Dr Roy Sebastian K M.Sc.,B.Ed.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.

Associated Professor

St. Joseph’s College

Moolamattom

Dedicated to my daughter ASHLY ROY

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CHAPTER 1
THYRISTORS
Introduction

A thyristor is a four layer PNPN device. It has three PN junctions. It has two stable switching
states namely the ON or conducting state and the OFF or non-conducting state. There is no other
state in between these two, as in bipolar and field-effect transistors. The thyristors are used
specifically for high power switching applications such as control of a.c. power to the load, motor
speed control, light dimmers etc. Thyristors are not designed to be used as linear amplifying devices.

A thyristor has characteristics similar to a thyratron tube. But from the construction view point,
a thyristor (pnpn device) belongs to transistor family (npn or pnp device). The name thyristor is
derived by a combination of the capital letters from THYRatron and transISTOR. This means that
thyristor is a solid state device like a transistor and has characteristics similar to that of thyratron
tube.

The definition of thyristor as per International Electro technical Commission (IEC) is

(1) It constitutes three or more p-n junctions.

(2) It has two stable states, an ON state and an OFF state and can change its state from one to
another.

Types of Thyristors

There are two main types of thyristors

1. Unidirectional: The thyristors which conduct in forward direction only are known as
unidirectional thyristors.
Eg: Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR’s), Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (LASCR’s)
and Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS).

2 Bidirectional: The thyristors which can conduct in forward as well as in reverse direction are
known as bidirectional thyristors.

Eg: Triode A.C. Switch (TRIAC)

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Triggering Devices

Thyristors require a control signal to switch from the non-conducting to the conducting state. The
devices which generate such control signals are called triggering devices.

Eg: Diode A.C. Switch (DIAC), Unijunction Transistor (UJT), Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS), Silicon
Bilateral Switch (SBS), Silicon Asymmetrical Switch (SAS)

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is an important semiconductor device used in industrial and
power electronics field. SCR is used as a controlled switch to perform a variety of functions such as
rectification, d.c. to a.c. inversion, phase control and power control. It is an important element in the
control of electrical motor speed, electronic regulator of fan, electrical furnace heat, lighting etc.

An SCR is so called because silicon is used for its construction and its operation as a rectifier can
be controlled. Like a diode, an SCR is a unidirectional device that blocks the current flow from cathode
to anode. Unlike the diode, a thyristor also blocks the current flow from anode to cathode until it is
triggered into conduction by a proper gate signal between gate and cathode
terminals and the gate (G) terminal from the P2-layer.The symbol of SCR is shown in Fig.2(c).

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 A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) consists of four semiconductor layers forming a PNPN
structure as shown in Fig.2 (b). It has three PN junctions namely J1, J2 and J3. It has three terminals
called anode (A), cathode (K) and the gate (G). The anode (A) terminal is taken out from the P1-layer;
the cathode (K) terminal is taken out from the N2-layer

It may be noted that the SCR symbol is quite similar to that of a diode. SCR resembles the diode
electrically because it conducts current in one direction only. The progression from Shockley diode to
SCR is achieved with the addition of the gate (G) terminal. This gate is used to turn ON the device. If an
SCR’s gate is floating, it behaves exactly as a Shockley diode.

SCR Biasing

The SCR can be biased in two modes depending upon the polarity of the applied voltage across
anode and cathode terminals. When the anode is positive, with respect to the cathode, the SCR is said
to be forward biased as shown in Fig.3 (a).

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 In this mode the junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the junction J2 is reverse biased.
There is no current (except leakage current) through the SCR. Therefore the SCR is in ‘OFF’ (non-
conducting) state. Under this condition the device offers a very high resistance. The value of this
resistance is several megohms.

On the other hand, if the anode is negative, with respect to cathode, the SCR is said to be
reverse biased as shown in Fig.3 (b). In this mode, the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased and the
junction J2 is forward biased. Again there is no flow of current (except leakage current) through the
SCR. Therefore the SCR is in ‘OFF’ (non-conducting) state.

SCR Operation

The SCR operation can be explained by using Fig.3 (a) and (b). When the SCR is forward biased
with a small voltage it is in ‘OFF’ position and no current flows through the device. However, if the
applied forward voltage is increased and it reaches the forward break over voltage (VBO), the junction J2
breaks down. This causes the SCR to quickly switch to its ‘ON’ (conducting) position. Under this
condition, the SCR offers very small resistance (of about 0.1 to 1.0Ω) and the voltage across it drops to a
low value. The value of this voltage is about 1V. In the ON state the current through the SCR is very
large and is controlled by the applied voltage and external resistance.

When the SCR is in the reverse biased condition (Fig.3b), the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse
biased and junction J2 is forward biased. However, it has been found that most of the voltage will drop
across junction J1 only. When the applied voltage is small, the SCR is OFF and therefore no current
(except leakage current) flows through the device. If the reverse voltage is increased to reverse
breakdown voltage, the junction J2 will breakdown due to avalanche effect. This causes a large current
to flow through the SCR, due to which it may get damaged in the same way as the reverse biased PN-
junction diode.

It is evident from the above discussion that SCR can be used to conduct in one forward direction
only, like a rectifier diode. Therefore SCR is a unidirectional semiconductor device, which remains OFF
so long as the applied anode voltage is below the break over voltage and turns ON when it exceeds the
breakover voltage.

It will be interesting to know that SCR is never operated with the anode to cathode voltage
equal to the forward breakover voltage. In fact, it is operated at a supply voltage much smaller than the
forward breakover voltage. In that case SCR is turned ON by the gate voltage and gate current.

V-I Characteristics of SCR

It gives the relationship between the anode current and the anode-to-cathode voltage
of SCR for different values of gate current. The SCR has two types of V-I characteristics namely
forward characteristic and reverse characteristics.

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1. Forward Characteristic

The forward characteristic of SCR may be obtained by using the circuit shown in Fig. 4(a).
Adjust the gate current to zero value by keeping the switch (S) open. Then increase the
applied voltage across the SCR in small suitable steps. At each step, record the value of anode
current. Plot a graph with anode-to-cathode voltage (+Va) along the X-axis and the anode
current (+Ia) along the Y-axis.

This characteristic consists of the following regions

(a) Forward Blocking Region (mode): (OM) The anode is positive but the anode voltage is less
than break over voltage VBO. In this condition the junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the
junction J2 is reverse biased. A forward leakage current flows but the thyristor is not
conducting and it offers a very high resistance. Therefore, a thyristor can be treated as an open
switch even in the forward blocking mode.
(b) Forward Conducting Region: (NK) As the anode-to-cathode voltage exceeds the break over
voltage VBO the SCR turns ON and the anode-to-cathode voltage decrease quickly to a value
marked by point N. At this stage, the current through the SCR increases rapidly to a large value,
which is determined by the supply voltage and the value of load resistance in the circuit. The
current must be more than the latching current IL. If the current is reduced to less than holding
current IH, the thyristor switches back to forward blocking state. A thyristor can be brought
from forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode by turning it on by applying (i) a
positive gate pulse between gate and cathode or (ii) a forward break over voltage across anode
to cathode.

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 Forward conduction mode NK shows that voltage drop across thyristor is of the order of
1 to 2 V depending upon the rating of SCR. It may be seen from NK that voltage drop across
SCR increases slightly with an increase in anode current. In conduction mode, anode current is
limited by load impedance alone as voltage drop across SCR is quite small. This small voltage
drop (VT) across the device is due to ohmic drop in the four layers. In forward conduction
mode, thyristor is treated as a closed switch.

As the value of gate current (Ig) is increased above zero, the SCR turns ON at a lower
break over voltages as shown in Fig. 5(a).

