Unit-II

Machines and Measuring Instruments

DC MOTOR

A DC motor is an electromechanical energy conversion device, which converts electrical energy input into the
mechanical energy output.

The operation of the DC motor is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, a mechanical force acts on the conductor.

Fleming left hand rule:

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, the conductor experiences a force
perpendicular to both the field and the current flow’s direction. Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to find the direction
of the force acting on the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left-hand
perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the force experienced by the conductor,
the forefinger points towards the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the direction of
the electric current. The direction of this force is given by Fleming's left-hand rule and its magnitude is given by F = BIL.
Where, B = magnetic flux density, I = current and L = length of the conductor within the magnetic field.

Construction of a DC Motor

Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Motor

A DC motor consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke

The outer frame of a DC motor is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel is known as yoke. The yoke
serves following two purposes

 It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.

 It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
Magnetic Field System

The magnetic field system of a DC motor is the stationary part of the machine. It produces the main magnetic flux in
the motor. It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to the yoke and field winding wound around the pole
core. The field system of DC motor has salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a pole shoe
having a curved surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes

 It provides support to the field coils.

 It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.

The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each other to reduce the eddy
current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one another such that when the current flows through the
coils, alternate north and south poles are produced.

Armature Core

The armature core of DC motor is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field poles. It has slots on its outer
surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots. The armature core is a made up of soft steel laminations
which are insulated from each other and tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed
directly to the shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated armature core is used to
reduce the eddy current loss.

Armature Winding

The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are suitably connected. This
connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature winding. There are two types of armature windings are
used – wave winding and lap winding.

Commutator

A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the direct current input to the motor from the DC source into
alternating current in the armature winding. The commutator is made of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated
from each other and from the shaft by mica sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the
armature coils.

Brushes

The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to inject the current from the DC source into the armature
windings. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal box called brush holder. The pressure exerted
by the brushes on the commutator is adjusted and maintained at constant value by means of springs. The current
flows from the external DC source to the armature winding through the carbon brushes and commutator.

Working of DC Motor

Consider a two pole DC motor as shown in the figure. When the DC motor is connected to an external source of DC
supply, the field coils are excited developing alternate N and S poles and a current flows through the armature
windings.
All the armature conductors under N pole carry current in one direction (say into the plane of the paper), whereas all
the conductors under S pole carry current in the opposite direction (say out of the plane of the paper). As each
conductor carrying a current and is placed in a magnetic field, hence a mechanical force acts on it.

By applying Fleming’s left hand rule, it can be seen that the force on each conductor is tending to move the armature
in anticlockwise direction. The force on all the conductors add together to exert a torque which make the armature
rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the current in the conductor is reversed
and at the same time it comes under the influence of next pole of opposite polarity. As a result of this, the direction
of force on the conductor remains the same. Therefore, the motor being rotating in the same direction.

Some examples of applications in which DC motors are still used are:

 Cranes
 Conveyors
 Pumps
 Fans
 Machine tools
 Air compressors
 Toys
 Motor starters in cars

DC Generator
A DC generator is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts mechanical power into DC electrical
power through the process of electromagnetic induction.

A DC generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e. when the magnetic flux linking a conductor
changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor. A DC generator has a field winding and an armature winding.

The EMF induced in the armature winding of a DC generator is alternating one and is converted into direct voltage
using a commutator mounted on the shaft of the generator. The armature winding of DC Generator is placed on the
rotor whereas the field winding is placed on the stator.

Fleming right rule

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right-hand
perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the motion of the conductor relative to the
magnetic field, the forefinger points towards the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards
the direction of the induced current.

Construction of a DC Generator
Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Generator

A DC generator consists of six main parts, which are as follows

Yoke

The outer frame of a DC generator is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel is known as yoke. The
yoke serves following two purposes

 It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.

 It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

Magnetic Field System

The magnetic field system of a DC generator is the stationary part of the machine. It produces the main magnetic flux
in the generator. It consists of an even number of pole cores bolted to the yoke and field winding wound around the
pole core. The field system of DC generator has salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a
pole shoe having a curved surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes

 It provides support to the field coils.

 It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of it.

The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each other to reduce the eddy
current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one another such that when the current flows through the
coils, alternate north and south poles are produced in the direction of rotation.

Armature Core

The armature core of DC generator is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field poles. It has slots on its outer
surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots. The armature core is a made up of soft iron laminations
which are insulated from each other and tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed
directly to the shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated armature core is used to
reduce the eddy current loss.

Armature Winding

The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are suitably connected. This
connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature winding. There are two types of armature windings are
used – wave winding and lap winding.

Commutator

A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating emf generated in the armature winding into the
direct voltage across the load terminals. The commutator is made of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from
each other and from the shaft by mica sheets. Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature
coils.

