get more complex. Every machine on a network is connected to a tiny computing device
known as a router to address this problem. This router’s only function is to operate as a signaler. It ensures that a
message transmitted from a particular computer reaches its intended recipient. With the addition of a router, a
system of 10 computers needs merely ten wires instead of 10 × 10 = 100 connections.
3. Enabling infinite scaling
Let us now discuss interconnecting hundreds of thousands to billions of machines. A single router cannot scale
to that extent; nonetheless, a router is an independently programmable computer unit. This implies that two or
more routers may be connected, enabling infinite scaling.
4. Utilizing ubiquitous public infrastructure via a modem
By now, we have constructed a network identical to the internet, although it is only intended for individual use
and cannot connect with the outside world. This is where public infrastructure comes in. The telephone system
links an office to everyone worldwide, making it the ideal wiring configuration for the internet. A modem is
necessary for connecting networks to the telephone system. This modem converts data from a network into data
that can be managed by the telephony architecture and vice versa.
See More: What Is URL Filtering? Definition, Process, and Best Practices
5. Sending messages from one network to another
The following step is to transmit the information from your network to the target network. To accomplish this,
the network must establish a connection with an internet service provider (ISP). An ISP is a service that
administers specified routers that are interconnected and also have access to the routers of other ISPs. Therefore,
the data from the host network is delivered to the target network via the web of ISP networks.
To deliver a message to a system, it is important to identify which computer it should be sent to. Therefore, every
machine connected to a network has a unique identifying address known as an “IP address” (here, IP refers to
internet protocol). It is an address consisting of four integers separated by periods, such as 192.168.2.10. There
are several versions of IP; currently, we are in IPv4 and IPv6 iterations, depending on the region.
6. Assigning domain name to IP addresses
IP addresses are intended for computers, but in an infinitely extensible internet, it would be difficult for people to
keep count of an ever-growing number of addresses. To simplify matters, one may designate an IP address with
a domain name, a human-readable name. Google.com is an excellent example of this — the domain name is used
in conjunction with the IP address 142.250.190.78. Therefore, typing the domain name is the simplest way to
access a computer online.
7. Connected the internet to the web
The internet is a network architecture that enables millions of machines to communicate with one another. Several
of these machines (web servers) can feed web browsers intelligible messages. The web is an application
constructed on top of the internet’s infrastructure. It is important to note that additional services, like email, have
been developed on top of the internet.
8. Connecting the internet to a private intranet or extranet
Intranets are personal and bespoke networks confined to an organization’s members. They offer participants a
secure gateway to access shared information, collaborate, and communicate.
Extranets are quite similar to intranets, except that they enable collaboration and sharing with other businesses.
Typically, they are employed to safely and confidentially transmit information to customers and other enterprise
stakeholders. Frequently, their functions resemble those of an intranet: file and information sharing, collaboration
tools, message boards, etc.
Intranets and extranets operate on the same infrastructure and adhere to the same protocols as the internet.

How does the web work?

When we discuss the internet in common parlance, we typically refer to the web – although the two terms are not
interchangeable. If the internet can be understood as a network of highways, then the web will be the network of
restaurants, toll booths, gas stations, etc., built along it. The main job of the internet is to access the web. However,
it can perform other tasks like supporting cloud storage on computers, keeping the software as a service (SaaS)
apps online, automatically updating the computer’s time, etc.
On the other hand, the web comprises multiple computers connected to the internet called clients and servers.
 Clients are internet-connected devices of a web user (such as a computer linked to Wi-Fi or a mobile
phone) and the online-accessing software installed on such systems (generally a web browser).
 Servers store websites, applications, and their associated data and activities. When a client device requests
access to a website, a replica of the webpage is received from the server to the client’s computer. The
webpage is then exhibited in the client’s web browser.
When a user inputs a domain name or uniform resource locator (URL) in the browser, the domain name system
(DNS server) is contacted to get the actual IP address of the website’s server.
The browser then transmits an HTTP or HTTPS request message back to the server, asking the server to transmit
a copy of the web page to the client. This message and all other data transferred between the client and server are
sent via the TCP/IP protocol across your internet connection.
If the server authorizes the client’s request, it returns a “200 OK” status code. The server then begins transmitting
the site’s contents to the client as a sequence of data packets. The browser constructs an entire web page from the
packets and starts displaying it. This request, response, and information exchange happens via the internet
infrastructure.

Types of Internet Services

As mentioned earlier, the internet can enable various services, not just web access. Some of the key types of
internet services are:
1. Communication services
To exchange data/information among individuals or organizations, the internet enables communication services.
This mainly includes VoIP and video conferencing.
Voice over internet protocol (VoIP enables users to place voice calls over the internet compared to a conventional
(or analog) phone connection. Other VoIP services allow you to contact anybody with a mobile number,
encompassing long-distance, cellular, and even local/international connections.
Video conferencing technology enables two or more individuals in separate locations to connect visually and in
real time. It includes persons in different places using video-enabled devices and broadcasting real-time speech,
video, texts, and slideshows via the internet.
Other communication services based on the internet include email, internet relay chat (IRC), and list server
(LISTSERV) used for asynchronous text communication, instant messaging, and group announcements,
respectively.
2. File transfer services
We utilize file transfer to exchange, transmit, or send a document or logical data item among many individuals or
computers, both locally and remotely. Data files may comprise documents, videos, photos, text, or PDFs. They
may be shared via internet downloading and uploading. File transfer protocol (FTP) is one of the most common
internet protocols used for this purpose.
3. Directory services
A directory service is a collection of software that maintains information about the organization, its customers, or
both. Directory services are responsible for mapping network resource names to network addresses. It offers
administrators and users transparent access to all network computers, printers, servers, and other devices. It is
also an important backend service provider for and by the internet.
Domain number system (DNS) and lightweight directory access protocol (LDAP) are the most commonly used
directory services. A DNS server stores a map of computer hostnames and other domain names to IP addresses.
LDAP is a collection of open protocols to obtain centralized network access to stored data. It is also a mechanism
for cross-platform authentication.
See More: What Is Web Real-Time Communication (WebRTC)? Definition, Design, Importance, and Examples
4. Ecommerce and online transactions
Ecommerce allows the customer to purchase a service or product directly from the vendor, at any time or
anywhere on the planet. When IBM started offering hardware and software for computers over the internet, it was
one of the first instances of ecommerce. Since then, this service has grown in use tremendously. Ecommerce uses
the web to enable financial exchanges so that data packets can translate into their real-world monetary equivalents.
5. Services for network management
Network management services are some of the most critical and valuable internet services for IT administrators.
They assist in avoiding, monitoring, diagnosing, and resolving network-related issues. Two services are mainly
used for this purpose – ping and traceroute.
The ping utility checks the host machine’s availability and the time required to react to any and all internet control
message protocol (ICMP) transmissions. It guarantees that all requests issued by a computer reach the web server
without packet loss. In the meantime, the traceroute identifies and displays all potential paths from query to
response, as well as the turnaround time for each route.
6. Time services
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Coordinated Universal Time synchronizes computer clocks (UTC). Network
time protocol (NTP) is an established internet time service that syncs and adjusts the computer clock accurately
to all these standards. All Windows time variants released after Windows 2000 synchronize with an NTP server.
NTPsec is primarily a secured version of NTP.
7. Search engine services on the web
When users search for a web page through a search engine rather than the domain name, the search engine
examines the web crawler’s index of all pages. It will study the search phrase and compare it to the database,
including how often the search terms appear on a webpage, where they appear on the site, whether they appear
together, etc. It analyzes this information to determine which websites best fit your search query.
The results are then shown in order, with those that best fit the search keyword appearing initially. It is important
to note that search engines can accept funds from commercial entities to prioritize their websites in the results of
a particular query. This is an advert, and the search engine results will be labeled as such.
The internet is one of the critical pillars of modern civilization. It has helped in globalization, fast-tracked digital
transformation in education and healthcare, and made information access truly universal. However, global internet
penetration is yet to reach 100% and to deliver its benefits worldwide, companies and governments must focus
on expanding internet infrastructure.

COMPUTER SECURITY
What is computer security?
Computer security basically is the protection of computer systems and information from harm, theft, and
unauthorized use. It is the process of preventing and detecting unauthorized use of your computer system.
There are various types of computer security which is widely used to protect the valuable information of an
organization.
What is Computer Security and its types?
One way to ascertain the similarities and differences among Computer Security is by asking what is being secured.
For example,
 Information security is securing information from unauthorized access, modification & deletion
 Application Security is securing an application by building security features to prevent from Cyber Threats
such as SQL injection, DoS attacks, data breaches and etc.
 Computer Security means securing a standalone machine by keeping it updated and patched
 Network Security is by securing both the software and hardware technologies
 Cybersecurity is defined as protecting computer systems, which communicate over the computer networks
It’s important to understand the distinction between these words, though there isn’t necessarily a clear consensus
on the meanings and the degree to which they overlap or are interchangeable.
So, Computer security can be defined as controls that are put in place to provide confidentiality, integrity, and
availability for all components of computer systems. Let’s elaborate the definition.
Components of computer system
The components of a computer system that needs to be protected are:
 Hardware, the physical part of the computer, like the system memory and disk drive
 Firmware, permanent software that is etched into a hardware device’s nonvolatile memory and is mostly
invisible to the user
 Software, the programming that offers services, like operating system, word processor, internet browser
to the user
The CIA Triad
Computer security is mainly concerned with three main areas:

 Confidentiality is ensuring that information is available only to the intended audience

 Integrity is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties
 Availability is protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties

In simple language, computer security is making sure information and computer components are usable but still
protected from people or software that shouldn’t access it or modify it.
Go through our new Ethical Hacking Training Course to explore more about ethical hacking. This course will
teach you the most current hacking techniques, tools and methods that hackers use.
Now moving forward with this ‘What is Computer Security?” article let’s look at the most common security
threats.
Computer security threats
Computer security threats are possible dangers that can possibly hamper the normal functioning of your
computer. In the present age, cyber threats are constantly increasing as the world is going digital. The most
harmful types of computer security are:
Viruses

A computer virus is a malicious program which is loaded into the user’s computer without
user’s knowledge. It replicates itself and infects the files and programs on the user’s PC. The ultimate goal of a
virus is to ensure that the victim’s computer will never be able to operate properly or even at all.
Computer Worm

A computer worm is a software program that can copy itself from one computer to another,
without human interaction. The potential risk here is that it will use up your computer hard disk space because a
worm can replicate in greate volume and with great speed.
Phishing

Cyber Security Training

Disguising as a trustworthy person or business, phishers attempt to steal sensitive financial or personal
information through fraudulent email or instant messages. Phishing in unfortunately very easy to execute. You
are deluded into thinking it’s the legitimate mail and you may enter your personal information.
Botnet

A botnet is a group of computers connected to the internet, that have been compromised by a
hacker using a computer virus. An individual computer is called ‘zombie computer’. The result of this threat is
the victim’s computer, which is the bot will be used for malicious activities and for a larger scale attack like
DDoS.
Rootkit

A rootkit is a computer program designed to provide continued privileged access to a

computer while actively hiding its presence. Once a rootkit has been installed, the controller of the rootkit will be
able to remotely execute files and change system configurations on the host machine.
Keylogger

Also known as a keystroke logger, keyloggers can track the real-time activity of a user on his
computer. It keeps a record of all the keystrokes made by user keyboard. Keylogger is also a very powerful threat
to steal people’s login credential such as username and password.
These are perhaps the most common security threats that you’ll come across. Apart from these, there are others
like spyware, wabbits, scareware, bluesnarfing and many more. Fortunately, there are ways to protect yourself
against these attacks.
Why is Computer Security Important?
In this digital era, we all want to keep our computers and our personal information secure and hence computer
security is important to keep our personal information protected. It is also important to maintain our computer
security and its overall health by preventing viruses and malware which would impact on the system performance.
Computer Security Practices
Computer security threats are becoming relentlessly inventive these days. There is much need for one to arm
oneself with information and resources to safeguard against these complex and growing computer security threats
and stay safe online. Some preventive steps you can take include:
 Secure your computer physically by:
o Installing reliable, reputable security and anti-virus software
o Activating your firewall, because a firewall acts as a security guard between the internet and your
local area network
  Stay up-to-date on the latest software and news surrounding your devices and perform software updates
as soon as they become available
 Avoid clicking on email attachments unless you know the source
 Change passwords regularly, using a unique combination of numbers, letters and case types
 Use the internet with caution and ignore pop-ups, drive-by downloads while surfing
 Taking the time to research the basic aspects of computer security and educate yourself on evolving cyber-
threats
 Perform daily full system scans and create a periodic system backup schedule to ensure your data is
retrievable should something happen to your computer.