Reverse Characteristic of SCR

a. Reverse Blocking Region: (OP) Under this condition the cathode is positive with respect to
anode. A small reverse current flows. The SCR is OFF and it offers a very high resistance.
b. Reverse Avalanche Region: (PQ) As the applied reverse voltage in increased, above the
breakdown voltage, the reverse current increase more rapidly as shown by the curve PQ in
Fig.4(b). This rapid increase is because of the avalanche breakdown of SCR and may damage
the device if the current exceeds the rated value. The region PQ is called the reverse avalanche
region.

VBR and VBO

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 The magnitude of forward breakdown and reverse breakdown voltages are nearly the
same and both are temperature dependent. In practice, it is found that VBR is slightly more
than VBO. Therefore, forward breakdown voltage is taken as the final voltage rating of the
device during the design of SCR application.

Variation of Breakover voltage with gate current

When positive gate current is applied, gate P-layer is flooded with electrons from the
cathode. This is because cathode N-layer is heavily doped as compared to gate P-layer. As the
thyristor is forward biased, some of these electrons reach Junction J2. As a result, width of
depletion layer near junction J2 is reduced. This causes the junction J2 to breakdown at an
applied voltage lower than the forward breakover voltage VBO. If magnitude of gate current is
increased, more electrons would reach junction J2, as a consequence thyristor would get
turned ON at a much lower forward applied voltage. That is the breakover voltage decreases
with increase in gate current.

Latching current and Holding current

Latching current (IL) may be defined as the minimum value of anode current which it must
attain during turn-ON process to maintain conduction when gate signal is removed.
Holding current (IH) may be defined as the minimum value of anode current below which it
must fall for turning OFF the thyristor.

Turning ON (or Triggering) SCR

There are different methods to turn ON an SCR. Turning ON is also known as triggering. The
various triggering methods are: (a) voltage triggering (b) gate triggering (c) dv/dt triggering (d) high
temperature triggering and (e) light triggering.

(a) Voltage Triggering: If the voltage across the SCR exceeds the rated forward break over voltage VBO,
the SCR will start conducting due to avalanche breakdown. A high forward voltage may destroy the
thyristor. Therefore, this method is never used in actual practice.
(b) Gate Triggering: This is the most commonly used method to trigger the SCR. In this method, the SCR
is operated with an anode voltage less than the rated forward break over voltage and is triggered into
conduction by a low power gate pulse. It may be noted that once the SCR is switched ON, the gate has
no further control on the device current. The gate pulse signals can be supplied either from a d.c.
source or an a.c. source.

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Because of gate current charges are injected into P2 layer (Fig.3b). Higher the magnitude of gate
current, greater is the number of charges injected and lower is the forward break over voltage. Fig 5(a)
shows the variation of forward break over voltage with the magnitude of gate current.

Once the SCR is conducting a forward current, reverse biased junction J2 no longer exists. As such, no
gate current is required for the device to remain in ON state. Therefore, if the gate current is removed,
the conduction of current from anode to cathode remains unaffected. However, if gate current is
reduced to zero before the rising anode current attains a value, called the latching current, the thyristor
will turn OFF again. The gate pulse width should therefore be judiciously chosen to ensure that anode
current rises above the latching current. Thus latching current (IL) may be defined as the minimum
value of anode current which it must attain during turn ON process to maintain conduction when gate
signal is removed.

Once the thyristor is conducting, gate loses control. The thyristor can be turned OFF only if the forward
current falls below a low-level current called the holding current. Thus holding current (IH) may be
defined as the minimum value of anode current below which it must fall for turning OFF the thyristor.
The latching current is higher than the holding current. Note that latching current is associated with
turn ON process and holding current with turn OFF process. It is usual to take latching current as two to
three times the holding current. In industrial applications, holding current (typically 10mA) is almost
taken as zero.

Fig. 6 (a) Triggering SCR from d.c. source (b) Triggering SCR from pulses

Figure 6(a) shows an SCR connected to the d.c. source through a load. In this case, the gate
signal is generated by a push button switch. When the switch is pressed, momentarily, a positive
voltage is applied at the gate. As a result of this, the SCR is turned ON, and the current flows through
the load. The SCR will remain in its ON position, until the supply voltage is removed or reversed.

Figure 6(b) shows an SCR connected to the a.c. source through a load. In this circuit, the gate
signal is provided by the timing pulses. Such pulses can be generated by a number of devices called
triggering devices. Such devices are UJT, DIAC, and SUS etc.

(c) Rate-effect or dV/dt triggering: The reverse biased junction in the thyristor behaves like a
capacitor. If a rapidly changing forward voltage is applied, a charging current flows. This charging
current iB can be written as
iB = CB(dVB/dt)

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 If dVB/dt is high, the charging current iB would be large. This means that the forward leakage
current of collector-base junction would be high and may turn on the thyristor. This is known as dv/dt
triggering. This method of triggering is not desirable because a high charging current iB may damage the
thyristor.

Junction capacitance in a thyristor

The junction capacitances affect the thyristor characteristics under transient conditions. Let the
thyristor be in forward blocking state. The current iB is

iB = VB + CB

If dv/dt is high, current iB would be high. This would result in an increase in leakage current ICBO1 and
ICBO2 and cause the thyristor to turn ON.

(d) High Temperature triggering: As the temperature of a p-n junction increases, the width of depletion
layer decreases. This is due to the reason that the number of electron-hole pairs is increased and the
leakage current increases. At a certain temperature the reverse biased junction may breakdown and the
thyristor starts conducting. High temperature triggering may cause thermal run away and is generally
avoided.
(e) Light triggering: In this method the SCR is triggered by irradiating it with light. When the light falls
on the middle junction (J2) of the SCR, the device turns ON due to increase in the number of electron
hole pairs. This method of triggering is used in Light-Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifier (LASCR) and
light activated silicon controlled switch (LASCS).

Example 1: A thyristor can be triggered if dv/dt is 190 V/µs. If the capacitive current flowing through
the junction is 8mA, find the equivalent capacitance of depletion layer.

Solution: IC = C dv/dt or 8 x 10-3 = C x 190 x 106

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 Or C = 42.1 x 10-12F

Turning OFF SCR

Once the SCR turns ON it continues to conduct even when the gate is removed. This ability of
the SCR to remain conducting, even when the gate signal is removed, is known as latching. It means
that SCR cannot be turned OFF simply by removing the gate signal. The following are the methods to
turn OFF the SCR

1. Reversing polarity of anode-to-cathode voltage.

2. Interrupting anode current by means of momentarily series or parallel switching arrangement. This
method is known as anode current interruption.
3. Reducing the current through SCR below the holding current. This method is known as forced
commutation.

Two Transistor model of SCR

If IE1 and IB1 are the emitter current and base currents respectively of the PNP transistor; IA
and IK are the respective anode current and cathode current of the SCR. IC1 and IC2 are the collector
currents of PNP and NPN transistors respectively. IG is the gate current of the SCR. Let α1 and α2
are the fraction of holes and electrons injected from anode and cathode on junction J2 respectively.
Neglect leakage currents we have

IB1 = IA – IC1 = IA – α1IA = (1-α1)IA (1)

Also IC2 = α2IK

And IB1 = IC2

Or (1-α1)IA = α2IK (2)

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Or = IA + IG since IK = IA + IG

Or (1-α1)IA = α2(IA + IG)

Or IA = (3)

From equation (3) it is clear that if α1 + α2 become equal to unity, then anode current IA attains
infinite value. In other words, the device suddenly latches into conduction state from the original
non-conducting state. If the gate current IG is of such a magnitude that α1 + α2 = 1, the SCR will be
triggered.

When (α1 + α2) becomes appreciably less than unity, the anode current IA, according to
equation (3) becomes extremely small and the device is said to be OFF or non-conducting state. On
the other hand with (α1 + α2) =1, the current is extremely large and the device is said to be in the ON
or conducting state. In conducting state, the voltage drop across the device drops to a low value and
large current flows through it, limited only by the resistor R in the external circuit. Thus the existence
of the device either in the ON state or in the OFF state depends on the applied voltage and the gate
current.