Brushes

The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to collect the current from the armature winding. The
brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal box called brush holder. The pressure exerted by the brushes
on the commutator is adjusted and maintained at constant value by means of springs. The current flows from the
armature winding to the external circuit through the commutator and carbon brushes.

Working of a DC Generator

Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown in the figure), in this a single turn loop ‘ABCD’ is rotating clockwise
in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed. When the loop rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil sides
‘AB’ and ‘CD’ changes continuously. This change in flux linkage induces an EMF in coil sides and the induced
EMF in one coil side adds the induced EMF in the other.
The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows

 When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the movement of coil sides is parallel to
the magnetic flux.

 When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic flux and hence, a small
EMF is generated.

 When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the magnetic flux, therefore the
generated EMF is maximum.

 When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an angle, thus a reduced EMF is
generated in the coil sides.

 When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and are moving parallel to the magnetic
flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the coil.

 At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence the polarity of generated
EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will generate in this direction at position-7 and zero when at position-
1. This cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.

It is clear that the generated EMF in the loop is alternating one. It is because any coil side (say AB) has EMF in one
direction when under the influence of N-pole and in the other direction when under the influence of S-pole. Hence,
when a load is connected across the terminals of the generator, an alternating current will flow through it. Now, by
using a commutator, this alternating emf generated in the loop can be converted into direct voltage. We then have a
DC generator.

Applications

 These are used in speed regulation tests.

 These generators operate in a stable condition with any change in field excitation. Therefore, they are
also used in supplying power to the DC motors, whose speed being to be controlled.
 The rising characteristics of a series DC generator makes it suitable for voltage boosting applications in
the feeders in the various types of distribution systems.
 A series DC generator has the tendency to supply constant load current. Hence, several series generators
can be connected in series to provide high voltage DC power transmission at constant load current.
 The series generators also find applications in series arc lightening.
 Transformer
Definition: A transformer is a static electrical device that transmits AC power from one circuit to another at a
constant frequency, but the voltage level may be changed, implying the voltage can be increased or decreased
depending on the requirement .A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction to step up or step
down voltage. Transformer either increases AC voltage (Step-up transformer) or decreases AC voltage (Step-down
transformer). Transformer which is normally utilized in the transmission and distribution of alternating current power
is fundamentally a voltage control device. Transformer are used for a wide range of purposes, including increasing
the voltage from electric generators to enable long-distance transmission of electricity and decreasing the voltage of
conventional power circuits to run low-voltage devices like doorbells and toy electric trains.
Principle of Single Phase Transformer
The single-phase transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. Typically,
mutual induction between primary and secondary windings is responsible for the transformer operation in an
electrical transformer.
Working of Single Phase Transformer

A transformer is a static device that transfers electric power in one circuit to another circuit of the same frequency. It
consists of primary and secondary windings. This transformer operates on the principle of mutual inductance.

When the primary of a transformer is connected to an AC supply, the current flows in the coil and the magnetic field
build-up. This condition is known as mutual inductance and the flow of current is as per the Faraday’s Law of
electromagnetic induction. As the current increases from zero to its maximum value, the magnetic field strengthens
and is given by dɸ/dt.

This electromagnet forms the magnetic lines of force and expands outward from the coil forming a path of magnetic
flux. The turns of both windings get linked by this magnetic flux. The strength of a magnetic field generated in the
core depends on the number of turns in the winding and the amount of current. The magnetic flux and current are
directly proportional to each other.

As the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, it passes through the secondary winding, inducing voltage across
it. The Faraday’s Law is used to determine the voltage induced across the secondary coil and it is given by

N. dɸ/dt

where, ‘N’ is the number of coil turns

The frequency is the same in primary and secondary windings.
Thus, we can say that the voltage induced is the same in both the windings as the same magnetic flux links both
the coils together. Also, the total voltage induced is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil.

Construction of Single Phase Transformer

A simple single-phase transformer has each winding being wound cylindrically on a soft iron limb separately to
provide a necessary magnetic circuit, which is commonly referred to as “transformer core”. It offers a path for the
flow of the magnetic field to induce voltage between two windings.
 As seen in the figure above, the two windings are not close enough to have an efficient magnetic coupling. Thus,
converging and increasing the magnetic circuit near the coils can enhance the magnetic coupling between primary
and secondary windings. Thin steel laminations shall be employed to prevent power losses from the core.
Based on how the windings are wound around the central steel laminated core, the transformer construction is
divided into two types

Core-type Transformer

In this type of construction, only half of the windings are wound cylindrically around each leg of a transformer to
enhance magnetic coupling as shown in the figure below. This type of construction ensures that magnetic lines of
force flow across both the windings simultaneously. The main disadvantage of the core-type transformer is the
leakage flux that occurs due to the flow of a small proportion of magnetic lines of force outside the core.