GOOGLE
Originally known as BackRub. Google is a search engine that started development in 1996 by Sergey
Brin and Larry Page as a research project at Stanford University to find files on the Internet. Larry and Sergey
later decided the name of their search engine needed to change and chose Google, which is inspired from the
term googol. The company is headquartered in Mountain View, California.
Google beginnings
The domain google.com was registered on September 15, 1997, and the company incorporated on September
4, 1998. The picture below is a capture of the site from The Internet Archive of what Google looked like in 1998.
Note
As of August 10, 2015, Google is a subsidiary of the Alphabet Inc.
What helps Google stand out from its competition, helps it continue to grow, and be the number one search engine
is its PageRank technique that sorts search results. While being one of the best search engines on the Internet,
Google also incorporates many of its other services, like Google Maps and Google Local, to provide more relevant
search results.
How to open Google
To open Google, click this link: google.com, or in your web browser address bar, type "google.com" and
press Enter.
Once the Google website is open, in the search box, type a word or phrase, and press Enter or click the Google
Search button. If done successfully, you'll be given search results.
Most browser's address bars are an omnibox, meaning instead of going to Google.com to search, you can type
what you are searching for without going to Google.
Note
Some users may confuse the "Google" with the web browser Google Chrome. If you want to open the Google
Chrome web browser, see our Google Chrome page.
Other Google products and services
 Android - The most widely used operating system for smartphones.
 Blogger - View and create a personal blog.
 Chromebook - Laptop using the Google Chrome OS.
 Chrome OS - Operating system developed by Google for laptop and portable computers.
 Gmail - Free online e-mail service with over 1 GB of storage and the best spam protection available.
 Google Ad Manager - Originally known as DoubleClick, Google Ad Manager is a service that allows a
publisher to manage their ad inventory.
 Google Ads - Formerly known as Google AdWords, Google Ads is a service that enables users to pay to
advertise on the Google search engine and other websites using Google AdSense.
 Google AdSense - A service that pays website publishers or blog developers to show advertisements on
their site.
 Google Alerts - Create alert text messages sent to an e-mail address each day or as it happens of web
searches, news searches, etc.
 Google Analytics - Google Analytics allows users to monitor and create reports of visitors to their
website.
 Google App Engine - A service that provides users the ability to create scalable web services that use
Google's resources.
 Google Assistant - Digital assistant service by Google that uses artificial intelligence to respond to voice
requests.
 Google Blog - A blog maintained by Google that helps give an insight into the company.
 Google Books - Another fantastic service from Google containing hundreds of thousands of books that
can be searched.
 Google Calendar - A way to organize your schedule, synchronize, and share events with your friends.
 Google Chrome - The most popular desktop Internet browser.
 Google Classroom - Google service that allows students and teachers to participate in a digital class.
 Google Cloud - Service for businesses to store data and run applications in the cloud, and backup and
disaster recovery.
 Google CSE (Custom Search Engine) - Service that lets you create a custom Google Search engine.
 Google Daydream View - VR headset.
 Google Developer - A place to find all Google developer documentation, resources, events, and products.
 Google Docs - A fantastic free solution from Google that lets you create documents, open Microsoft
Word documents, and share your documents with other users that have Internet access.
 Google Domains - Domain registrar service from Google that lets you register a domain name with more
than 300 domain endings.
 Google Drive - A cloud storage service from Google introduced on April 24, 2012, that allows users to
view, edit, and store their documents and files in the Google cloud.
 Google Duo - A cross-platform video calling application for Android smartphones, and other Google and
third-party operating systems.
 Google Earth - A fantastic software program that allows a person to view almost everywhere on earth,
get directions, find close shops and places of interest, and more.
 Google Fiber - A limited service available in some places in the United States that offers
a fiber connection to the Internet.
 Google Fonts - A collection of thousands of fonts for use on your web page.
 Google Forms - A feature of Google Docs that allows users to create a form that collects information for
personal or business use.
 Google Fuchsia - An open source operating system.
 Google Glass - AR (augmented reality) glasses.
 Google Groups - Google's bulletin board with millions of users and postings.
 Google Home - Voice activated virtual digital assistant that assists users with questions.
 Google Homepage - Google's main page and search engine.
 Google Images - Google search that lets you search for images instead of text.
 Google Keep - Fantastic service that lets you keep and store notes and tasks.
 Google Lens - An image recognition technology that identifies objects and displays information about
them using Google Search.
 Google Mail - More well-known as Gmail, the most popular e-mail host.
 Google Maps - A great feature that enables users to search for directions from one location to another,
search for local businesses, and more.
 Google Meet - A video-meeting application that integrates with Google Chat and replaces the
functionalities previously found in Hangouts.
 Google Moon - In celebration of the first Moon landing, Google created this page with a map of our Moon
and each of the moon landings.
 Google My Maps - Feature in Google Maps that allows its users to create custom maps for personal use
or share with others.
 Google Nest - Google home automation and security products, including the Nest thermostat.
 Google News - Great news site automatically generated using the results of news sites queried by Google.
 Google Ngram Viewer - Great tool that lets you search many books and other printed materials for the
frequency of words or phrases.
 Google Now - Service primarily used by mobile users that gives the most relevant information relating to
you based of your searching and driving habits.
 Google Patents - Allows users to search over 7 million patents.
 Google Photos - Online cloud storage for photos and videos, allowing users to upload, organize, and share
with other users.
 Google Pixel - Google smartphone.
 Google Play Music- A service that allows users to stream, download, and upload music to a person library,
and create and listen to radio stations. It is usable across multiple devices. Additionally, Google Play
Music unlimited song streaming for a monthly fee.
 Google Scholar - Allows users to search for scholarly literature.
 Google Search Console - Formerly Google Webmaster Tools, a great service provided by Google that
enables webmasters to view, maintain, and control how Google indexes their web page.
 Google Sheets - A fantastic free solution from Google that lets you create spreadsheets, open Microsoft
Excel spreadsheets, and share your spreadsheets with other users that have Internet access.
 Google Shopping - Formerly known as Froogle, Google Shopping is a search service for finding products
based on prices, location, type, etc.
 Google Sites - A service that enables users to create and share websites.
 Google Slides - A presentation program similar to Microsoft PowerPoint.
 Google SMS - Enables users to send text messages over their mobile using SMS to get quick answers,
such as driving directions, movie show times, local business listing, etc.
 Google Street View - A great service that allows anyone to drive down the streets around the world.
 Google Tag Manager - A service that allows website publishers to add and remove tags through a web-
based user interface instead of updating HTML code directly.
 Google Takeout - A utility that allows users to download their Google data from various apps, programs,
and services.
 Google Translate - Translate a foreign language web page or text into your language.
 Google Trends - List of the 100 most active search queries and comparison of what people are searching
for on Google.
 Google Video - Search for online videos hosted by Google, and transcript text of videos and TV shows.
 Google Voice - Use Google search over the phone using your voice.
 Google Wallet - A payment service developed by Google that allows people to send and receive money
from other people.
 Google Workspace - A suite of cloud software for businesses.
 Google.org - The philanthropic arm of Google.
 My Activity - Utility that tracks your history when you use Google's services.
 Quick, Draw! - Drawing game to help test artificial intelligence.
 Waze - A GPS navigation application for mobile devices.
 WebP - Compressed image format.
  Wing - A drone delivery service that delivers light-weight items over short distances.
 YouTube - Video service that allows users to freely upload videos and view others videos.
Tip
We also suggest you visit our Google tips page for additional tips on using all Google services.
What is a Googler?
When referring to an employee, a Googler is a Google employee. When talking about a user, a Googler refers to
someone who uses the Google search engine frequently.
Google Easter eggs
Google also has several well-known hidden Easter eggs throughout its services. Below is a list of these hidden
gems.
 Google H4x0r - Display Google's search page and results in leet speak.
 Google Klingon - Display Google's search page and results in Klingon.
 Google Pig Latin - Display Google's search page and results in Pig Latin.
Discontinued Google services
Below is a listing of many discontinued Google services that are no longer supported, deprecated, merged into
other products, or sold off to other companies.
 Google+ - Google social networking site that was discontinued for consumers on April 2, 2019. Although
no longer used by the public, Google+ is still used internally at Google as a way for employees to
communicate and share ideas.
 Google Allo was a mobile instant messaging app developed for Android and iOS to exchange messages,
images, files, and videos. Allo was discontinued on March 12, 2019.
 Google Answers - Discontinued in December 2006. The site is still online, but can only be read and not
edited or have new questions be asked.
 Google Base - A database service provided by Google the service and API was deprecated on December
17, 2010.
 Google Buzz - Discontinued on December 15, 2011, Google Buzz was a social networking site replaced
by Google+.
 Google Checkout - Service that provided users and sellers with an easy and secure method of paying each
other. The service was discontinued on November 20, 2013, and replaced with Google Wallet.
 Google Cloud Print - A cloud printing solution discontinued on December 31, 2020.
 Google Code - Allowed users to view source code on websites that was discontinued on March 12, 2015.
Thousands of the Google open source products were moved to GitHub.
 Google Code Search - A search tool that allowed developers to search for open source code.
 Google Deskbar and Google Desktop - Small software utility that adds a Google search to the Microsoft
Windows Taskbar allowing users to search without even opening a browser.
 Google Dictionary - An online dictionary search service that was discontinued as it became integrated
into the Google search.
 Google Directory - Browse the open directory of web pages modified to list the directory listings by
Google's PageRank technology.
 Google Express - A delivery service available in most states that was discontinued in 2019.
 Google Fast Flip - An online news aggregator from Google that was discontinued in September 2011.
 Google Hangouts - Communication platform for messaging, SMS, video chat, and VoIP. To be shut down
in November 2022.
 Google Helpouts - Originally launched in November 2013, Google Helpouts was a service that allowed
users to share their knowledge and experience with other users with live help and video. The service
officially closed on April 20, 2015.
 Google Labs - A section of Google that once displayed upcoming features. This section was later
discontinued.
 Google Market - The original location to find apps for Android. Google Market was rebranded
into Google Play in 2012.
 Google Moderator - A tool from Google that allowed anyone to collect the best input from an audience
of any size. The service was discontinued on June 30, 2015.
 Google Play - A service that allows users to search and download apps, books, movies, and music for
Android devices. The service was shut down in 2020 and moved to YouTube Music.
 Google Reader - An RSS/Atom reader that was discontinued on July 1, 2013.
 Google Sets - Type in a few keywords that are similar to pull up a listing of more words that relate to the
words you typed.
 Google SketchUp - A tool for creating and sharing 3-D models that is now owned by Trimble on June
1, 2012.
 Google Talk - Instant Messenger program that used XMPP. In May 2013, Google announced plans to
drop XMPP support for its own proprietary standard used with Google Hangouts.
 Google Tango - Augmented reality computing platform that was discontinued on December 15, 2017.
 Google Toolbar - For early Microsoft Windows Internet Explorer and Firefox users. Google Toolbar add-
on enables users using these browsers to access Google search and other Google features any time the
browser is open.
 Google URL Shortener - Service used shorten long URLs. Transitioned to FDL (Firebase Dynamic
Links).
 Google Web Accelerator - For broadband users, Google Web Accelerator was used to help speed up
browsing.
 iGoogle - Personalized Google page that allowed you to add links, RSS feeds, games, and more.
  Orkut - A social networking site that provided a location to socialize with your friends and family, and
meet new acquaintances from all around the world. Google stopped the Orkut service on September
30, 2014.
 Picasa - Was a free Microsoft Windows software program to view images, manage images, and more.
The program was retired and replaced with Google Photos on March 15, 2016.
 Project Ara - An experimental smartphone that featured a modular design. The project was canceled in
2016.
 Stadia - Online gaming streaming service that was canceled in 2022.
 YouTube Video Editor - Was a free feature of YouTube that gave users the ability to edit videos. As of
September 20, 2017, Google discontinued the service, but kept the ability to allow users to add
enhancements to their videos.