Example 2: The following data is available for an SCR:

Gain of NPN transistor of two transistor model = 0.4

Gain of PNP transistor of two transistor model = 0.35

Gate current = 40mA, neglect leakage current. Find anode current.

Solution: Given α1 = 0.35 and α2 = 0.4, IG = 40mA = .04A

IA = = = 64 x 10-3A

Trigger Current and Trigger Voltage

To trigger an SCR, a proper voltage has to be applied to the gate. For most SCR’s the gate
voltage required for triggering is about 0.7V. A certain minimum current must also flow in the gate
circuit for triggering to take place. The values of trigger voltage and current are given in
manufacturer’s data sheets.

The actual source voltage needed for triggering depends on the gate circuit. In Fig. 8 the gate
current IG flows through a resistance RG. It is seen that

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VS = VG + IGRG

In some circuits the resistance RG is not used. In that case RG is the Thevenin resistance of the circuit
driving the gate. Thyristor turns ON when VG is more than the trigger voltage. Once the thyristor has
turned ON it cannot turn OFF even if the gate voltage is reduced to zero. The only way to turn it OFF
is to reduce its current to less than the holding current. This can be done by increasing the resistance
R or by reducing VCC to a very low value.

Example 3: In the circuit of Fig .8 the thyristor has a trigger voltage of 0.75V and a trigger current of
7mA. The holding current is 5mA. Find (a) The output voltage when thyristor is in OFF state, (b) the
voltage VS necessary to turn ON the thyristor, (c) To what value should VCC be reduced to turn OFF the
thyristor if thyristor is ideal, (d) To what value should VCC be reduced to turn OFF the thyristor if a
voltage of 0.7V exists across it when it is conducting. Assume RG = 2000Ω, VCC = 20V and R = 200Ω.

Solution: (a) When thyristor is not conducting there is no current through it. Vo = 20V.

(b) Vs = 0.75 + (7 x 10-3) x 2000 = 14.75V

(c) To turn off the thyristor, its current should be reduced to less than holding current when current
is 5mA, voltage drop across R is 5 x 10-3 x 200 = 1V. Hence Vcc should be reduced to less than 1V.
(d) Vcc should be reduced to less than (1 + 0.7) or 1.7V

Example 4: The gate voltage current relation for a thyristor is

VG = 1 + 9IG

The gate signal is a rectangular pulse of amplitude 25V and duration π radians during each cycle. It is
desired that average gate power loss be limited to 0.6 W. Find VG, IG and the resistance RG to be
connected in series with the gate circuit to limit the gate power loss to this value.

Solution: The voltage-current equation for the gate circuit is

Vs = VG + IGRG

i.e. 25 = RGIG + 1 + 9IG

or 9IG + RGIG = 24

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Average power loss = 0.6W

Power loss during conduction = = 1.2W

1.2 = VGIG = (1+9IG)IG

Or 9IG2 + IG – 1.2 = 0

Or IG = 0.314A

VG = 1+9x0.314 = 3.826V

RG = = 67.43 ohms

Example 5: A dc supply of 100 V feeds an inductance of 10H through a thyristor. Find the minimum
width of the gate pulse so that the thyristor is triggered. The latching current of thyristor is 80mA.

Solution: The circuit is shown in Fig. 9.

100 = L

Or i = t = 10t

Thyristor will trigger when I = 80mA

Therefore t= = 8 x 10-3s

Therefore width of pulse should be more than 8 milli-seconds.

Example 6: A dc supply of 100V feeds a load having a resistance of 10 ohms and an inductance of 5H
through a thyristor. The latching current of thyristor is 50mA. Find the minimum width of the gate
pulse.

Solution: The circuit is shown in Fig. 10. The current at any time is

i= (1-e-Rt/L) = 10(1-e-2t)

Thyristor will trigger when i = 50mA

-2t
50 x 10-3 = 10 (1-e )
-2t
Or e = 0.995

Or t = 0.0025 seconds = 2.5 milli-seconds

Hence minimum width of gate pulse is 2.5 milli-seconds.

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Example 7: The latching current of the given thyristor circuit is 50mA. The duration of the firing
pulse is 50µs. The values of resistor and inductor in Fig.10 are 20Ω and 0.5H respectively. Will the
thyristor get fired?

Solution: As the SCR is triggered, the current will rise exponentially in the inductive circuit

i = (1-e-Rt/L)

V = 100volts, R = 20Ω, L = 0.5H and t =50µs

i= (1-e-20 x 50µs/0.5) = 9.99mA

Since the calculated circuit current value is less than the given latching current value of the SCR, it
will not get fired.

Example 8: Figure( 11) shows a thyristor circuit. Assume that switch S is open. The thyristor has a
latching current of 40mA and is fired by a pulse of width 40µs.(a) Find if the thyristor will turn on (b)
The switch is closed. Find the maximum value of R so that thyristor may turn on.

Solution: (a) switch is open. Resistance R is not in circuit.

The circuit current is

i= (1-e-25t/0.5) = (1-e-50t)

At the end of gate pulse, i.e. at t = 40 x 10-6s

i= (1-e-50x40µs) = 0.0072A

Since the current is less than latching current, the thyristor will not turn on.

(b) R = = 2744Ω

R should be less than 2744 ohm.

Example 9: The thyristor in figure below has a holding current of 50mA and is fired by a pulse of
length 50µs. Show that without resistance R the thyristor will fail to remain ON when the firing pulse
ends. Find the maximum value of R to ensure firing. Neglect voltage drop across thyristor.

Solution: Let R be infinite. The current is

i= (1-e-20t/0.5) or I = 5(1-e-40t)

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When firing pulse ends t = 50 x 10-6s

i = 5(1-e-40 x 50 x .000001) = 0.00999A = 9.99mA

Since this current is less than holding current, the thyristor will not remain on and return to
OFF state. To ensure that thyristor remains ON, the current through thyristor at t = 50µs
should at least equal to holding current.

Current through R = 50 – 9.99 = 40.01mA = .04001A

Maximum value of R = = 2499.375ohm

Example 10: Latching current for an SCR, inserted in between a dc voltage source of 200V and the
load, is 100mA. Compute the minimum width of gate-pulse current required to turn ON this SCR in
case the load consists of (a) L = 0.2H, (b) R = 20Ω in series with L = 0.2H and (c) R = = 20Ω in series
with L = 2H.

Solution: (a) When load consists of pure inductance L, the voltage equation is

V=L or di = t or i = t

Therefore 0.100 = t or t = = 100µsec

Thus minimum gate pulse is 100µsec

(b) The voltage equation for R-L load is

V = Ri + L

Or i = (1-e-Rt/L) or 0.100 = (1-e-100t)

Or t = 100.503 µsec

Therefore minimum gate pulse width is 100.503µsec

(c) i = (1-e-Rt/L)
or 0.1 = (1-e-10t) or t = 1005.03µsec

Example 11: For an SCR the gate-cathode characteristic has a straight line slope of 130. For trigger
source voltage of 15V and allowable gate power dissipation of 0.5watts, compute the gate-source
resistance.

Solution: Here VGIG = 0.5W and = 130

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Therefore 130IG2 = 0.5

This gives IG = [0.5/130]1/2 = 0.062A = 62mA

Therefore gate voltage, VG = 130 x 62 x 10-3 = 8.06V

For the gate circuit, Vs = IG RG + VG = 0.062Rs + 8.06 = 15

Or Rs = = 111.94Ω

Example 12: The trigger circuit of a thyristor has a source voltage of 15V and the load line has a
slope of 120V per ampere. The minimum gate current to turn ON the SCR is 25mA. Compute

(a) Source resistance required in the gate circuit and

(b) The trigger voltage and trigger current for an average gate power dissipation of 0.4watts.

Solution: (a) The slope of load line gives the required gate source resistance. From the load line,
series resistance required in the gate circuit is 120Ω.