Shell-type Transformer
In this type of transformer construction, the primary and secondary windings are positioned cylindrically on the
center limb resulting in twice the cross-sectional area than the outer limbs. There are two closed magnetic paths in
this type of construction and the outer limb has the magnetic flux ɸ/2 flowing. Shell type transformer overcomes
leakage flux, reduces core losses and increases efficiency.

Applications

The applications of a single-phase transformer are mentioned below.

 To step-down long-distance signals to support both residential and light-commercial electronic devices
 In television sets for voltage regulation
 To step-up power in home inverters
 To supply power to non-urban areas
 To isolate two circuits electrically as primary and secondary are placed far from each other
Alternator
An alternator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in the form is
alternating current AC. It is also known as a synchronous generator or AC generator (there are other
types of AC generators). It generates a specific voltage at a specific frequency.
 Synchronous generator (alternator) converts the input mechanical power into output electrical power
Construction of Synchronous Generator
Unlike DC generator that has rotating armature winding and a stationary magnetic field. The alternator is
made of a stationary armature winding and a rotating magnetic field. The field windings are placed in the
rotor while the armature windings are placed in the stator.
The rotor field windings are connected to an external DC supply with the help of slip rings and brushes.
A prime mover rotates the rotor using a pulley and belt. The rotating rotor generates changing magnetic
field. This varying field generates end in the armature windings and supplies it to the load or circuit
through its terminals.

Components of Alternator or AC Generator

The alternator is made of different stationary and moving components each serving its own purpose.
The components of the alternator are given below
Rotor
The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. It is made in a cylindrical shape that has copper windings
also known as field winding. The field windings are electromagnets that generate the necessary rotating
magnetic field when rotated. Rotor has a shaft that is rotated using a drive belt pulley system. The source
that rotates the rotor is called a prime mover. It can be anything such as an engine, water turbine, wind
turbine, etc.
There are two types of rotors used in alternators or synchronous generators.
 Salient Pole Type
 Cylindrical Pole Type
Salient Pole Type: it is a type of rotor that has a large number of protruding or projecting poles mounted
on a core made of magnetic laminated steel or cast iron. The term salient refers to protruding or projecting
as shown in the figure below.
The salient poles are made of laminated steel or iron cast of good magnetic properties to reduce the Eddy
current losses. The pole shoes have multiple slots for damper winding that helps in preventing haunting.
The field coils are wounded across the poles and then connected in series. The field coil is energized by
connecting its ends to a separate DC source through a pair of slip rings. The slip ring and brushes are
mounted on the shaft of the rotor.

The salient pole rotor has a large diameter and small axial length. They are used in low and medium-speed
alternators such as in hydropower stations. They are not suitable for high speed due to the increased
windage loss at high speed due to their design (salient poles). Its design does not have enough mechanical
strength to handle high speed.
Cylindrical Type: such type of rotor has very few 2 or 4 poles. It is made up of a laminated steel cylinder.
The cylindrical rotor has slots for field winding that is connected in series. The poles are left unslotted as
shown in the figure below. Since the poles are not protruding out of the core, it is also known as a non-
salient pole or round rotor. it has very few and non-salient poles, therefore its rotor diameter size is small
while its axial length is longer than the salient pole rotor.
The cylindrical design provides mechanical strength, robustness and uniform distribution of magnetic flux.
It has lower windage loss. Therefore it is suitable for high-speed, noise-less operation. They are designed
for high-speed alternators such as in thermal power stations

Stator
A stator is the stationary part of an electrical machine. In an alternator, it is used for holding the armature
winding that generates the induced emf. The core itself is made of laminated steel or cast iron of good
magnetic quality to reduce Eddy current losses. The rotor that carries the field windings rotates inside the
stator without physically touching it.

On the contrary, the DC generator’s stator holds the magnets to generate the necessary magnetic field. The
alternator’s stationary armature winding has huge advantages over the DC rotating armature as given below