GMAIL
What is Gmail?
Gmail (pronounced Gee-mail) is a free web-based email service that provides users with 15 GB of storage for
messages and the ability to search for specific messages.
The Gmail program also automatically organizes successively related messages into a conversational thread.
Gmail, otherwise known as Google Mail, can be accessed from a personal computer, tablet or any Android or
iOS device.
According to Google co-founder and CEO Larry Page, the company was inspired to create Gmail because of a
user's letter complaining about problems with existing email services, like Yahoo Mail
and Microsoft Outlook.live.com (previously known as Hotmail).
Their complaints included the constant need to delete messages to stay within storage limits and the lack of search
ability.
Gmail is the email service used by more people than any other, with over 1.2 billion users worldwide.
What are Gmail's features?
Gmail's interface is minimalistic and uncluttered. Gmail incorporates a search bar for users to find specific emails
and messages can be filtered using tabs that automatically sort emails into categories.
Gmail also offers users the ability to chat with other Gmail users in real time, as well as make video calls. Gmail's
storage capacity, at 15 GB, is considerably larger than most other free email services.
Gmail has several features not commonly found in other email services.
For example, Gmail allows users to archive messages instead of deleting them, and Gmail's search function is
powerful enough to find specific messages even if a user can't remember the sender, recipient or subject line.
Gmail also offers a Priority Inbox feature that highlights important messages for the user and spam filtering to
weed out spam and unsolicited or malicious emails.

Gmail includes spam filtering to weed out spam and unsolicited or malicious emails.
What are Gmail's security features?
Gmail's email system uses secure sockets layer (SSL) encryption when retrieving and sending emails, which
means that email messages are less likely to be intercepted by a third party.
However, users must be careful to avoid phishing scams, which are email messages that appear to be from Gmail
but are actually from a third party trying to gain access to a user's account.

Gmail users should beware of suspicious emails phishing for sensitive information.
To avoid falling for a phishing scam, Gmail users should only log in to their Gmail account by going to the Gmail
website and entering their username and password into the proper fields.
They should never click on a link in an email that purports to be from Gmail but goes to a different website, as
these sites often have malware that can infect their PC or reveal their personal data to cybercriminals.
As an added form of protection, Gmail offers two-factor authentication, which requires users to enter not only
their password but also a code that is sent to their phone when they try to log in.
This makes it more difficult for someone to gain access to a Gmail account because they would need to know the
password and have access to the user's phone.
How to create a Gmail account
To use Gmail, you will need to create a Google account, which is simple and only takes a few minutes. To create
a Google account, go to the Gmail website and click on the Create an account link.
 Enter your name, choose a username for your email account and set a password.
 You'll also need to enter a date of birth and gender.
 Once you've entered all the required information, click on the Next Step button.
 You'll then be asked to verify your phone number by entering a verification code that will be sent to your
phone via text message or voice call.
Once you've verified your phone number, you'll be able to write a new email.
Using Gmail also grants you access to Google's other free-to-use productivity tools, such as the following:
 Google Chrome. A fast, free web browser powered by Google.
  Google Calendar. A calendar application that can be used to schedule events and track appointments.
 Google Docs. A word processing application that allows users to create and edit documents online.
 Google Sheets. A spreadsheet application that lets users create and edit spreadsheets online.
 Google Slides. A presentation application that allows users to create and edit presentations online.
 Google Hangouts. A messaging application that lets Gmail users chat with each other in real time.
 Google Meet. A video conferencing application that lets Gmail users chat with each other via video call.
 Google Drive. A cloud storage service that gives users access to their files from any device with an internet
connection.

Google Drive supported files.

Additional apps include Google Play, Google News, Google Meet, Google Chat, Google Contact, Google
Translate and Google Photos.
Access these applications by clicking on the Google apps icon in the upper right-hand corner of Gmail just to the
left of your account profile picture. These should not be confused with Google Workspace (formerly G Suite),
however, which is a suite of paid services that delivers productivity applications and collaboration tools plus cloud
storage to businesses.
 MICROSOFT WORD AND EXCEL
Introduction
Microsoft Word 2013 is a word-processing program that is used to create professional-looking documents such
as reports, resumes, letters, memos, and newsletters. It includes many powerful tools that can be used to easily
create and edit documents, and collaborate with others. This handout provides an overview of the Word 2013
user interface and covers how to perform basic tasks such as starting and exiting the program; creating, saving,
opening, closing, editing, formatting, and printing documents; applying styles; and getting help.

Starting Word
You can start Word 2013 from the Start menu (in Windows 7) or by double-clicking an existing Word file.
When you start the program without opening a specific file, the Start screen appears, prompting you to open an
existing document or create a new document.

To start Word 2013 from the Start menu:

1. Click the Start button, click All Programs, click Microsoft Office 2013, and then click Word
2013. The Start screen appears (see Figure 1).
2. In the right pane, click Blank document. A new, blank document opens in the program window.

Figure 1 – Word 2013 Start Screen

Overview of the User Interface
All the Microsoft Office 2013 programs share a common user interface so you can apply basic techniques that
you learn in one program to other programs. The Word 2013 program window is easy to navigate and simple
to use (see Figure 2 and Table 1).

Figure 2 – Word 2013 Program Window

Table 1 – Word 2013 Program Window Elements

Name Description

Title bar Appears at the top of the program window and displays the name of the
document and the program. The buttons on the right side of the Title bar are
used to get help; change the display of the Ribbon; and minimize, restore,
maximize, and close the program window.
Quick Access Appears on the left side of the Title bar and contains frequently used commands
toolbar that are independent of the tab displayed on the Ribbon.
Ribbon Extends across the top of the program window, directly below the Title bar,
and consists of a set of tabs, each of which contains groups of related
commands.
Navigation pane Appears on the left side of the program window and enables you to navigate
long documents, search for specific text, and reorganize content.
Document window Appears below the Ribbon and displays the contents of the document.
Cursor A blinking vertical line that indicates where text or objects will be inserted.

Scroll bars Appear along the right side and bottom of the document window and enable
you to scroll through the document.
Status bar Appears at the bottom of the program window and displays information about
the document (number of pages, number of words, etc.). The tools on the right
side of the Status bar can be used to display the document in a variety of views
and to change the zoom level.
Ribbon
The Ribbon is designed to help you quickly find the commands that you need to complete a task. It consists of
a set of task-specific tabs (see Figure 3 and Table 2). The standard tabs are visible at all times. Other tabs, known
as contextual tabs, appear only when you create or select certain types of objects (such as images or tables).
These tabs are indicated by colored headers and contain commands that are specific to working with the selected
object. Clicking a tab displays a set of related commands that are organized into logical groups. Commands
generally take the form of buttons and lists; some appear in galleries. Pointing to an option in most lists or
galleries displays a live preview of that effect on the selected text or object. You can apply the previewed
formatting by clicking the selected option, or you can cancel previewing without making any changes by
pressing the Esc key. Some commands include an integrated or separate arrow. Clicking the arrow displays a
menu of options available for the command. If a command on the Ribbon appears dimmed, it is unavailable.
Pointing to a command on the Ribbon displays its name, description, and keyboard shortcut (if it has one) in a
ScreenTip.
A dialog box launcher appears in the lower-right corner of most groups on the Ribbon (see Figure 3).
Clicking it opens a related dialog box or task pane that offers additional options or more precise control than
the commands available on the Ribbon.
You can collapse the Ribbon by clicking the Collapse the Ribbon button on the right side of the Ribbon
(see Figure 3) or by double-clicking the current tab. When the Ribbon is collapsed, only the tab names are
visible. You can expand the Ribbon by double-clicking any tab.

Figure 3 – Ribbon
Table 2 – Ribbon Tabs

Name Description
File Displays the Backstage view which contains commands related to managing files and
customizing the program.
Home Contains the most frequently used commands. The Home tab is active by default.
Insert Contains commands related to all the items that you can insert into a document.
Design Contains commands related to changing the overall appearance of a document.
Page Layout Contains commands related to changing the layout of a document.
References Contains commands related to reference information you can add to a document.
Mailings Contains commands related to creating mass mailings.
Review Contains commands related to proofreading a document, adding comments, tracking and
resolving document changes, and protecting a document.
View Contains commands related to changing the view and other aspects of the display.
Quick Access Toolbar
The Quick Access toolbar provides one-click access to commonly used commands and options. By default, it is
located on the left side of the Title bar and displays the Save, Undo, and Redo buttons (see Figure 4). You can
change the location of the Quick Access toolbar as well as customize it to include commands that you use
frequently.

Figure 4 – Quick Access Toolbar

To add a command to the Quick Access toolbar:

1. On the Ribbon, right-click the command that you want to add, and then click Add to Quick Access
Toolbar on the shortcut menu.

To remove a command from the Quick Access toolbar:

1. On the Quick Access toolbar, right-click the command that you want to remove, and then click Remove
from Quick Access Toolbar on the shortcut menu.