(b) Here VGIG = 0.4W

For the gate circuit, Es = RsIG + VG
Therefore 15 = 120IG + 0.4/IG
Or 120IG2 – 15IG + 0.4 = 0
Its solution gives IG = 38.56mA or 86.44mA
Therefore VG = 0.4x103/38.56 = 10.37V
Or VG = 0.4x103/86.44 = 4.627V
Choose VG = 4.627V and IG = 86.44mA for minimum gate current of 25mA.
Example 13: For an SCR the gate –cathode characteristic is given by a straight line with a gradient of
20volts per ampere passing through origin. The maximum turn ON time is 4 μs and the minimum
gate current required to quick turn ON is 400mA. If the gate source voltage is 15V, calculate the
resistance to be connected n series.
Solution: Es = IGRs + VG
VG/IG = 20V/A, IG = 400mA
Therefore VG = 20 x IG = 20 x 0.4 = 8V
Therefore Rs = = = 17.5Ω

Thyristor Specifications and Ratings

Thyristor ratings indicate voltage, current, power and temperature limits within which a
thyristor can be used without damage or malfunction. Ratings and specifications serve as a link
between the designer and the user of SCR systems.

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 For reliable operation of a thyristor, it should be ensured that its current and voltage ratings are
not exceeded during its working. One of the major disadvantages of thyristors is that they have low
thermal time constant. If a thyristor handles voltage, current and power greater than its specified
ratings, the junction temperature may rise above the safe limit and as a result, thyristor may get
damaged. Therefore, when SCRs are selected, some safety margin must keep in the form of choosing
device ratings somewhat higher than their normal working values. The manufacturers of thyristors
make a comprehensive list of the voltage, current, power and temperature ratings after carefully
testing the device. If SCRs are operated under these specified conditions, no damage will be done to
SCRs.

A) Anode Voltage Ratings: A thyristor is made up of four layers and three junctions. The middle
junction J2 blocks the forward voltage whereas the two end junctions J1 and J3 block the reverse
voltage. The anode voltage ratings indicate the values of maximum voltages that a thyristor can
withstand without a breakdown of the junction area with gate circuit open.
B) Forward dv/dt Rating: It is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage which will not trigger the
thyristor if the gate signal is not applied. It is evident that if actual dv/dt is more than the rated
value, the thyristor may be turned ON. If rate of rise of forward anode-to-cathode voltage is
high, thyristor may turn ON even when (i) there is no gate signal and (ii) anode-to-cathode
voltage is less than forward break over voltage.
C) Current Ratings: The current carrying capacity of a thyristor is determined by the allowable
junction temperature. A current higher than rated may cause a high junction temperature which
may lead to damage to the thyristor. The current ratings are specified in terms of repetitive and
non-repetitive values.
(i) Average on state (forward) current (ITAV): Since the voltage drop across a conducting
thyristor is low, current ITAV determines the power loss in the thyristor. For the same average
current but different conducting periods, the peak currents are different and therefore, the
junction temperatures are different. Therefore, the permissible average current should
decrease with increase in period of conduction.
(ii) RMS on state current (IRMS): Even if the actual average value of forward current is less than
the specified value, the heating may be excessive. This is because of the reason that heating
depends on effective (RMS) current and not average current. Therefore, an rms value of
forward current is also specified for the maximum junction temperature.
(iii) Impulse (surge) current rating ((ITSM): In addition to rated steady state current, a thyristor is
also subjected to surge current under abnormal conditions. This current is the maximum
surge current (non-repetitive) which the thyristor can withstand.
The surge current, which a device can withstand, is inversely proportional to the
duration of the surge. The duration of surge is specified in terms of the number of cycles of
the mains frequency of 50 or 60Hz. The one cycle surge current is the peak value of
allowable non-repetitive half sine wave (i.e. duration 10 ms for 50Hz frequency). For
durations of less than half cycle, a sub-cycle surge current is also specified. This rating can be
computed by equating the energies involved in the one cycle surge and sub-cycle surge. i.e.,

17
 Isub2t = I2T
Or Isub = I(T/t)1/2

Where I = one cycle surge current rating, A

Isub = sub cycle surge current rating, A
T = time duration of half-cycle, Secs
t = time duration of sub cycle surge, secs
For 50Hz mains frequency we have T = 10 x 10-3s
Isub = I (10 x 10-3/t)1/2 = 0.1I/√t
(iv) I2t rating: It is the maximum non-repetitive value of square of instantaneous current
integrated over the time. Thus it indicates the energy that the device can absorb without
getting damaged. It is usually specified for overloads lasting less than one half cycle. This
rating is necessary to coordinate the working of the thyristor with the operation of a fast
acting fuse used to protect the thyristor against overloads.
(v) di/dt rating: This rating indicates the maximum allowable rate of increase of anode current.
When a thyristor is triggered, the conduction initially starts near the cathode and then
spreads to the whole junction. If di/dt is very high, the conductivity may not be able to
spread as fast and local hot spots may occur. This may raise the temperature beyond the
permissible limit. The safe value of di/dt lies in the range of 50 to 800A/µ seconds.

D. Power ratings: Power losses within the thyristor are converted into heat and tend to increase
the temperature of the junctions. The rate of dissipation of heat should be such that the junction
temperature does not increase beyond the permissible value. The rate of heat dissipation depends
on the surface areas and the ambient temperature. The maximum power ratings have to be
specified so that abnormal temperature rise may not occur. Heat is generated due to the following
losses: (a) forward conduction loss, (b) turn ON loss, (c) turn OFF loss, (d) forward blocking and
reverse blocking loss and (e) gate loss.

E. Temperature Ratings: (a) Junction temperature (Tj): The junction temperature determines the
ability of a thyristor to operate successfully. If the junction temperature goes beyond the specified
value, the thyristor may start conducting even if the gate signal is not applied. The forward
breakover voltage, turn OFF time and thermal stability depend on junction temperature.

(b) Thermal resistance: The heat dissipation from the cooling surfaces depends on the thermal
resistance. It is expressed in the units of temperature difference (°C) per watt of power dissipated.

F. Turn-ON and turn-OFF time specifications: The selection of these quantities depends on the
circuit for the particular application. Fast switching devices have very small turn on and turn off
times. Such devices have higher leakage current.

Example 14: An SCR has half cycle surge current rating of 2000A for 50Hz ac. Find one cycle surge
current rating and corresponding I2t rating.

18
 Solution: Isub2t = I2T
Isub = 2000A, T = duration of half cycle = 10 x 10-3s, t = 5 x 10-3s

I = {[(2000)2 x 5 x 10-3]/(10 x 10-3)}0.5 = 2000 / 2 = 1414.2A

I2T rating = (1414.2)2 x 10 x 10-3 = 2 x 104 A2sec

Example 15: An SCR is subjected to 40A surge that lasts for 15ms. Determine whether or not this
surge will destroy the device. The circuit fusing rating of the device is 93A2s.

Solution: Given I =40A and t = 15ms = 15 x 10-3sec.

We know that Isub2t value for the SCR = 402 x 15 x 10-3 = 24 A2s

Since this value is well below the maximum rating of 93 A2s, therefore the device will not be
destroyed.

Example 16: An SCR has a circuit fusing rating of 75A2s. Determine the maximum allowable duration
of a 100A surge that passes through the SCR.

Solution: Given I2T = 75A2s and Isub = 100A

We know that maximum allowable duration, t = I2T/Isub 2= =7.5 x 10-3s = 7.5ms

Applications of SCR

motor speed control, light-dimming control, heater control, phase control, battery charges, inverters,
static switches, rectifier power supplies, relay control etc.