 Rotary armature requires brushes that have a larger voltage drop at high voltage.
 The fraction and sparks from brushes damage and reduce their life span as well as require frequency
maintenance.
 The stationary armature has no moving parts, thus output current is directly drawn from its terminal
without the brushes and the included losses.
 It is simpler to design and insulate stationary armature winding for high voltages.
 The armature winding can be braced mechanically better to withstand the electromagnetic and
centrifugal forces.
 Small DC voltage can be used to safely energize the rotor field winding using slip rings.
Yoke
The yoke is the outermost part of the alternator that is used to provide mechanical support and protect the
inner parts from environmental conditions that can damage it.
Slip Ring and Brushes
A slip ring is a component that transfers electrical power between stationary and rotating parts of a
machine. In an alternator, it is used to transfer DC power to the rotor field windings from a DC battery
using brushes that slide over the slip ring. It is made of concentric discs placed on the shaft of the rotor. As
it supplies DC, the alternator only requires two slip rings.
The DC current flow through the field winding generating the magnetic field that varies with the rotation of
the rotor.
Diode Rectifier
Diode rectifier is two terminal semiconductor component used for the conversion of alternating current AC
into unidirectional direct current DC. There are 6 diodes used two per phase to convert into smooth DC.
Remember, it is only used in alternators that require DC output such as in automobiles and submarine
Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator (AVR) is used to monitor the output of the alternator and adjust its voltage by adjusting
the energizing current to the rotor. The alternator’s output is feedback into the rotor through the voltage
regulator. It maintains constant output voltage regardless of the rotor speed of the alternator.
Pulley and Belt
A pulley and belt are used to connect the rotor with the prime mover such as the engine or turbine. It
rotates the rotor at high speed to create a varying magnetic field.
Drive End Bearing
Bearing is used to reduce friction and transfer maximum energy to the shaft from the pulley. It enables
smooth rotation.
Related Posts
Working of Alternator
An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of the Faraday law of electromagnetic
induction just like in other AC generators. It states that whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an
EMF (electromotive force) or current is induced in the conductor which can be found using the EMF
equation of an alternator. In other words, a conductor placed in a varying magnetic field also experiences
EMF and it is used in alternators.
The direction of the induced current is determined by Fleming’s right-hand rule. If we arrange the thumb,
forefinger and middle finger of the right hand, the thumb direction of motion, the forefinger represents
induced current and the middle finger represents the direction of magnetic field lines. Therefore, they are
all mutually perpendicular.

The conductor is formed into a coil of multiple turns called armature winding. In the alternator, the armature is
stationary. Therefore, it is placed inside the stator. The field windings are used for generating a magnetic field.
Since the field is moving, field windings are placed inside the rotor. The field windings are energized through slip
rings to form an electromagnet having north and south poles.

The rotor rotates with the help of a prime mover. The magnetic field poles also rotate at the same speed as
the rotor. Thus the varying magnetic flux cuts the armature winding inducing current in the windings.
The induced EMF depends on the alignment of the magnetic field and armature winding. It is maximum
when the armature winding and the magnetic field lines are perpendicular and it is zero when it is in the
same alignment. As the magnetic field rotates, the output swings between zero and maximum as in
alternating current AC.
The stator has separate armature windings for each phase placed at exactly 120° displacement. Therefore
the induced EMF is 120° apart as in a 3-phase alternating current as shown below.

The frequency of the induced EMF depends on the speed as well as the number of poles. It is given by

f = NP/120
Where
 f = frequency of induced EMF
 N = rotor speed in RPM
 P = number of poles
Advantages
Here are some advantages of an alternator
 An alternator has a stationary armature thus the output is taken directly from its terminals without
brushes and slip rings.
 There are no electric sparks and wear tear due to friction between the slip ring and brushes, thus it
requires less maintenance.
 There is no brush’s voltage drop that increases with an increase in the output voltage.
 It has higher efficiency and higher voltage than a DC generator.
 The rotor field winding is powered by low DC voltage, thus they last longer.
 It has a lower weight, is more compact, and is smaller in size.
 Its design allows it to be used for high-speed and smooth operation.
 It uses a diode rectifier that has a lower voltage drop than a commutator with noiseless and smooth
DC output.
 It has a simple and robust design and cheaper than a DC generator.
Disadvantages
Alternators do not have many disadvantages. However, here are some disadvantages of an alternator.
 It requires an efficient cooling system as the large current can overheat it which reduces its
performance
 It requires a diode rectifier to convert AC into DC whereas the generator can generate both AC as
well as DC.
Applications of Alternator
An alternator is mainly used for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy in various applications
such as:
 In automobiles
 In locomotives
 Power generation plants
 In Marine and navy boats
Three Phase Induction Motor
The three phase induction motor is one of the A.C. motors, which is widely used for various purposes in
industry. These motors never run at a Synchronous speed but a little less than the synchronous speed. The
speed of these motors depends upon the supply frequency.
Therefore, these motors are not generally used for speed control. However, we prefer D.C. motors
where large variations of speed are required. These motors are preferred in industry because they have low
price, simple & rugged construction, can be manufactured with characteristics to suit the industrial
requirement.
These motors differ from other types of motor, in that there is no electrical connection between the
rotor & supply. The required voltage & current are induced by induction from the stator winding that is
why, the name given is induction motor.
Image By – Electrical Technology

Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

It can be better understood if we see the construction of three phase induction motor which has two major
parts :

1. Stationary part, known as Stator

2. Rotating part, known as Rotor.

1. Stator

It is the stationary part of the motor. It has three main parts :

Frame or Yoke
It is the outer part of the three phase induction motor. Its main function of the frame is to support the stator
core & stator winding. It acts as a covering, and it provides protection & mechanical strength to all the
inner parts of the three phase induction motor.
Stator core
The main function of stator core is to carry the alternating flux. In order to reduce the eddy current loss, the
stator core is laminated. The core is made up of thin silicon steel laminations. These are insulated from
each other by varnish, the slots are cut on inner periphery of core stampings. The stator windings are placed
in these slots.
Stator windings
Stator winding is made up of super enamelled copper wire. Three phase windings are placed in the stator
core slots & six terminals are brought out. They may be star connected or may be delta connected. The
windings are connected in star at starting.