NOTE: Clicking the arrow on the right side of the Quick Access toolbar displays a menu which includes additional
commands and options that can be used to customize the toolbar. A check mark next to an item indicates that the
item is selected (see Figure 5). Toolbar Menu
Figure 5 – Customize Quick Access

Mini Toolbar
The Mini toolbar provides quick access to frequently used commands and appears whenever you select text or
right-click an object (see Figure 6).

Figure 6 – Mini Toolbar

Shortcut Menus
Word 2013 includes many shortcut menus that appear when you right-click an item. Shortcut menus are context-
sensitive, meaning they list commands that pertain only to the item that you right-clicked (see Figure 7).

Figure 7 – Ribbon Shortcut Menu

Navigation Pane
The Navigation pane offers a quick look at the structure of a document and provides an easy way to navigate
long documents, search for specific text, and reorganize content. It includes a Search box and three tabs.
 The Headings tab displays a list of all the headings in a document. Click a heading in the pane
to go to the corresponding heading in the document. Click the arrow next to a heading to collapse or
expand it. Drag a heading up or down to move the heading and its content to a new location. Right-click
 a heading to perform additional actions (such as promote or demote a heading, add a new heading or
subheading, or delete a heading).
 The Pages tab displays thumbnails of all the pages in a document. Click a thumbnail in the pane
to go to the corresponding page in the document.
 The Results tab displays a list of search results. Click a result to go to the corresponding location
in the document.

To open the Navigation pane:

1. On the View tab, in the Show group, select the Navigation Pane check box (see Figure 8). The Navigation
pane opens on the left side of the program window (see Figure 9).
NOTE: You can close the Navigation pane by clicking the Close button in the upper-right corner of the pane.

Figure 8 – Show Group on the View Tab

Figure 9 – Navigation Pane

To search for text using the Navigation pane:

1. In the Search box, type the text that you want to find, and then press the Enter key. The search results are
displayed as follows:
 On the Headings tab, headings that contain a match are highlighted.
 On the Pages tab, only pages that contain a match are displayed.
 On the Results tab, all the matches are displayed in a list that includes the surrounding text for
each match.
NOTE: You can review the results within the Navigation pane by using the scroll bar that appears on the right side of the
pane when you point to it. You can also use the Previous button or Next button at the top of the pane to browse
through all the headings, pages, or results.

Backstage View
The File tab (the first tab on the Ribbon) is used to display the Backstage view which contains all the commands
related to managing files and customizing the program. It provides an easy way to create, open, save, print,
share, export, and close files; view and update file properties; set permissions; set program options; and more.
Commands available in the Backstage view are organized into pages which you can display by clicking the page
tabs in the left pane.

To display the Backstage view:

1. Click the File tab on the Ribbon (see Figure 10).

Figure 10 – File Tab

To exit the Backstage view:

1. Click the Back button in the upper-left corner of the Backstage view (see Figure 11). Or, press the Esc
key.

Figure 11 - Info Page of the Backstage View

Creating Documents
When you start Word 2013 and click Blank document on the Start screen, a new document opens in the program
window, ready for you to enter your content. You can also create a new document while Word 2013 is running.
Each new document displays a default name (such as Document1, Document2, and so on) on the Title bar until
you save it with a more meaningful name. The cursor, a blinking vertical line in the upper-left corner of the
page, shows where the next character you type will appear. When the cursor reaches the right margin, the word
you are typing automatically moves to the next line. Pressing the Enter key starts a new paragraph.
To create a new document:
1. Click the File tab, and then click New. The New page of the Backstage view opens, displaying
thumbnails of the available templates (see Figure 12).
2. In the right pane, click Blank document. A new, blank document opens in a new window.
NOTE: You can also create a new document by pressing Ctrl+N.

Figure 12 – New Page of the Backstage View

Saving Documents
After creating a document, you can save it on your computer. Use the Save As command when you save a
document for the first time or if you want to save a copy of a document in a different location, with a different
file name, or in a different file format. Use the Save command to save changes to an existing document.
NOTE: Word 2013’s file format is called Word Document and is the same as Word 2007 and 2010. This format
has the .docx file extension and is not backward compatible with Word versions prior to 2007. You can use
Word 2013 to save a document in the Word 97-2003 Document format with the .doc file extension to make it
compatible with earlier versions of Word, but you will not have access to all of Word 2013’s features.

To save a document for the first time:

1. Click the File tab, and then click Save As. The Save As page of the Backstage view opens.
2. Click Computer in the center pane, and then click the Browse button or a recent folder in the
right pane (see Figure 13).

Figure 13 – Save As Page of the Backstage View

3. In the Save As dialog box, select a location to save the file, type a name in the File name box,
and then click the Save button (see Figure 14).

NOTE: By default, Word 2013 documents are saved in the Word Document format. To save a document in a
different format, click the Save as type arrow and select the desired file format from the list.
Figure 14 – Save as Dialog Box

To save changes to a document:

1. Do one of the following:
 Click the File tab, and then click Save.

 On the Quick Access toolbar, click the Save button .

 Press Ctrl+S.

Closing Documents
When you finish working on a document, you can close it, but keep the program window open to work on more
documents. If the document contains any unsaved changes, you will be prompted to save the changes before
closing it.

To close a document without exiting Word:

1. Click the File tab, and then click Close. Or, press Ctrl+W.

Opening Documents
You can locate and open an existing document from the Start screen when Word 2013 starts or from the Open
page of the Backstage view. The Start screen and the Open page also display a list of recently used documents
which you can quickly open by clicking them. Each document opens in its own window, making it easier to
work on two documents at once.

To open a document:
1. Click the File tab, and then click Open. Or, press Ctrl+O. The Open page of the Backstage
view opens, displaying a list of recently used documents in the right pane.
2. If the document you want is in the Recent Documents list, click its name to open it. Otherwise,
proceed to step 3.
3. Click Computer in the center pane, and then click the Browse button or a recent folder in the
right pane (see Figure 15).

Figure 15 – Open Page of the Backstage View

4. In the Open dialog box, locate and select the file that you want to open, and then click the Open
button (see Figure 16).
Figure 16 – Open Dialog Box

NOTE: When you open a document created with earlier versions of Word in Word 2013, the document opens
in compatibility mode (indicated on the Title bar) with some of the new features of Word 2013 disabled. You
can easily convert the document to the Word 2013 file format by clicking the Convert button on the Info page
of the Backstage view (see Figure 17).

Figure 17 – Convert Button on the Info Page of the Backstage View

NOTE: When you close a document, Word 2013 automatically bookmarks the location you were last working
on. When you reopen the document, you can pick up where you left off by clicking the Resume Reading callout
that appears on the right side of the program window (see Figure 18). The callout changes to a bookmark icon
after a few seconds (see Figure 19). You can point to the bookmark icon or click it to redisplay the message.
Scrolling the document makes the callout disappear.

Figure 18 – Resume Reading Callout Figure 19 – Bookmark Icon

Editing Documents
Most documents require some editing. After creating a document, you may want to add or remove text, or move
text from one place to another. This section covers how to perform basic tasks such as selecting, deleting,
copying, and moving text; and undoing and redoing changes.
Selecting Text
Before you can edit text, you must first select the text that you want to modify. You can use the mouse, the
keyboard, or the selection area (an invisible area in the document’s left margin) to make a selection. Selected
text appears highlighted on the screen.

To select text:
1. Do the following:
 To select a word, double-click anywhere in the word.
 To select a sentence, hold down the Ctrl key and click anywhere in the sentence.
 To select a line, click in the selection area to the left of the line.
 To select a paragraph, triple-click anywhere in the paragraph. Or, double-click in the selection
area to the left of the paragraph.
 To select the entire document, triple-click in the selection area. Or, press Ctrl+A.
 To select adjacent words, lines, or paragraphs, drag the mouse pointer over the text. Or, click at
the beginning of the text, and then hold down the Shift key and click at the end of the text.
 To select non-adjacent words, lines, or paragraphs, make the first selection, and then hold down
the Ctrl key and make the second selection. NOTE: To deselect selected text, click anywhere in the
document.
Deleting Text
You can delete text one character at a time by positioning the cursor, and then pressing the
Backspace key to delete the character to the left of the cursor or the Delete key to delete the character to the
right of the cursor. You can also select and delete a word, sentence, paragraph, or block of text.

To delete text:
1. Select the text that you want to delete, and then press the Delete key.
Moving and Copying Text
When editing a document, you may want to duplicate text in another location, or you may want to remove (cut)
text from its original location and place it in a new location.

NOTE: Cut or copied text is stored on the Clipboard, a temporary storage area. You can access it by clicking
the dialog box launcher in the Clipboard group on the Home tab of the Ribbon (see Figure 20).

Figure 20 – Clipboard Group on the Home Tab

To move or copy text:

1. Select the text that you want to move or copy.
2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, do one of the following:

 To move text, click the Cut button. Or, press Ctrl+X.

 To copy text, click the Copy button. Or, press Ctrl+C.

3. Click in the document where you want to paste the cut or copied text.

4. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the Paste button . Or, press Ctrl+V.

NOTE: Clicking the arrow on the Paste button displays additional paste options.
Undoing and Redoing Changes
Whenever you make a mistake, you can easily reverse it with the Undo command. After you have undone one
or more actions, the Redo command becomes available and allows you to restore the undone actions.
To undo an action:
1. On the Quick Access toolbar, click the Undo button . Or, press Ctrl+Z.

To redo an action:
1. On the Quick Access toolbar, click the Redo button . Or, press Ctrl+Y.

Formatting Documents
Word 2013 includes a number of features that can be used to easily format a document. Formatting enhances
the appearance of a document and makes it look professional.

Formatting Text
Text formatting includes font, font size, font color, and font style and effect. The Font group on the Home tab
of the Ribbon contains the most commonly used text formatting commands (see Figure 21). You can also format
text using the Font dialog box which can be opened by clicking in the dialog box launcher

Figure 21 – Font Group on the Home Tab

Changing the Font and Font Size

A font defines the overall appearance or style of text lettering. Font size controls the height of the font. The
default font in new Word 2013 documents is Calibri; the default font size is 11 points.
To change the font:
1. Select the text that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Font arrow and select the desired font from the list (see
Figure 22).

To change the font size:

1. Select the text that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Font Size arrow and select the desired font size
from the list (see Figure 23). If a font size you want is not listed in the Font Size list, click in the Font
Size box, type the desired number, and then press the Enter key. NOTE: You can also change the font size

by clicking the Increase Font Size button or Decrease Font Size button in the Font group on the Home
tab of the Ribbon.
 Figure 22 – Font List Figure 23 – Font Size List

Changing the Font Color and Highlighting Text

You can emphasize important text by changing the font color or applying highlighting.

To change the font color:

1. Select the text that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Font Color button to apply the most recently used
color, or click the Font Color arrow and select a different color from the color palette (see Figure 24).

To highlight text:
1. Select the text that you want to highlight.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Text Highlight Color button to apply the most
recently used color, or click the Text Highlight Color arrow and select a different color from the color
palette (see Figure 25).
NOTE: You can remove a highlight from selected text by clicking the Text Highlight Color arrow, and then clicking No
Color on the palette.