TRIAC

An SCR is a unidirectional device as it can conduct from anode to cathode only and not from
cathode to anode. A TRIAC can, however, conduct in both the directions. A TRIAC is thus a bidirectional
thyristor with three terminals. It is used extensively for the control of power in ac circuits. TRIAC is the
word derived by combining the capital letters from the words TRIode and AC. When in operation, a triac
is equivalent to two SCRs connected in antiparallel. The anode and gate voltage applied in either
direction will trigger the triac. It is due to the fact that the applied voltage will trigger at least one of the

19
SCR’s connected in opposite direction. The triacs are available with current ratings up to 300A(rms) and
voltage ratings up to 1200volts.

The basic construction of a triac is shown in Fig.13 (a). It may be noted from this figure that the
triac consists of two four layer switches in parallel. These switches are P1N1P2N2 and P2N1P1N4 as shown
by the broken lines in the figure 13(a). As the triac can conduct in both directions, the terms anode and
cathode are not applicable to triac. Its three terminals are usually designated as MT1 (main terminal 1),
MT2 and the gate by G as in a thyristor. Figure 13(b) shows the equivalent circuit of a triac, which
consists of two SCR’s connected in parallel but in opposite directions with a common gate terminal.
Figure13(c) shows the schematic symbol of a triac.

Triac Operation

There are four modes of triac operation, depending upon the polarity of voltage across its main
terminals and gate terminal. These modes are described as below:

(i) MT2 is positive and gate current is also positive: When MT2 is positive with respect of MT1,
junction P1N1, P2N2 are forward biased but junction N1P2 is reverse biased. When gate
terminal is positive with respect to MT1, gate current flows mainly through P2N2 junction like
an ordinary SCR (as in Fig 14(a)). When gate current has injected sufficient charge into P2
layer, reverse biased junction N1P2 breaks down just as in a normal SCR. As a result, triac
starts conducting through P1N1P2N2 layers. This shows that when MT2 and gate terminals
are positive with respect to MT1, triac turns ON like a conventional thyristor. The device is
more sensitive in this mode.
(ii) MT2 is positive but gate current is negative: When gate terminal is negative with respect to
MT1, gate current flows through P2N3 junction, Fig.14(b) and reverse biased junction N1P2 is
forward biased as in a normal thyristor. As a result, triac starts conducting through P1N1P2N3

20
layers initially. With the conduction of P1N1P2N3, the voltage drop across this path falls but
potential of layer between P2N3 rises towards the anode potential of MT2. As the right hand
portion of P2 is clamped at the cathode potential of MT1, a potential gradient exists across
layer P2, its left hand region being at higher potential than its right hand region. A current
shown dotted is thus established in layer P2 from left to right. This current is similar to
conventional gate current of an SCR. As a consequence, right-hand part of triac consisting of
main structure P1N1P2N2 begins to conduct. The device structure P1N1P2N3 may be regarded
as pilot SCR and the structure P1N1P2N2 as the main SCR. It can then be stated that anode
current of pilot SCR serves as the gate current for the main SCR. This mode is less sensitive.

21
 (iii) MT2 is negative but gate current is positive: The gate current Ig forward biases P2N2 junction
(Fig. 14 c). Layer N2 injects electrons into P2 layer as shown by dotted arrows. As a result,
reverse biased junction N1P1 breaks down as in a conventional thyristor. Eventually the
structure P2N1P1N4 is completely turned on. As usual, the current after turn-ON is limited by
the external load. As the triac is turned on by remote gate N2, the device is less sensitive.
(iv) Both MT2 and gate current are negative: In this mode, N3 acts as a remote gate (Fig 14 d).
The gate current Ig flows from P2 to N3 as in a normal thyristor. Reverse-biased junction
N1P1 is broken and finally, the structure P2N1P1N4 is turned ON completely. Though the triac
is turned ON by remote gate N3, yet the device is more sensitive under this condition.

V-I Characteristics of a Triac

It gives the relationship between the Triac current and voltage applied across its two main
terminals. The triac is operated usually in two ways (i) when MT2 and gate both are positive with
respect to MT1 and (ii) when MT2 and gate both are negative with respect to MT1. In the first case, the
triac current flows from the MT 2 to MT 1. And in the second case, the triac current flows from the MT 1
to MT 2.

When the triac is operated, with its MT 2 and gate both positive with respect to MT 1, the V-I
characteristic obtained is as shown in the first quadrant of Fig. 15(b).

Similarly, when the Triac is operated with its main terminal 2 and gate both negative with
respect to main terminal 1, the V-I characteristic obtained is shown in the third quadrant of Fig.15(b).

22
 The V-I characteristic of a triac gives us the information about the following important points.

1. The curves shown in the first and third quadrants are symmetrical and identical to the
forward characteristic of silicon controlled rectifier (SCR).
2. The triac is OFF until the applied voltage of either polarity exceeds the breakover voltage.
3. As the applied voltage of either polarity exceed the breakover voltage, the traic turns ON
and the voltage drop across the triac decreases to a low value ( 0.7V). The triac current
increases to a value determined by the supply voltage and load resistance.
4. As the value of gate current (Ig) is increased above zero, the breakover voltage is lowered.
Like SCR, the triac is never operated with the zero gate current. When the gate current of a
suitable value is applied, the triac turns ON at much lower breakover voltage.
Applications of Triac
The triac has an important property that it can conduct current in either forward or reverse
direction, depending upon the polarity of the voltage across its terminals. This property makes the
triac very useful in a large number of industrial applications. Some of the triac applications are:
1. Phase control 2. Speed control of small single-phase series induction motors 3. Heater control
4. Residential lamp dimmers 5. Static switch to turn ac power ON and OFF.

DIAC

The diac is a two terminal device, which can pass current in either direction when the breakover
voltage is reached in either polarity across the two terminals. The basic construction of a diac is similar
to a triac, but without a gate terminal as shown in Fig.16.

23
 It may be noted from the figure that a diac consists of two 4-layer diodes connected in parallel
but in opposite directions. The four layer diodes are P1N1P2N2 and P2N1P1N3 as shown by the broken
lines in the figure 16(a). Since the diac conducts in both directions, therefore the terminals are
designated by numbers instead of anode and cathode. The diac has two main terminals namely MT1
and MT2. Figure 16 (b) shows the equivalent circuit of a diac, which consists of two four-layer diodes
connected in parallel but in opposite directions. Figure 16(c) shows the schematic symbol of the diac.

The diac can pass current in either direction depending upon the polarity of voltage across its
main terminals. It can be turned ON only when the applied voltage across its main terminals reaches
the breakover voltage. When the applied voltage makes the MT2 positive with respect to MT1, the diac
passes current through the diode P1N1P2N2 from MT2 to MT1 as shown in Fig.17 (a).

24
 However if the applied voltage makes MT2 negative with respect to the MT1, the diac passes current
through the diode P2N1P1N3 from MT1 to MT2 as shown in Fig.17 (b). The diac turns OFF when the
current drops below the holding value

V-I Characteristic of a Diac

The diac can conduct in either direction, depending upon the polarity of the applied voltage
across its main terminals. When a diac is operated with MT2 positive with respect to MT1, the V-I
characteristic obtained is as shown in Fig.18 by the curve marked OAB. Similarly, when the diac is
operated with its MT2 negative with respect to MT1, the V-I characteristic obtained is as shown by the
curve marked OCD

The V-I characteristic of a diac gives us important

information about the following points:

1. The curves OAB and OCD are symmetrical

and identical. It is true because the operation of a
diac is identical in both directions of conduction.
2. The diac does not pass any current, until the
applied voltage of either polarity reaches the
breakover voltage.
3. At the breakover voltage, the diac turns ON
and the current through the diac increases rapidly as
shown in the figure 18.
4. The operating voltage and currents are the
same in either direction. Therefore the diac is a symmetrical bilateral diode.

The diacs are available with a breakdown voltage ranging from 28 to 36V and maximum pulse current
2A. Its leads are interchangeable. When not conducting, it acts like an open switch. A diac is
sometimes called a gateless triac.