2. Rotor
It is a rotating part of the motor. It is mounted on the shaft. It consists of hollow laminated core having
slots on its outer periphery. The windings placed in these slots (rotor winding) may be one of the following
two types :

1. Squirrel cage rotor

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
1. Squirrel cage rotor

The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for carrying the rotor conductors.
The squirrel cage rotor consists of a aluminium, brass or copper bars. These aluminium, brass or copper
bars are called rotor conductors & are placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The rotor conductors
are permanently shorted by the copper, or aluminum rings called the end rings. To provide mechanical
strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring & hence form a complete closed circuit
resembling like a cage & hence got its name as squirrel cage induction motor.

2. Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor

The wound rotor consists a slotted armature. Insulated conductors are put in the slots & connected to form
a three phase double layer distributed winding similar to the stator winding. The rotor windings are
connected in star.
The open end of the start circuit are brought outside the rotor and connected to the insulated slip rings. The
slip rings are mounted on the shaft with brushes testing on them. The brushes are connected to three phase
variable resistors connected in star. The purpose of slip rings & brushes is to provide a means for
connecting external resistors in the circuit.

Principle of Operation of 3-Phase Induction Motor

The three phase induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When a three-phase
supply is given to three-phase winding of the motor, a magnetic field is produced which rotates at
synchronous speed. The rotating flux passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors which are at
rest. The rotor winding is short circuited, therefore, the current will flow in the rotor winding due to
induced emf & a magnetic field is setup.

Now these two magnetic field interact, a torque is produced. According to Lenz’s law under the influence
of this torque, the rotor starts rotating in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field.

The speed of the rotor will be always less than the speed of the field. The emf in the rotor is induced by the
law of electromagnetic induction, therefore, this motor is called induction motor.

Three Phase Induction Motor Advantages:

(i) It has simple and rugged construction.

(ii) It is relatively cheap.

(iii) It requires little maintenance.

(iv) It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.

(v) It has self starting torque.

PMMC Instrument Construction

The construction of the PMCC instrument can be done using several parts where the permanent magnet and
moving coils are essential parts. Each part of this instrument is discussed below.

PMMC Construction
Moving Coil

It is an essential component of the PMMC instrument. The designing of this coil can be done by wounding
copper coils to a rectangular block among the magnetic poles. It is made with Aluminum and the
rectangular block can be called Aluminum former rotated into the jeweled bearing. So it permits the coil to
turn freely.

Once the current is supplied throughout these coils, then it gets a deflection within the field, then it is used
to find out the voltage or current magnitude. The aluminum is a non-metallic former, used to measure the
current whereas the metallic former including high electromagnetic damping is used to calculate the
voltage.

Magnet System

The PMMC instrument includes two high-intensity magnets otherwise a ‘U’ shaped magnet-based design.
The designing of these magnets can be done with Alnico & Alcomax for higher superior field intensity &
coercive force. In several designs, an extra soft iron cylinder can be arranged among the magnetic poles to
create the field identical; while decreasing air reluctance for increasing the strength of the field.

Control

In the PMMC device, the torque can be controlled due to the springs which are fabricated with
phosphorous bronze. These springs are arranged among the two jewel bearings. The spring provides the
lane to the lead current to supply in & out of the moving coil. The torque can be controlled mainly due to
the delay of the ribbon.

Damping Torque

Damping torque can be generated within the PMMC instrument using the aluminum core’s movement
within the magnetic field.

So the pointer can be kept at rest after the early deflection. It assists in the right measurement devoid of
fluctuations. Because of the movement of the coil within the magnetic field, eddy current can be generated
within the aluminum former. This generates the damping force otherwise torque to resist the motion of the
coil. Gradually the deflection of the pointer will be reduced and lastly, it will stop at a permanent position.

Pointer and Scale

In this instrument, the connection of the pointer can be done through the moving coil. It notices the moving
coil’s deflection. The magnitude of their derivation can be displayed on the scale. The pointer within the
instrument can be designed with lightweight material. Thus, it can be simply deflected through the coil’s
movement. Sometimes, the parallax error can occur within the device which is simply decreased by
properly arranging the pointer’s blade.

Working Principle of a PMMC Instrument

Whenever a current caring conductor is located within a magnetic field, then it experiences a force that is
perpendicular to the current & the field. Based on the rule of “Fleming left hand”, if the thumbnail of the
left hand, middle and forefinger are at 90 degrees with each other.
After that the magnetic field will be in the forefinger, flow of current will be across the middle finger and
finally, the force will be through the thumb finger.