Figure 24 – Font Color Palette Figure 25 – Text Highlight Color Palette

Applying Font Styles and Effects
You can apply one or more font styles and effects to text. Font styles are attributes such as bold and italic;
effects are special enhancements such as strikethrough and shadow (see Table 3).

Table 3 – Font Style and Effect Buttons

Name Description
Makes the selected text bold (example).
Bold
Italicizes the selected text (example).
Italic
Underline Draws a line under the selected text (example). Click the arrow on the
button to select the type of underline.
Draws a line through the middle of the selected text (example).
Strikethrough
Creates small letters below the text baseline (example).
Subscript
Creates small letters above the line of text (example).
Superscript
Applies a visual effect (such as a shadow, glow, or reflection) to the
Text Effects and Typo selected text.
graphy
Change Case Changes the selected text to uppercase, lowercase, or other common
capitalizations.

To apply a font style or effect:

1. Select the text that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the button for the desired font style or effect. If the
button has an arrow, click the arrow to see more options.

NOTE: The Bold, Italic, Underline, Strikethrough, Subscript, and Superscript buttons are toggles. If you select text
to which one of these formats has been applied, and then click the corresponding button, that format is removed.
Clearing Formatting
You can remove all formatting from selected text, leaving only the plain text.

To clear formatting:
1. Select the text that has the formatting you want to clear.

2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Clear All Formatting button .

Copying Formatting
You can copy the formatting of specific text and apply it to other text in the document. This can save you time
and effort when multiple formats have been applied to text and you want to format additional text with all the
same formats.
To copy formatting:
1. Select the text that has the formatting you want to copy.

2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the Format Painter button . The mouse

pointer changes to a paintbrush with an I-beam .

3. Select the text to which you want to apply the copied formatting.
NOTE: If you want to apply the copied formatting to more than one area, double-click the Format Painter button instead
of single-clicking it. This keeps the Format Painter active until you press the Esc key.

Formatting Paragraphs
Paragraph formatting refers to the layout of a paragraph on the page. You can change the look of a paragraph
by changing its alignment, line spacing, and indentation, as well as the space before and after it. The Paragraph
group on the Home tab of the Ribbon contains the most commonly used paragraph formatting commands (see
Figure 26). You can also format paragraphs using the
Paragraph dialog box which can be opened by clicking the dialog box launcher in the Paragraph group.

NOTE: To display or hide formatting marks such as spaces, tabs, and paragraph marks, click the Show/Hide button
in the Paragraph group on the Home tab of the Ribbon.

Figure 26 – Paragraph Group on the Home Tab

Changing Paragraph Alignment

Paragraph alignment refers to the position of each line of text in a paragraph between the left and right margins.
The Paragraph group on the Home tab of the Ribbon includes four alignment buttons that can be used to quickly
change the alignment of a paragraph (see Table 4).

Table 4 – Alignment Buttons

Name Description
Aligns the text at the left margin, producing a ragged right edge. This is the default
Align Left alignment.
 Centers the text between the left and right margins, producing ragged left and right
Center edges.

Aligns the text at the right margin, producing a ragged left edge.
Align Right
Justify Aligns the text at both the left and right margins, producing even left and right edges. To
accomplish this, Word adjusts the spacing between words, expanding or shrinking the
spaces as needed.

To change the alignment of a paragraph:

1. Select the paragraph that you want to align.
2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the desired alignment button.

Changing Line and Paragraph Spacing

Line spacing determines the amount of space between the lines of text in a paragraph. Paragraph spacing
determines the amount of space above and below a paragraph. In Word 2013, the default spacing is 1.08 lines
and 8 points after each paragraph.

To change the line spacing within a paragraph:

1. Select the paragraph that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Line and Paragraph Spacing button
and select the desired line spacing (see Figure 27).

Figure 27 – Line and Paragraph Spacing Menu

To change the spacing before or after a paragraph:

1. Select the paragraph that you want to format.
2. On the Page Layout tab, in the Paragraph group, enter the desired value in the Spacing
Before or Spacing After box (see Figure 28).
Figure 28 – Paragraph Group on the Page Layout Tab

Changing Paragraph Indentation

Indenting a paragraph refers to moving it away from the left, the right, or both margins. You can indent an entire
paragraph to make it stand out from the surrounding text. You can also indent only the first line of a paragraph
(which is called a first line indent), or indent all lines except the first line (which is called a hanging indent).
To change the indentation of a paragraph:
1. Select the paragraph that you want to indent.

2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Increase Indent button or Decrease

Indent button to move the paragraph right or left in half-inch increments.

To indent a paragraph using the horizontal ruler:
1. On the View tab, in the Show group, select the Ruler check box to display the rulers.
2. Select the paragraph that you want to indent.
3. On the horizontal ruler, do the following (see Figure 29):
 To change the left indent of the entire paragraph, drag the Left Indent marker to the position
where you want the text to start.
 To change the right indent of the entire paragraph, drag the Right Indent marker to the position
where you want the text to end.
 To create a first line indent, drag the First Line Indent marker to the position where you want
the first line to start.
 To create a hanging indent, drag the Hanging Indent marker to the position where you want all
lines except the first line to start.

Figure 29 – Horizontal Ruler with Indent Markers

NOTE: You can specify an exact measurement for the left or right indent by entering the desired value in the
Indent Left or Indent Right box in the Paragraph group on the Page Layout tab of the Ribbon (see Figure
30).

Figure 30 – Paragraph Group on the Page Layout Tab

Setting Tab Stops

Tab stops can be used to align lines of text in different locations across the page (see Table 5). By default, Word
2013 sets left-aligned tab stops every half inch from the left margin. You can also set custom tab stops exactly
where you need them. The easiest way to set tab stops is to use the horizontal ruler.
Table 5 – Tab Stops

Name Description

Left Tab Aligns the left end of the text with the tab stop.
Center Tab Aligns the center of the text with the tab stop.

Right Tab Aligns the right end of the text with the tab stop.

Decimal Tab Aligns the decimal point in the text (usually a numeric value) with the tab stop.
Bar Tab Draws a vertical line at the position of the tab stop.
To set a custom tab stop:
1. On the View tab, in the Show group, select the Ruler check box to display the rulers.
2. Click the tab selector on the left side of the horizontal ruler until it displays the desired tab stop
(see Figure 31).
3. Click the bottom edge of the horizontal ruler where you want to set the tab stop. A tab stop
marker appears on the ruler.
4. Press the Tab key to move to the tab stop.

Figure 31 – Tab Selector and Tab Stop Marker

NOTE: You can change the position of a custom tab stop by dragging it left or right along the horizontal ruler.
You can remove a custom tab stop by dragging it off the horizontal ruler.
Adding Borders and Shading
You can set apart text from the rest of the document by adding borders and shading. You can add borders to
any side of the text or all sides to make a box.

To add borders:
1. Select the text to which you want to add borders.
2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Borders button to apply the most recently
used border, or click the Borders arrow and select a different border from the menu (see Figure 32).
NOTE: You can remove all borders from selected text by clicking the Borders arrow, and then clicking No Border on
the menu.

To add shading:
1. Select the text to which you want to add shading.
2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Shading button to apply the most recently
used color, or click the Shading arrow and select a different color from the color palette (see Figure 33).

NOTE: You can remove shading from selected text by clicking the Shading arrow, and then clicking No Color
on the palette.

Figure 33 – Shading Palette

Figure 32 – Borders Menu

Creating Bulleted and Numbered Lists
Bulleted and numbered lists make documents easier to read and understand. When you want to emphasize items
in a list in no particular order, create a bulleted list. When you want to present a sequence of information or list
items by order of importance, create a numbered list. You can add bullets or numbers to existing lines of text,
or Word can automatically create bulleted or numbered lists as you type. You can also create a list that has
multiple levels.

NOTE: If you move an item within a numbered list, Word will renumber the list to keep the items in the correct order.

To create a bulleted or numbered list:

1. Click in the document where you want to add the list.

2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Bullets button to start a bulleted list

or Numbering button to start a numbered list.

3. Type the text for the first list item.
4. Press the Enter key to add the next list item.
5. To end the list, press the Enter key twice.
NOTE: You can change the bullet or number style by clicking the Bullets or Numbering arrow and selecting the desired
option from the menu (see Figure 34 and Figure 35).

Figure 34 – Bullets Menu

Figure 35 – Numbering Menu

To create a multilevel list:
1. Click in the document where you want to add the list.
2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Multilevel List button and select the
desired style from the menu (see Figure 36).
3. Type the text for the first list item.
4. Press the Enter key to add the next list item.
5. Continue creating the list of items that are all at the same level.
6. To change the list level, do one of the following: Press the Tab key to demote the list
level. Press Shift+Tab to promote the list level.
7. To end the list, position the insertion point at the end of the last list item, press the Enter
key, and then press the Delete key.

Figure 36 – Multilevel List Menu

To add bullets or numbers to existing text:
1. Select the text to which you want to add bullets or numbers.
2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Bullets button to add bullets or
Numbering button to add numbers.
NOTE: If the numbering sequence is incorrect, right-click the list item, and then click Restart at 1 or Continue
Numbering on the shortcut menu.

To remove bullets or numbers from a list:

1. Select the list from which you want to remove bullets or numbers.
2. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click the Bullets button to remove bullets or
Numbering button to remove numbers.
Applying Styles
A style is a set of formatting characteristics (such as font, font size, font color, and paragraph alignment and
spacing) that you can use to quickly format a document. In addition to saving you time, styles can help you keep
formatting consistent throughout a document. Word 2013 includes several predefined styles that can be used to
format headings, body text, lists, etc. If you do not like the appearance of a built-in style, you can modify it or
create a custom style to suit your needs.

To apply a style using the Styles gallery:

1. Select the text to which you want to apply a style.
2. On the Home tab, in the Styles group, select the desired style from the Styles gallery (see Figure 37).

NOTE: To display the entire Styles gallery, click the More button in the lower-right corner of
the gallery to expand it.

Figure 37 – Styles Group on the Home Tab

To apply a style using the Styles pane:

1. On the Home tab, in the Styles group, click the dialog box launcher . The Styles pane opens
on the right side of the program window (see Figure 38).
2. Select the text to which you want to apply a style.
3. In the Styles pane, click the desired style.
NOTE: You can close the Styles pane by clicking the Close button in the upper-right corner of the pane.

To modify an existing style:

 1. In the Styles pane, right-click the style, and then click Modify on the shortcut menu.
2. In the Modify Style dialog box, make the desired changes, and then click the OK button.
NOTE: When you modify a style, all text formatted with that particular style will be updated automatically.
To create a new style:

1. In the Styles pane, click the New Style button .

2. In the Create New Style from Formatting dialog box, type a name for the new style in the
Name box, select the desired options, and then click the OK button.
NOTE: If you want to use formatted text as the basis of a new style, select the text before you click the New Style button.
The dialog box will open with all the attributes of the selected text already specified, so you will only need to type a new
name for the style.

Figure 38 – Styles Pane

Formatting Headings
Headings are used to organize information into a logical structure. The best way to format headings in a Word
document is to apply one of the built-in heading styles (Heading 1 through Heading 9). The lower the heading
number, the higher the ranking of that heading.
To format a heading:
1. Select the heading that you want format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Styles group, select the desired heading style from the Styles gallery.
Or, click the desired heading style in the Styles pane.
NOTE: When you point to a heading, a small arrow appears to the left of the heading. Click the arrow to collapse or expand
the body text and subheadings below the heading (see Figure 39).