Applications of Diac

A diac is used as a triggering device for triac in phase control circuits such as light dimming, heat
control and motor speed controls etc.

25
Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three terminal silicon semiconductor device. The UJT has only
one PN junction like an ordinary diode. However, it is different from the ordinary diode in the sense
that it has three terminals. The behavior of unijunction transistor is quite different from the other
transistors like bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and the field effect transistor (FET).

Basic Construction of UJT

The basic construction of a unijunction transistor (UJT) is as shown in Fig 19(a). It consists of an
N-type silicon semiconductor bar and a P-type silicon region. The N-type bar is called a base and the P-
type region as the emitter. Thus a PN junction is formed between the emitter and base regions. The
emitter region is heavily doped, while the base region is lightly doped. Due to this reason, the resistivity
of the base material is very high. Three terminals are taken out of the whole structure one from the
emitter region and two from the ends of the base region. These terminals are labeled as emitter (E),
base 1 (B1) and base 2 (B2). It may be noted that the emitter region is shown closer to base 2 terminal
than base 1. Figure (b) shows the schematic symbol of UJT.

26
 It may be noted that the schematic symbol of UJT is different from that of JFET. The difference is
that the arrow is at some angle in the schematic symbol of UJT.

Equivalent Circuit of UJT

Figure 20(c) shows the equivalent circuit of a unijunction transistor (UJT). It consists of a diode and a
resistance (RBB). The diode represents the PN junction, while the resistance RBB is the internal bulk
resistance of the silicon bar from one end to the other. In other words, the resistance RBB represents
the total resistance between the base terminals and is called the interbase resistance. The resistance
RBB is represented by the sum of two separate resistances RB1 and RB2 in the equivalent circuit of UJT.
The resistances RB1 represents the bulk resistance between the emitter (E) and base 1 (B1), whereas
resistance RB2 is the bulk resistance between the emitter (E) and base 2 (B2). Mathematically, the
resistance

RBB = RB1 + RB2

When there is no voltage applied to the UJT, the value of resistance, RBB is typically 5 to 10KΩ. The
resistance RB1 is shown as a variable resistance in the UJT equivalent circuit. It is because of the fact
that the value of resistance RB1 varies inversely with the emitter current (IE). Depending upon the value
of emitter current, the value of resistance RB1 can vary typically from 4KΩ to 40Ω.

Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio

Consider the equivalent circuit of a unijunction transistor (UJT) with a battery voltage VBB applied across
its base terminals B1 and B2 as shown in Fig. 20(c). As the emitter is open, the applied voltage VBB,
divides itself across resistance RB1 and RB2. The voltage across the resistance RB1 is

V1 = x VBB = x VBB = η VBB

The resistance ratio is known as intrinsic stand-off ratio and is denoted by η.

That is intrinsic stand-off ratio, η = =

The value of intrinsic stand-off ratio is between 0.5 and 0.8. The voltage drop across the resistance RB1
is called intrinsic standoff voltage. It reverse biases the emitter diode.

UJT Operation

Consider the equivalent circuit of a UJT with the voltage source VEE and VBB as shown in Fig.21 . Hence,
the emitter diode is reverse biased by a voltage drop across the resistance RB1 (equal to η.VBB) and its
own barrier potential (VD). Thus the total reverse bias voltage across a diode is equal to the sum of
η.VBB and VD.

27
 As long as the applied emitter voltage is below the
total reverse bias voltage (i.e. η.VBB + VD) across the
diode, it remains reverse biased. And there is no
emitter current. However, as the applied emitter
voltage become equal to or exceeds η.VBB + VD, the
diode conducts and the emitter current flows. The
value of emitter voltage, which causes the diode to
conduct, is called peak-point voltage. The peak-point
voltage

Vp = η.VBB + VD

It is evident from the above discussion that as the emitter voltage reaches the peak-point
voltage, the diode conducts (it becomes forward biased) and the emitter begins to flow. Under this
condition, the UJT is said to be fired, triggered or turned ON. At this instant, the holes from the P-type
emitter region are injected into the base region and are swept by the electric field towards the base
terminals B1. The presence of excess holes, slightly reduce the resistance RB1 which in turn reduces the
intrinsic stand-off voltage (η.VBB ). This action is called conductivity modulation because the
conductivity of the material between the emitter and base of terminals increases as the holes are
injected into it. It is a regenerative process because a smaller value of intrinsic stand-off voltage results
in a stronger forward bias across the diode. Due to this, more holes are injected and the intrinsic stand-
off voltage (η.VBB ) is further reduced. As a result of this, the emitter current increases, while the
voltage at the emitter (VE = η.VBB + VD) decreases. It produces a negative resistance region in the V-I
characteristic of UJT, and the UJT switches from its OFF position to ON position.

V-I Characteristic of UJT

Figure (23) shows the V-I characteristic of UJT. There are two important points on the characteristic
curve namely the peak- point and the valley- point. These points divide the curve into three important
regions namely, cut-off region, negative resistance region and saturation region.

28
 1. Cut-off region: In this region the emitter voltage is below
the peak-point voltage (Vp) and the emitter current is
approximately zero. The UJT is in its OFF position in this region.
2. Negative resistance region: The region between peak-point
and valley-point is called negative resistance region. In this
region the emitter voltage decreases from Vp to Vv and the
emitter current increases from Ip to Iv. The increase in emitter
current is due to the decrease in resistance RB1. It is because of
this fact that this region is called negative-resistance region. It is
the most important region from the application point of view.
For example, when the UJT is operated as an oscillator, it works
in the negative-resistance region.
3. Saturation region: The region beyond the valley point is called saturation region. In this region the
device is in its ON position. The emitter voltage (VE) remains almost constant with the increasing
emitter current.
Application of UJT
The important applications of UJT are (1) Trigger device for SCR’s and TRIAC’s (2)Non-sinusoidal
oscillators (3) Saw-tooth generators (4) Timing circuits

UJT Relaxation Oscillator

One of the major applications of the UJT is its use in the construction of an oscillator circuit
called the relaxation oscillator. The UJT relaxation oscillator consists of a capacitor C and a resistor R
connected to the emitter of UJT. Base B2 is connected to the +ve power supply through resistor R2 and
base B1 is connected to the ground through resistor R1. Usually R1 and R2 are low value resistors

29
(100Ω). These are used to limit the current through the UJT and protect it. We can take three outputs
from the UJT relaxation oscillator. These are from emitter (E), base B1 and base B2.
Initially, the UJT is in the OFF state, and the capacitor C is uncharged. C now gets
charged through R towards VBB. When the voltage across the capacitor,
Vc = Vp = ηVBB + VD
the UJT get fired and C gets discharged through the UJT (which is now on). The capacitor C
discharges to the valley point Vv, at which the UJT turns OFF and C stops discharging. Once the UJT
stops conducting and C discharges to Vv, the capacitor C again starts charging and the whole operation
repeats. It can be seen that the charging and the discharging of the capacitor produces a type of sweep
or saw tooth wave form across C as shown in Fig. 24(b).
Figure 24(b) shows the capacitor C charging towards Vp in time T1 and discharging towards Vv in
time T2, producing a sawtooth waveform, with a period T = T1 + T2. Usually the UJT discharges with a
very low ON resistance so that T2 << T1 and hence can be neglected. Thus the period of oscillation is
determined mainly by T =T1. For producing oscillations, UJT operates between the peak point and the
valley point. Since they are the stable operating points of the UJT, we say that the UJT operates in its
relaxed modes of operation. So, we call the UJT oscillator as a relaxation oscillator.
Figure 24(b) shows the waveforms at E and B1 respectively. The waveform at B1 shows sharp
trigger pulses. This is due to the fact that the circuit, under the firing condition, represents a
differentiating circuit consisting of the UJT (ON), C and R.
The voltage across C at the time of firing of the UJT is Vp, and this is the voltage with which the
UJT just turns ON. So, at the time of turning ON, the voltage across R1 is Vp itself, and this appears
across C as shown in Fig.24(b). Therefore C discharges very fast producing a sharp trigger pulse across
R1. This pulse is used for triggering SCR’s.
The waveform at B2 is the complementary of the waveform at B1.
The equation governing the charging of a capacitor is given by
Vc = Vv + VBB(1-e-t/RC) (1)
Where Vc = voltage across C
VBB = the final voltage
Vv = initial voltage
But Vc = Vp = ηVBB + VD (2)
Equating Equs. (1) and (2)

ηVBB + VD = Vv + VBB(1-e-t/RC)
or t = RC ln( )
since Vv and VD are negligible compared to VBB
t = T = RC ln( ) = 2.303 RC log )
Therefore the frequency of oscillation
f= =

30
Example 17: A silicon UJT has an interbase resistance of 8KΩ and RB1 of 5KΩ with IE = 0. Determine
(i) RB2 and (ii) intrinsic standoff ratio. Determine the UJT current, standoff voltage and peak
point voltage when voltage of 15V is applied between the bases. Take VD = 0.7V.