Once the current flow within the coil on the aluminum former, the magnetic field can be generated in the
coil in proportion to the current flow.
The electromagnetic force throughout the fixed magnetic field from the permanent magnet generates the
deflection force within the coil. After that the spring generates the force to resist additional deflection;
therefore it helps to balance the pointer.
So damping force can be generated within the system through the aluminum core movement of the
magnetic field. It maintains the pointer stable to a point. Once it attains equilibrium by controlling &
deflection torque to provide accuracy in measurement.

What are the Different Reasons that Cause an Error in PMMC?

In a PMMC instrument, different errors can be occurred due to the temperature effects as well as getting
older of the instruments. The errors can be caused by the main parts of the instrument like the magnet,
effect of temperature, moving coil and the spring.

So, these errors can be reduced when the swamping resistance is connected in series using the moving coil.
Here, the swamping resistance is nothing but the resistor which includes less temperature coefficient. This
resistance can reduce the temperature effect on the moving coil.

Torque Equation

The equation involved in the PMCC instrument is the torque equation. The deflecting torque induces due to
the coil’s movement and this can be expressed with the equation shown below.

Td = NBLdl
Where,
‘N’ is the no. of turns in the coil
‘B’ is the density of flux within the air gap
‘L’ & ’d’ are vertical as well as horizontal lengths of the surface
‘I’ is the flow of current in the coil
G = NBLd
The restoring torque can be provided to the moving coil can be done with the spring and it can be
expressed as
Tc = Kθ (‘K’ is the spring constant)
Final deflection can be done through the equation Tc = Td
Substitute the values of Tc & Td in the above equation, then we can get
Kθ = NBLdl
We know that G = NBLd
Kθ = Gl
θ= Gl/K
I = (K/G) θ
From the above equation, we can conclude that the deflection torque can be directly proportional to the
flow of current in the coil.
Advantages of PMMC Instrument

The advantages are

 The scale in the instrument can be divided properly

 It generates no losses because of hysteresis.
 It uses less power
 It is not influenced by the stray magnetic field.
 High accuracy
 It is used as a voltmeter/ammeter with appropriate resistance.
 This instrument can measure the voltage & current with different ranges
 This instrument uses shelf shielding magnet so it is applicable in aerospace

Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument

The disadvantages are

 It works with only DC

 It is expensive compare with other alternative instruments
 It is delicate
 It shows an error because of the magnetism loss in permanent magnet

Applications of PMMC Instrument

The applications are

 Ammeter
 Galvanometer
 Ohmmeter
 Voltmeter

Moving Iron Instrument

A moving iron Instrument is a convenient measuring instrument used to determine the electric
current flowing in a circuit, and the voltage across the connected electronic device or circuitry.

It performs the measurement by means of a moving-iron mechanism. According to this mechanism, a soft
iron vane is kept in a region of the magnetic field produced by an electromagnet. Moreover, there is a
pointer attached to the moving iron core that deflects based on the position of the soft iron vane. The
position of the iron core is dependent on the strength of the magnetic flux surrounding it.

Construction of the Moving Iron Instrument

The main elements of a moving iron instrument, or measuring device are – a magnetized static coil and
a soft iron core. The static coil is magnetized by passing an electric current through the conducting wires
of the coil. Thus, the stationary coil behaves like an electromagnet. The iron core is placed close to the
electromagnet. The iron vane is the moving part of the measuring device, that gets attracted towards
the magnetic flux generated by the electromagnet.

The input current supplied to the static coil is the parameter to be measured by the instrument. In most
cases, a pointer is attached to the soft iron vane, the pointer’s deflection depends upon the position of the
iron core. The position of the iron core depends on the strength of the magnetic flux produced by the
electromagnet. The strength of the magnetic field generated by the electromagnet is highly dependent on
the current supplied to it. The greater the magnitude of the supply current, the greater the attraction of the
iron core toward it.

Working of the Moving Iron Instrument

When an electric current pass through the static coil made up of copper or aluminum generates a magnetic
field around it. Therefore, the magnetized stationary coil behaves like an electromagnet. A direct and
linearly proportional relationship exists between the current flowing across the electromagnet and the
magnetic field strength.

The inductivity of the static magnetized coil is incremented by the movement of the iron core across the
stationary coil. Inductivity is defined as that property of a conductor which generates increased emf on
passing currents of varying magnitudes.

The iron core is attracted by the electromagnet via the magnetic flux generated around it. A
minimum reluctance path is established when the soft iron core gets attracted and moves toward the
electromagnet. Reluctance is defined as the property of a conductor that resists the electric current flowing
through it.
A repulsive force is experienced by the iron core that moves towards the electromagnet. As a result, the
inductivity of the static coil increases due to the repulsive force generated. The repulse force is generated as
a result of the reluctance and inductance being inversely proportional to each other.

Types of Moving Iron (MI) Instruments

Classifications of Moving Iron Instruments: There are mainly two categories of moving iron instruments
namely – Attraction Type and Repulsion Type.