Figure 39 – Heading with Arrow

Previewing and Printing Documents

Before printing a document, you can preview it to see how each page will look when printed. When you are
ready to print the document, you can quickly print one copy of the entire document using the current printer, or
you can change the default print settings before printing it. The Print page of the Backstage view allows you to
preview a document, set print options, and print the document, all from one location (see Figure 40).

Figure 40 – Print Page of the Backstage View

To preview and print a document:
1. Click the File tab, and then click Print. Or, press Ctrl+P. The Print page of the Backstage view
opens, displaying print settings in the center pane and a preview of the document in the right pane (see
Figure 40).
2. To preview the document, in the right pane, do the following:

 To switch pages, click the Next Page button or Previous Page button , or enter a
specific page number in the Current Page box.

 To adjust the zoom, click the Zoom In button or Zoom Out button , or drag the

Zoom slider. To return to full page view, click the Zoom to Page button .

3. To change the print settings, in the center pane, do the following:

 To change the printer, in the Printer section, click the button displaying the name of the default
printer and select the desired printer from the list.
 To print multiple copies, enter the number of copies you want to print in the Copies box.
 To change other settings (such as page range, collation, orientation, paper size, margins, or pages
per sheet), in the Settings section, select the desired options.
4. To print the document, click the Print button.

Getting Help
You can use the Word Help system to get assistance on any topic or task. While some information is installed
with Word 2013 on your computer, most of the information resides online and is more up-to-date. You need an
Internet connection to access resources from Office.com.

To get help:

1. Click the Microsoft Word Help button on the right side of the Title bar. The Word Help
window opens, displaying general help topics (see Figure 41).
NOTE: Clicking the Help button in the upper-right corner of a dialog box displays help topics related to
that dialog box in the Word Help window.
2. Click any link to display the corresponding information.

3. To navigate between help topics, click the Back button , Forward button , or Home

button on the toolbar.

Figure 41 – Word Help Window

4. To print a help topic, click the Print button on the toolbar.

5. To search for a specific topic, type one or more keywords in the Search box, and then press the
Enter key to display the search results.
6. To switch between online and offline help, click the Change Help Collection arrow next to
Word Help at the top of the window, and then click Word Help from Office.com or Word Help from
your computer on the menu.

7. To close the Word Help window, click the Close button in the upper-right corner of the
window.

Exiting Word
When you finish using Word 2013, you should exit the program to free up system resources.

To exit Word 2013:

1. Click the Close button in the upper-right corner of the program window.
Introduction
Microsoft Excel 2013 is a spreadsheet program that is used to manage, analyze, and present data. It includes
many powerful tools that can be used to organize and manipulate large amounts of data, perform complex
calculations, create professional-looking charts, enhance the appearance of worksheets, and more. This handout
provides an overview of the Excel 2013 user interface and covers how to perform basic tasks such as starting
and exiting the program; creating, saving, opening, and closing workbooks; selecting cells; entering and editing
data; formatting text and numbers; positioning cell contents; applying cell styles; and getting help.

Starting Excel
You can start Excel 2013 from the Start menu (in Windows 7) or by double-clicking an existing Excel file.
When you start the program without opening a specific file, the Start screen appears, prompting you to open an
existing workbook or create a new workbook.
To start Excel 2013 from the Start menu:
1. Click the Start button, click All Programs, click Microsoft Office 2013, and then click Excel
2013. The Start screen appears (see Figure 1).
2. In the right pane, click Blank workbook. A new, blank workbook opens in the program window.

Figure 1 – Excel 2013 Start Screen

Overview of the User Interface
All the Microsoft Office 2013 programs share a common user interface so you can apply basic techniques that
you learn in one program to other programs. The Excel 2013 program window is easy to navigate and simple
to use (see Figure 2 and Table 1).

Figure 2 – Excel 2013 Program Window

Table 1 – Excel 2013 Program Window Elements

Name Description

Title bar Appears at the top of the program window and displays the name of the workbook and the
program. The buttons on the right side of the Title bar are used to get help; change the display
of the Ribbon; and minimize, restore, maximize, and close the program window.
Quick Access Appears on the left side of the Title bar and contains frequently used commands that are
toolbar independent of the tab displayed on the Ribbon.
Ribbon Extends across the top of the program window, directly below the Title bar, and consists of a set
of tabs, each of which contains groups of related commands.
Formula bar Appears below the Ribbon and displays the data or formula stored in the active cell. It can also
be used to enter or edit cell contents.
Name box Appears on the left side of the Formula bar and displays the active cell address or the name of
the selected cell, range, or object.
Workbook Appears below the Formula bar and displays a portion of the active worksheet.
window
Sheet tab Each worksheet has a tab that appears below the workbook window and displays the name of
the worksheet.
Scroll bars Appear along the right side and bottom of the workbook window and enable you to scroll
through the worksheet.
Status bar Appears at the bottom of the program window and displays the status of Excel (such as Ready).
The tools on the right side of the Status bar can be used to display the worksheet in a variety of
views and to change the zoom level.

Ribbon
The Ribbon is designed to help you quickly find the commands that you need to complete a task. It consists of
a set of task-specific tabs (see Figure 3 and Table 2). The standard tabs are visible at all times. Other tabs, known
as contextual tabs, appear only when you create or select certain types of objects (such as images or charts).
These tabs are indicated by colored headers and contain commands that are specific to working with the selected
object. Clicking a tab displays a set of related commands that are organized into logical groups. Commands
generally take the form of buttons and lists; some appear in galleries. Pointing to an option in most lists or
galleries displays a live preview of that effect on the selected text or object. You can apply the previewed
formatting by clicking the selected option, or you can cancel previewing without making any changes by
pressing the Esc key. Some commands include an integrated or separate arrow. Clicking the arrow displays a
menu of options available for the command. If a command on the Ribbon appears dimmed, it is unavailable.
Pointing to a command on the Ribbon displays its name, description, and keyboard shortcut (if it has one) in a
ScreenTip.
A dialog box launcher appears in the lower-right corner of most groups on the Ribbon (see Figure 3).
Clicking it opens a related dialog box or task pane that offers additional options or more precise control than
the commands available on the Ribbon.
You can collapse the Ribbon by clicking the Collapse the Ribbon button on the right side of the Ribbon
(see Figure 3) or by double-clicking the current tab. When the Ribbon is collapsed, only the tab names are
visible. You can expand the Ribbon by double-clicking any tab.
Figure 3 – Ribbon

Table 2 – Ribbon Tabs

Name Description
File Displays the Backstage view which contains commands related to managing files and
customizing the program.
Home Contains the most frequently used commands. The Home tab is active by default.
Insert Contains commands related to all the items that you can insert into a worksheet.
Page Layout Contains commands that affect the overall appearance and layout of a worksheet.
Formulas Contains commands used to insert formulas, define names, and audit formulas.
Data Contains commands used to manage data and import or connect to external data.
Review Contains commands used to check spelling, track changes, add comments, and protect
worksheets.
View Contains commands related to changing the view and other aspects of the display.
Quick Access Toolbar
The Quick Access toolbar provides one-click access to commonly used commands and options. By default, it is
located on the left side of the Title bar and displays the Save, Undo, and Redo buttons (see Figure 4). You can
change the location of the Quick Access toolbar as well as customize it to include commands that you use
frequently.

Figure 4 – Quick Access Toolbar

To add a command to the Quick Access toolbar:
1. On the Ribbon, right-click the command that you want to add, and then click Add to Quick Access
Toolbar on the shortcut menu.
To remove a command from the Quick Access toolbar:
1. On the Quick Access toolbar, right-click the command that you want to remove, and then click Remove
from Quick Access Toolbar on the shortcut menu.

NOTE: Clicking the arrow on the right side of the Quick Access toolbar displays a menu which includes additional
commands and options that can be used to customize the toolbar. A check mark next to an item indicates that the
item is selected (see Figure 5).
Figure 5 – Customize Quick Access Toolbar Menu

Mini Toolbar
The Mini toolbar provides quick access to frequently used commands and appears whenever you right- click
a cell or an object (see Figure 6).

Figure 6 – Mini Toolbar

Shortcut Menus
Excel 2013 includes many shortcut menus that appear when you right-click an item. Shortcut menus are context-
sensitive, meaning they list commands that pertain only to the item that you right-clicked (see Figure 7).

Figure 7 – Ribbon Shortcut Menu

Backstage View
The File tab (the first tab on the Ribbon) is used to display the Backstage view which contains all the commands
related to managing files and customizing the program. It provides an easy way to create, open, save, print,
share, export, and close files; view and update file properties; set permissions; set program options; and more.
Commands available in the Backstage view are organized into pages which you can display by clicking the page
tabs in the left pane.
To display the Backstage view:
1. Click the File tab on the Ribbon (see Figure 8).

Figure 8 – File Tab

To exit the Backstage view:

1. Click the Back button in the upper-left corner of the Backstage view (see Figure 9). Or, press the Esc key.

Figure 9 – Info Page of the Backstage View

Formula Bar
The Formula bar displays the contents of the active cell and can be used to enter or edit cell contents. The
Formula bar contains three buttons (see Figure 10). The Insert Function button is always available, but the other
two buttons are active only while you are entering or editing data in a cell. Clicking the Cancel button cancels
the changes you make in the cell, which is the same as pressing the Esc key. Clicking the Enter button completes
the changes you make in the cell, which is the same as pressing the Enter key. Clicking the Insert Function
button opens a dialog box that helps you construct formulas.

Figure 10 – Formula Bar

Overview of Workbooks
An Excel file is called a workbook. Each new workbook contains one blank worksheet (see Figure 11). You can
add additional worksheets or delete existing worksheets as needed. By default, a new workbook is named Book1
and the worksheet it contains is named Sheet1. Each worksheet consists of 1,048,576 rows (numbered 1 through
1,048,576) and 16,384 columns (labeled A through XFD). The box formed by the intersection of a row and a
column is called a cell. Cells are used to store data. Each cell is identified by its address which consists of its
column letter and row number (e.g., cell A1 is the cell in the first column and first row). A group of cells is
called a range. A range is identified by the addresses of the cells in the upper-left and lower-right corners of the
selected block of cells, separated by a colon (e.g., A1:C10). Only one cell can be active at a time. The active
cell has a green border around it and its address appears in the Name box on the left side of the Formula bar.
The row and column headers of the active cell appear in a different color to make it easier to identify. A
worksheet also has an invisible draw layer which holds charts, images, and diagrams.

Figure 11 – Worksheet

Creating Workbooks
When you start Excel 2013 and click Blank workbook on the Start screen, a new workbook opens in the program
window, ready for you to enter your data. You can also create a new workbook while Excel 2013 is running.
Each new workbook displays a default name (such as Book1, Book2, and so on) on the Title bar until you save
it with a more meaningful name.

To create a new workbook:

1. Click the File tab, and then click New. The New page of the Backstage view opens, displaying
thumbnails of the available templates (see Figure 12).
2. In the right pane, click Blank workbook. A new, blank workbook opens in a new window.
NOTE: You can also create a new workbook by pressing Ctrl+N.