Solution: Given RBB = 8KΩ and RB1 = 5KΩ

(i) RB2 = RBB – RB1 = 8-5 = 3KΩ

(ii) Intrinsic stand of ratio η = = = 0.625

Assuming VE less than peak-point voltage, UJT current, IB1 = IB2 = = = 1.875mA

Standoff voltage = ηVBB = 0.625 x 15 = 9.375V

Peak point voltage, Vp = ηVBB + VD = 9.375 + 0.7 = 10.075

Example 18: The intrinsic stand- off ratio for an UJT is 0.65. Its interbase resistance is 10KΩ. Calculate
the values of the interbase resistances.

Solution: Given η = 0.65 and RBB = 10KΩ

η= or RB1 = η x RBB

i.e RB1 = 0.65 x 10 = 6.5KΩ

we have RBB = RB1 + RB2

Therefore RB2 = RBB – RB1 = 10-6.5 = 3.5KΩ

Example 19: The internal resistance for a UJT are as follows RB1 = 6KΩ, RB2 = 3KΩ. Calculate the
intrinsic stand- off ratio.

Solution: η = = = 0.66

Example 20: A silicon UJT has a stand- off ratio of 0.7 and an externally applied voltage VBB of 30V.
Calculate the stand- off voltage.

Solution: stand-off voltage, Vp = ηVBB = 0.7x30 = 21V

Example 21: A UJT relaxation oscillator has R = 60KΩ and C= 0.25µF. Determine the pulse repetition
frequency. Take intrinsic stand- off ratio to be 0.65.

Solution: Pulse repetition frequency

f= = 63.5Hz

31
Example 22: In UJT relaxation oscillator C = 0.2µF. Determine the frequency of the output voltage spikes
for 5KΩ and 10KΩ settings.

Solution: f=

(i) R = 5KΩ, f = 980Hz

(ii) R =10KΩ, f = 490Hz

Example 23: Determine the free running frequency of a UJT relaxation oscillator if RB1 = 4KΩ, RB2 =
2KΩ, R = 8.2KΩ and C = 0.01µF.

Solution: f =

Example 24: Estimate the minimum and maximum values of charging resistor in the UJT oscillator
circuit for manual trigger angle control of α between 20° and 160° for 50Hz supply. Assume C =
0.47μF and η = 0.6.

Solution: Firing angle α = ωT = ωRC ln( ) = 2πfRC x 2.303 log( )

(i) For α1 =20, R = R1

α1 = 2π x 50 x R1 x 0.47 x 10-6 x 2.303 x log ( ) = 20

Therefore R1 = 147.87KΩ

(ii) For α2 = 160, R = R2

α2 = 2π x 50 x R2 x 0.47 x 10-6 x 2.303 x log( ) = 160

Therefore R2 = 1182.99KΩ

Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)

A silicon controlled switch (SCS) is similar in construction to a silicon controlled rectifier as
shown in Fig.25(a). It has four terminals namely anode, cathode and two gate terminals called anode
gate and cathode gate. Figure 25(b) shows the schematic symbol of silicon controlled switch.

32
 The silicon controlled switch has an advantage that it can be turned ON and OFF using either
gate terminal. On the other hand an SCR can be turned ON only using its gate terminal. But SCR cannot
be turned OFF using the same gate terminal.

Operation of SCS
The operation of silicon controlled switch may be understood by referring to its transistor
equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.26.

In the beginning let us assume that the transistors

Q1(PNP) and Q2(NPN) are OFF. Therefore the SCS is
also OFF. If a positive pulse is applied on the cathode
gate, the transistor Q2 will be driven into conduction
and thus provides a path for the base current of
transistor Q1. When the transistor Q1 turns ON, its
collector current provides the base drive to the
transistor Q2. This action drives both the transistors Q1
and Q2 into saturation and hence the silicon controlled
switch turns ON. The silicon controlled switch can also
be turned ON by applying a negative pulse at the anode gate terminal as shown in the figure.
The SCS can be turned OFF by applying a positive pulse at the anode gate or a negative pulse at
the cathode gate. The applied anode gate voltage pulse reverse biases the base-emitter junction of the
transistor Q1 and turns it OFF. This in turn cuts-off the transistor Q2 due to which the silicon controlled
switch is also turned OFF. It will be interesting to know that the SCS can also be turned OFF by reducing
the anode current below the holding current value.
SCS has a low turn OFF time about 1 to 10µs. It is a low power device, anode current is about
200mA and power dissipation up to 500mW.

33
Advantages and disadvantages of SCS
The SCS has two major advantages over SCR
1. SCS has a fast turn OFF
2. It can be turned ON and OFF with pulses on either gate terminal.

The SCS has one disadvantage

1. It is available only in lower power ratings.

Applications of SCS
1. In timing, logic and triggering circuits
2. In pulse generators
3. In voltage sensors
4. In oscillators

Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)

Silicon unilateral switch (SUS) is a programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) and an avalanche diode
connected between gate and cathode. The avalanche diode is inbuilt into the device. Fig.(27) shows its
equivalent circuit, symbol and V-I characteristics.

The main feature of SUS is that it switches at a fixed voltage (Vs) determined by its avalanche diode
(the trigger voltage of SCR vary widely with changes in ambient temperature). When the anode to
cathode applied voltage is less than forward switching voltage, the current is nearly zero. When anode
to cathode voltage exceeds Vs (6 to 10 V) the device switches ON. The voltage drop across a SUS when it
is ON is about 1.5V. It is a unilateral device as it can conduct only in one direction from anode to
cathode. When applied voltage is less than Vs the application of a gate signal can turn ON the device.

34
For turning OFF it requires special commutation circuits as in a thyristor. The reverse breakdown
voltage is about 30V. SUS is used mainly in timing, logic and trigger circuits.

Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)

The silicon bilateral switch (SBS) is used for triggering SCR’s and triacs. SBS consist of two silicon
unilateral switches connected in parallel but in opposite directions. As the name suggests it can conduct
in both directions when anode to cathode voltage is more than switching voltage Vs (about 6 to 10
volts). Figure 28(a) shows the equivalent circuit, symbol and V-I characteristic of SBS. The operation of
SBS is similar to that of a triac. When the SBS is ON the voltage drop across it is about 1.7 volts.

Since the silicon bilateral switch conducts in either direction, therefore it does not have any reverse
voltage rating like SUS.

Applications

SUS and SBS are used in high speed switching circuits, digital circuits, dc power supply circuits, pulse
generators etc.

Silicon Asymmetrical Switch (SAS)

Silicon Asymmetrical switch (SAS) is similar to silicon bilateral switch (SBS). The advantage of SAS over
SBS is that the SAS has different firing voltage in the positive quadrant than it does in the negative
quadrant. This feature is useful in those circuits
that are affected by hysteresis. Example: circuits
with large inductors, motor circuits and
transformers.