Attraction Type of Moving Iron Instrument

Figure 1 above demonstrates the working of an attractive type MI instrument. The static coil of the
measuring instrument is comprised of a minute opening. The moving iron core gets attracted toward the
magnetic field induced by the stationary coil. The strength of attraction of the iron core towards the
electromagnet depends upon the magnetic field strength generated. A controlling torque is generated by
means of a spring attached to the instrument. Additionally, an aluminum piston is also attached to the
moving iron vane in order to minimize the fluctuation of the magnetized coil.

Repulsive Type of Moving Iron Instrument

Figure 2 above illustrates a repulsive type MI instrument. A repulsive type moving iron instrument is
comprised of two iron cores. One of the iron cores is stationary, while the other iron core is movable. When
the stationary iron core produces a magnetic field, both the iron cores get magnetized. Therefore, similar
polarity is established on both iron coils.

As a result, repulsion occurs between both the vanes. Consequently, the pointer attached to the movable
iron core moves across the scale, displaying the amount of current or voltage supplied to it. Air friction is
also produced which in turn induces the damping torque. Due to its independency of the direction of
current flow across it, repulsive instruments find their applications in measuring both AC and DC values
of currents.

Advantages of Moving Iron Instrument

The merits of using a moving iron instrument are as follows.

1. Low Cost – due to the less number of winding present in the stationary coil instrument, it is
relatively cheap.
2. Wide Operating Range- MI instruments have a wide range of operations for voltage and current
measurement.
3. Robust – Due to the simple design of the moving iron instrument and the static electromagnet
present within the instrument, it is very efficient and robust.
4. High Overload Capacity- They can withstand momentarily overloads without getting damaged.
Therefore, these instruments can measure the transient currents and voltages.
5. Linearity- MI instruments have good linearity in the measurements over a wide range. Therefore,
they can measure the voltage and current precisely.
6. Universal – due to the independency of the direction of current flow, it can be used for measuring
both AC and DC currents.

Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instrument

The demerits of using a moving iron instrument are as follows.

1. Precision – Although, MI instruments have linearity over a wide range. However, at extreme
values, they have non-linearity in the measurement. Thus, the result obtained for extreme values of
voltage and current is less accurate.
2. Hysteresis Error- These instruments have hysteresis errors. Current flowing in different directions
causes a magnetic reversal, and as a result, the hysteresis error creeps into the instrument.
3. Limited Frequency Response- At higher frequencies, MI instruments have limited frequency
response because the mechanical inertia of the instrument causes the instrument to slow response.
4. Stray Magnetic Field- The useful flux when getting diverted and linked to other metallic parts of
the instrument cause error in the measurement.
5. Mechanical Wear and Tear- These instruments have mechanical parts which are inclined to wear
and tear after a certain period of time.
6. Environmental Influences- The external magnetic field can influence the measurement accuracy
of the instrument.
7. Waveform Error – Since the deflection torque is not proportional to the square of the current
flowing through it, a waveform error occurs within the instrument.

Wattmeter – Types and Working Principle

A wattmeter is an instrument which is used to measure electric power given to or developed by an
electrical circuit. Generally, a wattmeter consists of a current coil and a potential coil.

Types of Wattmeter

 Electrodynamometer wattmeter – for both DC and AC power measurement

 Induction wattmeter – for AC power measurement only

Working Principle of Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

The electrodynamometer wattmeter works on the dynamometer principle i.e. a mechanical force acts
between two current carrying conductors or coils.
It consists of a fixed which is divided into two halves which are parallel to each other and is connected in
series with the load while the moving is connected across the load through a series multiplier resistance.
The fixed coil is called current coil while the moving coil is called potential coil.

When the wattmeter is connected in a circuit to measure power. The current coil carries the load current
and potential coil carries a current proportional to the load voltage. Due to the currents in the coils, a
mechanical force acts between them. The result of this mechanical force deflects the moving coil and the
pointer over the scale. The pointer comes to the rest when the deflecting torque and controlling torque
become equal. As the reversal of the circuit current reverses the currents in both the current coil and
potential coil so that the direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged. Therefore, electrodynamometer
wattmeter can measure power in both the AC as well DC circuits.

Working Principle of Induction Wattmeter

The induction type wattmeter can be used to measure AC power only.

The working of induction type wattmeter is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

The induction wattmeter consists of two laminated electromagnets viz. Shunt Magnet and Series Magnet.
The shunt magnet is connected across the supply and carries a current proportional to the supply voltage.
The coil of shunt magnet is made highly inductive so that the current in it lags the supply voltage by 90°.
The series magnet is connected in series with the supply and carries the load current. The coil of series
magnet is made highly noninductive. A thin disc (made up of aluminium) mounted on a spindle is placed
between the two magnets so that it cuts the flux of the two magnets.