Figure 12 – New Page of the Backstage View

Saving Workbooks
After creating a workbook, you can save it on your computer. Use the Save As command when you save a
workbook for the first time or if you want to save a copy of a workbook in a different location, with a different
file name, or in a different file format. Use the Save command to save changes to an existing workbook.

NOTE: Excel 2013’s file format is called Excel Workbook and is the same as Excel 2007 and 2010. This format has the
.xlsx file extension and is not backward compatible with Excel versions prior to 2007. You can use Excel 2013 to save a
workbook in the Excel 97-2003 Workbook format with the .xls file extension to make it compatible with earlier versions
of Excel, but you will not have access to all of Excel 2013’s features.

To save a workbook for the first time:

1. Click the File tab, and then click Save As. The Save As page of the Backstage view opens (see
Figure 13).
2. Click Computer in the center pane, and then click the Browse button or a recent folder in the
right pane.
 Figure 13 – Save As Page of the Backstage View

3. In the Save As dialog box, select a location to save the file, type a name in the File name box,
and then click the Save button (see Figure 14).
NOTE: By default, Excel 2013 workbooks are saved in the Excel Workbook format. To save a document in a different
format, click the Save as type arrow and select the desired file format from the list.

Figure 14 – Save as Dialog Box

To save changes to a workbook:
1. Do one of the following:
 Click the File tab, and then click Save.

 On the Quick Access toolbar, click the Save button .

 Press Ctrl+S.

Closing Workbooks
When you finish working on a workbook, you can close it, but keep the program window open to work on more
workbooks. If the workbook contains any unsaved changes, you will be prompted to save the changes before
closing it.

To close a workbook without exiting Excel:

1. Click the File tab, and then click Close. Or, press Ctrl+W.

Opening Workbooks
You can locate and open an existing workbook from the Start screen when Excel 2013 starts or from the Open
page of the Backstage view. The Start screen and the Open page also display a list of recently used workbooks
which you can quickly open by clicking them. Each workbook opens in its own window, making it easier to
work on two workbooks at once.

To open a workbook:
1. Click the File tab, and then click Open. Or, press Ctrl+O. The Open page of the Backstage
view opens, displaying a list of recently used workbooks in the right pane.
2. If the workbook you want is in the Recent Workbooks list, click its name to open it. Otherwise,
proceed to step 3.
3. Click Computer in the center pane, and then click the Browse button or a recent folder in the
right pane (see Figure 15).
Figure 15 – Open Page of the Backstage View

4. In the Open dialog box, locate and select the file that you want to open, and then click the Open
button (see Figure 16).

Figure 16 – Open Dialog Box

NOTE: When you open a workbook created with earlier versions of Excel in Excel 2013, the workbook opens
in compatibility mode (indicated on the Title bar) with some of the new features of Excel 2013 disabled. You
can easily convert the workbook to the Excel 2013 file format by clicking the Convert button on the Info page
of the Backstage view (see Figure 17).
Figure 17 – Convert Button on the Info Page of the Backstage View

Moving Around and Making Selections

This section covers how to perform basic tasks such as moving around worksheets and selecting cells, rows,
and columns.
Moving Around Worksheets
There are various ways to navigate through a worksheet. Using the mouse and the scroll bars, you can scroll
through the worksheet in any direction. Using the navigational keys on the keyboard, you can move from cell
to cell, move up or down one page at a time, or move to the first or last used cell in the worksheet (see Table
3). You can also navigate to a specific cell in the worksheet by entering its address in the Name box.
NOTE: Scrolling with the mouse does not change the location of the active cell. To change the active cell, you
must click a new cell after scrolling.

Table 3 – Navigation Keyboard Shortcuts

Key Action

Down arrow or Enter Moves the active cell one cell down.
Up arrow or Shift+Enter Moves the active cell one cell up.
Right arrow or Tab Moves the active cell one cell to the right.
Left arrow or Shift+Tab Moves the active cell one cell to the left.
Page Down Moves the active cell down one page.
Page Up Moves the active cell up one page.
Alt+Page Down Moves the active cell right one page.
Alt+Page Up Moves the active cell left one page.
Ctrl+Home Moves the active cell to cell A1.
Ctrl+End Moves the active cell to the last used cell in the worksheet.
Selecting Cells, Rows, and Columns
In order to work with a cell, you must first select it. When you want to work with more than one cell at a time,
you can quickly select ranges, rows, columns, or the entire worksheet.
To select a single cell:
1. Click the desired cell (see Figure 18).

Figure 18 – Active Cell

To select a range of cells:

1. Click the first cell that you want to include in the range, hold down the Shift key, and then click the last cell
in the range (see Figure 19). Or, drag from the first cell in the range to the last cell.
NOTE: When a range is selected, every cell in the range is highlighted, except for the active cell. You can deselect a range
by pressing any arrow key or by clicking any cell in the worksheet.

To select nonadjacent cells or ranges:

1. Select the first cell or range, hold down the Ctrl key, and then select the other cells or ranges (see Figure 20).

Figure 19 – Selected Range Figure 20 – Selected Nonadjacent Ranges

To select a single row or column:
1. Click the header of the row or column that you want to select (see Figure 21 and Figure 22).
NOTE: When a row or column is selected, every cell in the row or column is highlighted, except for the active cell. You
can deselect a row or column by pressing any arrow key or by clicking any cell in the worksheet.

Figure 21 – Selected Row Figure 22 – Selected Column

To select multiple adjacent rows or columns:

1. Click the header of the first row or column that you want to select, hold down the Shift key, and then click
the header of the last row or column. Or, drag across the headers of the rows or columns that you want to select.

To select multiple nonadjacent rows or columns:

1. Hold down the Ctrl key, and then click the headers of the rows or columns that you want to select.

To select all cells in a worksheet:

1. Click the Select All button in the upper-left corner of the worksheet (see Figure 23). Or, press Ctrl+A.

Figure 23 – Select All Button

Editing Worksheets
After creating a workbook, you can start adding data to a worksheet. If you need to make changes, you can
easily edit the data to correct errors, update information, or remove information you no longer need.

Entering Data
You can add data by entering it directly in a cell or by using the Formula bar. A cell can contain a maximum of
32,767 characters and can hold any of three basic types of data: text, numbers, or formulas.

NOTE: If you make a mistake while entering data, simply press the Backspace key to delete all or a portion of your entry
and enter the correct data.

Entering Text
You can enter text in a worksheet to serve as labels for values, headings for columns, or instructions about the
worksheet. Text is defined as any combination of letters and numbers. Text automatically aligns to the left in a
cell. If you enter text that is longer than its column’s current width, the excess characters appear in the next cell
to the right, as long as that cell is empty (see Figure 24). If the adjacent cell is not empty, the long text entry
appears truncated (see Figure 25). The characters are not actually deleted and will appear if the width of the
column is adjusted to accommodate the long text entry.

Figure 24 – Overflowing Text Entry Figure 25 – Truncated Text Entry

To enter text:
1. Select the cell in which you want to enter text.
2. Type the desired text, and then press the Enter key.

Figure 26 – Cell with Line Breaks

NOTE: To enter a line break in a cell, press Alt+Enter (see Figure 26).

Entering Numbers
Numeric entries contain only numbers and are automatically aligned to the right in a cell. Numbers can exist as
independent values, or they can be used in formulas to calculate other values. You can enter whole numbers
(such as 5 or 1,000), decimals (such as 0.25 or 5.15), negative numbers (such as -10 or -5.5), percentages (such
as 20% or 1.5%), and currency values (such as $0.25 or $20.99).

NOTE: A number that does not fit within a column is displayed as a series of pound signs (#####). To
accommodate the number, increase the column width.
To enter a number:
1. Select the cell in which you want to enter the number.
2. Type the desired number, and then press the Enter key.
Entering Dates and Times
Excel treats dates and times as special types of numeric values.

To enter a date:
1. Select the cell in which you want to enter the date.
2. Type the month, day, and year, with each number separated by a forward slash (/) or a hyphen (-
), and then press the Enter key.

To enter a time:
1. Select the cell in which you want to enter the time.
2. Type the hour, a colon (:), and the minutes, press the Spacebar, type a for A.M. or p for P.M.,
and then press the Enter key.
Editing Data
If a cell contains a long entry and you only want to change a few characters, it is faster to edit the data than to
retype the entire entry. You can edit the contents of a cell directly in the cell or by using the Formula bar.
To edit data:
1. Double-click the cell that contains the data you want to edit. The cursor (a blinking vertical line)
appears in the cell in the location that you double-clicked.
2. To insert characters, click where you want to make changes, and then type the new characters.
NOTE: You can also move the cursor by pressing the Home, End, or arrow keys.
3. To delete characters, click where you want to make changes, and then press the Backspace or
Delete key.
NOTE: Pressing the Backspace key deletes the character to the left of the cursor; pressing the Delete key deletes the
character to the right of the cursor.
4. When you are finished, press the Enter key.
NOTE: If you are editing data and decide not to keep your edits, press the Esc key to return the cell to its previous state.

Replacing Data
You can replace the entire contents of a cell with new data. Any formatting applied to the cell remains in place
and is applied to the new data.

To replace data:
1. Select the cell that contains the data you want to replace.
2. Type the new data, and then press the Enter key.

Deleting Data
You can delete the entire contents of a cell if the data is no longer needed. Deleting data does not remove any
formatting applied to the cell.

To delete data:
1. Select the cell that contains the data you want to delete, and then press the Delete key.

Moving and Copying Cells

When editing a worksheet, you may want to duplicate a cell in another location or remove (cut) a cell from its
original location and place it in a new location. A copied cell can be pasted multiple times; a cut cell can be
pasted only once.

NOTE: Cut or copied data is stored on the Clipboard, a temporary storage area. You can access it by clicking
the dialog box launcher in the Clipboard group on the Home tab of the Ribbon (see Figure 27).

To move or copy a cell:

1. Select the cell that you want to move or copy.
 2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, do one of the following:
 To move the cell, click the Cut button. Or, press Ctrl+X.

 To copy the cell, click the Copy button. Or, press Ctrl+C.
3. Select the cell where you want to paste the cut or copied cell.

4. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the Paste button . Or, press Ctrl+V.
NOTE: When you cut or copy cells, a marquee (scrolling dotted line) appears around the cells. You can remove the
marquee by pressing the Esc key (see Figure 28).

Figure 27 – Clipboard Group on the Home Tab Figure 28 – Cells with Marquee
Using Paste Special
The Paste Special command is a very useful editing feature. It allows you to control which aspect of the copied
cell to paste into the target cell. For example, you can choose to paste only the copied cell’s formula, only the
result of the formula, only the cell’s formatting, etc. You must copy to use the Paste Special command; when
you cut, the Paste Special command is not available.

To use the Paste Special command:

1. Select the cell that contains the value, formula, or formatting you want to copy.

2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the Copy button .
3. Select the cell where you want to paste the value, formula, or formatting.
4. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the Paste arrow and select the desired option
from the menu (see Figure 29).
NOTE: Pointing to a command on the Paste menu displays its name in a ScreenTip. You can access more
options by clicking Paste Special at the bottom of the menu.
Figure 29 – Paste Menu
Clearing Cells
You can clear a cell to remove its contents, formats, or comments. When clearing a cell, you must specify
whether to remove one, two, or all three of these elements from the cell.
To clear a cell:
1. Select the cell that you want to clear.
2. On the Home tab, in the Editing group, click the Clear button and select the desired
option from the menu (see Figure 30).

Figure 30 – Clear Menu

Undoing and Redoing Changes
Whenever you make a mistake, you can easily reverse it with the Undo command. After you have undone one
or more actions, the Redo command becomes available and allows you to restore the undone actions.
To undo an action:

1. On the Quick Access toolbar, click the Undo button . Or, press Ctrl+Z.

To redo an action:

1. On the Quick Access toolbar, click the Redo button . Or, press Ctrl+Y.
Formatting Worksheets
Excel 2013 includes a number of features that can be used to easily format a worksheet.
Formatting enhances the appearance of a worksheet and makes it look professional.

Formatting Cells and Cell Contents

You can format cells and cell contents by changing the font, font size, font style, and font color, as well as
adding cell borders and changing the background color of cells. Since formatting is attached to the cell and not
to the entry, you can format a cell before or after you enter the data. The Font group on the Home tab of the
Ribbon contains the most commonly used formatting commands (see Figure 31). You can also format cells
using the Format Cells dialog box which can be opened by clicking the dialog box launcher in the Font
group.

Figure 31 – Font Group on the Home Tab

Changing the Font and Font Size

A font defines the overall appearance or style of text lettering. Font size controls the height of the font. The
default font in new Excel 2013 workbooks is Calibri; the default font size is 11 points.

To change the font:

1. Select the cell that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Font arrow and select the desired font from the
list (see Figure 32).
To change the font size:
1. Select the cell that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Font Size arrow and select the desired font size
from the list (see Figure 33). If a font size you want is not listed in the Font Size list, click in the Font
Size box, type the desired number, and then press the Enter key.

NOTE: You can also change the font size by clicking the Increase Font Size button or Decrease Font Size button
in the Font group on the Home tab of the Ribbon.
 Figure 32 – Font List Figure 33 – Font Size List

Changing the Font Color and Fill Color

You can change the font color of cell contents or the background color of cells to emphasize important data or
add visual impact to a worksheet.

To change the font color:

1. Select the cell that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Font Color button to apply the most recently used
color, or click the Font Color arrow and select a different color from the color palette (see Figure 34).

To change the fill color:

1. Select the cell that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Fill Color button to apply the most recently used
color, or click the Fill Color arrow and select a different color from the color palette (see Figure 35).
NOTE: You can remove the fill color from a selected cell by clicking the Fill Color arrow, and then clicking No Fill on
the palette.

Figure 34 – Font Color Palette Figure 35 – Fill Color Palette

Applying Font Styles
You can apply one or more font styles to emphasize important data in a worksheet. Font styles are attributes
such as bold, italic, and underline. Bolding makes the characters darker. Italicizing slants the characters to the
right. Underlining adds a line below the cell contents, not the cell itself.

To bold or italicize data:

1. Select the cell that you want to format.

2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Bold button or Italic button .

To underline data:
1. Select the cell that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, do one of the following (see Figure 36): To apply
a single underline, click the Underline button.
To apply a double underline, click the Underline arrow, and then click Double Underline on the menu.

Figure 36 – Underline Menu

NOTE: The Bold, Italic, and Underline buttons are toggles. If you select a cell to which one of these formats
has been applied, and then click the corresponding button, that format is removed.
Adding Cell Borders
You can add borders to any or all sides of a single cell or range. Excel 2013 includes several predefined border
styles that you can use.

To add cell borders:

1. Select the cell to which you want to add borders.
2. On the Home tab, in the Font group, click the Borders button to apply the most recently
used border, or click the Borders arrow and select a different border from the menu (see Figure
37).
NOTE: You can remove all borders from a selected cell by clicking the Borders arrow, and then clicking No
Border on the menu.
Figure 37 – Borders Menu

Formatting Numbers
You can apply number formats to cells containing numbers to better reflect the type of data they represent. For
example, you can display a numeric value as a percentage, currency, date or time, etc. The Number group on
the Home tab of the Ribbon contains the most commonly used commands for formatting numbers (see Figure
38). You can also format numbers using the Number tab of the Format Cells dialog box which can be opened
by clicking the dialog box launcher in the Number group.
NOTE: Formatting does not change the actual value stored in a cell. The actual value is used in calculations and is displayed
in the Formula bar when the cell is selected.

Figure 38 – Number Group on the Home Tab

To format numbers:
1. Select the cell that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Number group, do one of the following (see Figure 38):
 Click the Accounting Number
Format button to display the number with a dollar sign, comma separators, and two decimal places.
NOTE: You can select a different currency symbol by clicking the Accounting Number Format arrow and
selecting the desired symbol from the menu.

 Click the Percent Style button to convert the number to a percentage and display it
with a percent sign and no decimal places.

 Click the Comma Style button to display the number with comma separators and two
decimal places.
NOTE: You can access additional number formats by clicking the Number Format arrow and selecting the desired
option from the menu (see Figure 39).

Figure 39 – Number Format Menu

To change the number of decimal places:
1. Select the cell that you want to format.
2. On the Home tab, in the Number group, do one of the following (see Figure 38):

 Click the Increase Decimal button to increase the number of decimal places.

 Click the Decrease Decimal button to decrease the number of decimal places.

Positioning Cell Contents

You can change the alignment, indentation, and orientation of cell contents, wrap the contents within a cell, and
merge cells. The Alignment group on the Home tab of the Ribbon contains the most commonly used commands
for positioning cell contents (see Figure 40). You can also position cell contents using the Alignment tab of the
Format Cells dialog box which can be

opened by clicking the dialog box launcher in the Alignment group.

Figure 40 – Alignment Group on the Home Tab

Aligning Data
By default, Excel 2013 aligns numbers to the right and text to the left, and all cells use bottom alignment. The
Alignment group on the Home tab of the Ribbon includes six alignment buttons that can be used to change the
horizontal and vertical alignment of cell contents.

 The Align Left button aligns the cell contents with the left edge of the cell.

 The Center button centers the cell contents horizontally within the cell.

 The Align Right button aligns the cell contents with the right edge of the cell.

 The Top Align button aligns the cell contents with the top edge of the cell.

 The Middle Align button centers the cell contents vertically within the cell.

 The Bottom Align button aligns the cell contents with the bottom edge of the cell.
To align data:
1. Select the cell that contains the data you want to align.
2. On the Home tab, in the Alignment group, click the desired alignment button.
Indenting Data
Indenting moves data away from the edge of the cell. This is often used to indicate a level of less importance
(such as a subtopic) (see Figure 41).

Figure 41 – Indented Data

To indent data:
1. Select the cell that contains the data you want to indent.

2. On the Home tab, in the Alignment group, click the Increase Indent button . Each click
increments the amount of indentation by one character.

NOTE: You can decrease the indentation of data by clicking the Decrease Indent button in the Alignment group on
the Home tab of the Ribbon.

Rotating Data
You can rotate data clockwise, counterclockwise, or vertically within a cell. This is often used to label narrow
columns or to add visual impact to a worksheet.
To rotate data:
1. Select the cell that contains the data you want to rotate.
2. On the Home tab, in the Alignment group, click the Orientation button and select the desired
option from the menu (see Figure 42). The row height automatically adjusts to fit the rotated data (see
Figure 43).

Figure 43 – Rotated Data

Figure 42 – Orientation Menu

NOTE: You can restore the data to its default orientation by clicking the Orientation button and selecting the currently
selected orientation.

Wrapping Data
Wrapping displays data on multiple lines within a cell. The number of wrapped lines depends on the width of
the column and the length of the data.
To wrap data:
1. Select the cell that contains the data you want to wrap.

2. On the Home tab, in the Alignment group, click the Wrap Text button . The row height
automatically adjusts to fit the wrapped data (see Figure 44).
NOTE: You can restore the data to its original format by clicking the Wrap Text button again.

Figure 44 – Wrapped Data

Merging Cells
Merging combines two or more adjacent cells into one larger cell. This is a great way to create labels that span
several columns.

NOTE: If the cells you intend to merge have data in more than one cell, only the data in the upper-left cell remains after
you merge the cells.

To merge cells:
1. Select the cells that you want to merge.
2. On the Home tab, in the Alignment group, click the Merge & Center button to merge the
selected cells into one cell and center the data, or click the Merge & Center arrow and select one of the
following options (see Figure 45):
 Merge Across: Merges each row of the selected cells into a larger cell.
 Merge Cells: Merges the selected cells into one cell.

Figure 45 – Merge & Center Menu

NOTE: You can split a merged cell by clicking the Merge & Center arrow, and then clicking Unmerge Cells
on the menu.
Copying Cell Formatting
You can copy the formatting of a specific cell and apply it to other cells in the worksheet. This can save you
time and effort when multiple formats have been applied to a cell and you want to format additional cells with
all the same formats.
To copy cell formatting:
1. Select the cell that has the formatting you want to copy.

2. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the Format Painter button . The mouse

pointer changes to a plus sign with a paintbrush .

3. Select the cell to which you want to apply the copied formatting.
NOTE: If you want to apply the copied formatting to more than area, double-click the Format Painter button
instead of single-clicking it. This keeps the Format Painter active until you press the Esc key.
Applying Cell Styles
A cell style is a set of formatting characteristics (such as font, font size, font color, cell borders, and fill color)
that you can use to quickly format the cells in a worksheet. In addition to saving you time, cell styles can help
you keep formatting consistent throughout a worksheet. Excel 2013 includes several predefined styles that can
be used to format headings, numbers, notes, etc.
To apply a cell style:
1. Select the cell to which you want to apply a style.
2. On the Home tab, in the Styles group, click the Cell Styles button and select the desired style
from the gallery (see Figure 46).

Figure 46 – Cell Styles Gallery

Getting Help
You can use the Excel Help system to get assistance on any topic or task. While some information is installed
with Excel 2013 on your computer, most of the information resides online and is more up-to-date. You need an
Internet connection to access resources from Office.com.
To get help:

1. Click the Microsoft Excel Help button on the right side of the Title bar. The Excel Help
window opens, displaying general help topics (see Figure 47).
NOTE: Clicking the Help button in the upper-right corner of a dialog box displays topics related to that dialog box
in the Excel Help window.
2. Click any link to display the corresponding information.

3. To navigate between help topics, click the Back button , Forward button , or Home

button on the toolbar.

4. To print a help topic, click the Print button on the toolbar.

5. To search for a specific topic, type one or more keywords in the Search box, and then press the
Enter key to display the search results.
6. To switch between online and offline help, click the Change Help Collection arrow next to
Excel Help at the top of the window, and then click Excel Help from Office.com or Excel Help from
your computer on the menu.

7. To close the Excel Help window, click the Close button in the upper-right corner of the
window.
 Figure 47 – Excel Help Window

Exiting Excel
When you finish using Excel 2013, you should exit the program to free up system resources. To exit Excel
2013:

1. Click the Close button in the upper-right corner of the program window.