When the wattmeter is connected in an AC circuit, a current flows through the coil of the shunt magnet that
is proportional to the supply voltage and the series magnet carries the load current. The fluxes produced by
the two magnets induce eddy currents in the aluminium disc by the action of electromagnetic induction.
Due to the interaction between the fluxes and eddy currents, a deflecting torque is produced on the disc,
causing the disc to move and hence, the pointer connected to the disc moves over the scale. The pointer
comes to rest when the deflecting torque becomes equal to the controlling torque.
Energy Meter
Definition: The meter which is used for measuring the energy utilises by the electric load is known as the
energy meter. The energy is the total power consumed and utilised by the load at a particular
interval of time. It is used in domestic and industrial AC circuit for measuring the power consumption. The
meter is less expensive and accurate.
The electrical energy utility by the load is basically power consumed over a period of time. If the time
interval is in hours, then the energy measurement is in Watt-hours. Most of the energy meters measures in
the unit of Kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Generally, energy meters are integrating meters that can record power utilized by the load for a
particular interval of time. There are various types of energy meters among induction type energy meter are
most popular can be used for ac measurements only. Depending upon the supply available there are two
types of induction type energy meters.
 Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter
 Three Phase Induction Type Energy Meter

In this let us see about construction and working of single-phase induction type energy meter.
Construction of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter :
The constructional details of an induction type single-phase energy meter is shown below.

The meter consists of four major parts namely,

 Driving system
 Moving system
 Braking system
 Registering system

Let us see in detail each and every part,

Driving System :
The driving system consists of two ac electromagnets namely, shunt magnet and series magnet which is
magnetized proportional to supply voltage and load current respectively. Hence, the winding of the shunt
magnet center limb is called a pressure coil and the winding of the series magnet is called a current coil.
The shunt magnet provides a low reluctance path through the small air gaps for the circulating fluxes
(Φc1 and Φc2). So only a small amount of flux Φp flows through the central limb to the disc which is one of
the operating flux. The second operating flux Φs is produced by series magnet.
The flux Φp should be exactly in quadrature (i.e., 90° out of phase) with the supply voltage, but due to
the resistance of the pressure coil and iron losses in magnetic circuit Φp will never be in quadrature with
voltage which misleads the operation. So, in order to bring Φp exactly in quadrature with supply voltage,
copper-shading bands or rings are provided on the central limb of the shunt magnet whose resistance is
adjustable.

Moving System :
This system consists of a lightweight aluminum disc that is mounted on a shaft and positioned in the air
gap between the two magnets. The bottom of the shaft is pivoted into a jewel bearing and the top of the
spindle provided with a simple sleeve pin-type bearing. The shaft also carries a pinion (gear) which
connects the shaft to the registering mechanism.

Braking System :
This system is required to control the speed of rotation of the disc and also to bring the disc to an idle
state when the load is disconnected, which is done by a permanent magnet called a braking magnet. This
magnet is so placed in order to bring the disc in between the poles of the magnet.
Whenever the disc rotates, it cuts the field of the braking magnet and an emf is induced in it which makes
eddy currents flow. This current set up a field in the disc, which opposes the main field and thereby reduces
its magnitude. Hence, the braking torque (which opposes the rotation of the disc) is produced.

Registering System :
Registering system (a mechanism) is also known as the counting system (a mechanism). This system is
engaged with the pinion, which is a gear mounted over the shaft of the disc. The mechanism consists of a
train of gears.
Since the number of rotations of the disc is proportional to the power consumption, the gear-turn ratio is
selected so as to rotate the indicators on the panel to indicate the total energy consumed. The gear-turn ratio
between the adjacent indicators will be 10:1 so that the energy consumed is integrated up to thousands of
kWh.

Working of Single Phase Induction Type Energy Meter :

When the load is not connected, no flux is produced in the series magnet and only a shunt field is
present. This alternating flux Φp links with the disc and induces an emf Ep in the disc, due to this emf an
eddy current Ip flows in the disc, which produces an alternating field Φp' in the disc. But, no torque will be
produced in the disc due to these two fluxes, because both the fluxes are 180° out of phase.
When the load current IL flows through the current coil, the series magnet is magnetized and an
alternating flux flows through it, and this flux links with the disc, which also produces an emf E se resulting
in the flow of eddy current Ise. Ise sets up a field Φse' in the disc which interacts with the field due to Ip and
hence torque is produced in the disc due to this interaction of both the fields. The torque produced is
proportional to the difference of the torques due to Ip and Ise.

Advantages of Induction Type Energy Meter :

 They can be used over a long period of time with very little maintenance.
 It is an inexpensive energy meter and almost used universally for ac measurements.
 High torque to weight ratio.
 Can be used for the measurement of energy over a wide range of loads.

Disadvantages of Induction Type Energy Meter :

 If there are no proper adjustments in the meter, large errors are introduced in readings.
 The principle of induction can be only in ac, hence these meters are limited to ac measurements
only.