35
 We know that when an inductor charges with current, it will become magnetized at a specific rate.
When the current flow is stopped or reversed the rate at which the original magnetic field collapses and
the reverse magnetic field builds will not be the same rate as the original signal. This effect is called
hysteresis and it may carry over to the electronic components used to provide the firing pulse to the
thyristors that are controlling the current flow. When hysteresis occurs the electronic device will heat
up more than the normal. The asymmetrical characteristic of the SAS will help limit the effects of
hysteresis.

36
CHAPTER 2
CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (CONVERTERS)
In ordinary half wave diode rectifier the load current flows during the positive half cycle
of the input signal. Where as in the case of controlled rectifier load current flows only when a
control signal is applied at the gate terminal to turn ‘ON’ the rectifier. In controlled rectifier SCR
or TRIAC is used instead of diode.

Figure below (a) shows a half wave controlled rectifier circuit and (b) shows the input voltage
waveform and load current waveform. It may be noted that the control signal is applied to turn
on the rectifier in such a way that the conduction starts at a specific point marked A in Fig. (b).
The point A (called firing point) corresponds to the angle α, so that the conduction is delayed by
this much period. It is because

of this delay that the amount of load current has reduced in a controlled rectifier as compared to an
ordinary rectifier.

37
 It will be noted that once the rectifier is turned ‘ON’ it remains in conduction for the rest of the
positive half-cycle i.e. up to 180° (or π radians). Thus the point A (at which the conduction
starts) is determined by the angle of delay in applying control signal to the rectifier circuit. As
the angle α increases, conduction is further delayed and the load current is also reduced.

The load current in a controlled rectifier may be controlled easily by selecting the firing point.
This feature (i.e. control over the load current) is of great advantage in controlled rectifiers.

Let the equation of the input voltage be,

Vi = Vm. sinωt = Vm. sinθ

For a half-wave rectifier, the average value is found by taking the average over the whole cycle (0 to
2π) even though the conduction takes place only from 0 to π in the entire cycle.

Therefore VL = = =

π
= α

= = (1+cosα)

And dc output voltage (or average load voltage), Vdc = VL = (1+cosα)

For a resistive load, average load current, Idc = IL = (1+cosα)

If α = 0, then Vdc = and Idc =

(The above values are the same as that of diode half wave rectifier)

Output waveforms for different Firing Angles

Fig. (a), (b), (c) and (d) shows the output waveforms for different firing angles (0°, 45°, 90° and
135°) along with the waveforms for input voltage and voltage drop across the controlled
rectifier. For all these waveforms the ac supply voltage is sinusoidal (Vin = Vmsinθ). Also a
resistive load is assumed. Further, when the SCR conduct the voltage drop across it is zero.
When it does not conduct, it is open circuit. It is evident from the waveforms that the firing
angle ‘α’ is increased from 0 through 135°, the output voltage keeps decreasing till α = 180°,
the output is zero.

38
Power Control using SCR

We know that a simple way to vary theload current is either to control the transformer
secondary voltage or insert a resistor in the load circuit. But in actual practice, neither of these
two methods is desirable. The control of transformer secondary voltage requires an expensive
equipment, whereas the insertion of resistor in the load circuit result in a loss of power.
Therefore, the use of silicon controlled rectifier is an efficient way of controlling the power.
When an ac voltage is applied across an SCR, it will turn ON during each positive half cycle and
OFF during each negative half cycle. The average load current can be varied over a wide limit by
controlling the point in each positive half cycle at which the SCR is turned ON. The point, at
which the SCR turns ON, may be controlled either by amplitude triggering or pulse triggering.

39
SCR Half wave Rectifier
Figure(a) shows the circuit of a SCR half-wave rectifier. In this circuit, the ac supply is connected
to the SCR through a load resistance RL. The gate current is obtained from the ac supply
through the resistances R and R1 and diode D connected in series. The diode D is connected in
such a way, so that it blocks the reverse voltage on the gate during the negative half-cycle.

Figure (b), (c) and (d) shows the waveforms of the voltage across SCR (VSCR), the load current (IL)
and voltage across the load (VL) respectively. The various curves in the waveforms may be
expained as follows: During the positive half-cycle, the SCR remains ‘OFF’ till the input voltage
reaches the gate trigger voltage i.e. point A in Fig. (b). As a result, there is no current through
RL. Hence load currrent (IL) and load voltage (VL) are zero. At point A, SCR is fired into
conduction. It acts like a short and voltage across it drops to zero i.e., curve AB in Fig. (b).
Under this condition, whole of the applied voltage drops across the load resistance. During the
negative input half cycle, the SCR is reverse biased and hence does not conduct. As a result, all
the applied voltage appears across SCR and none across the load resistance (RL).

The horizontal distance between the points O and A in Fig. (b) represents the time in the
positive half-cycle, when SCR is not conducting. This distance in degrees is called the firing
angle, phase angle or delay angle (α). This angle gives us an idea about the position at which
the SCR starts conduction with respect to the origin. It may may be noted from the figure that
the SCR is coducting between the points B and C. This angle is called conduction angle (ɸ) and
its value is equal to (π – α).

40
Average Values of Load Voltage and Current

Average load voltage

The equation of a.c. supply voltage is

Vin = Vm.sinωt = Vm.sinθ

We also know that for a half wave rectifier, the average value of a load voltage is determined by the
relation,

Vdc =

= = -----(1)

Now the load voltage is developed only during the period SCR conducts. This period lies between the
angles α and π. Therefore, we must take the average over the limits α to π instead of 0 to 2π in
equation (1)

Vdc = =

π
= α

= (1+cosα) -------(2)

Average load current

We know that load current, iL = vL/RL, therefore, the average value of the load current,

Idc = = (1 + cosα) = (1 + cosα) ------(3)

Where Im is equal to Vm/RL and is the maximum value of the load current. It may be noted that if
the firing angle (α) is equal to zero, then the average values of load voltage and current is
obtained from equations (2) and (3)

Therefore Vdc = and

41
 Idc = = =

It may be noted that the above results are the same as obtained for an ordinary diode half-wave
rectifier.

RMS load voltage

The rms voltage across the load is

2
Vrms = [ d(ωt)]0.5 = Vm[ 2
ωtd(ωt)]0.5

= Vm[ d(ωt)]0.5 = Vm[ {(ωt – )}]0.5

Or Vrms = Vm[ + ]0.5

RMS load current

And the rms load current is Irms =

90° Variable Half-wave Rectifier (Converter)

The SCR half-wave rectifier circuit shown in the half-wave rectifier is known as 90°
variable half-wave rectifier (or 90° variable phase control circuit). The term 90° variable implies
that we can make SCR to conduct anywhere from the origin to the maximum value of the
positive half-cycle i.e. the firing angle can be varied from 0° to 90°. The firing angle depends
upon the value of variable resistance (R). If the resistance R is set at a low value, the SCR will
start conducting near the origin. On the other hand, if R is set at a large value, the SCR may not
conduct until the maximum value of positive half-cycle.

180° Variable Half-wave Rectifier

Figure (a) shown below is a 180° variable half-wave rectifier. It is also called 180° variable phase
control circuit. In 180° variable half-wave rectifier, a capacitor (C) has been added between the
variable resistance (R) and the cathode of SCR. The combination of resistance (R) and capacitor
(C) forms a phase shift network. This network delays the point at which SCR will trigger on the
positive half of the applied voltage. The delay is provided by charging of the capacitor through
the resistance R. This allows the firing angle to be controlled from 0° up to a maximum of 180°.

42
 Figure (b) shows the waveforms of input voltage (Vin), capacitor voltage (Vc) and load voltage
(VL). It may be noted that capacitor voltage lags behind the input voltage. Their phase
relationship is given by the relation,

Vc =

It may be noted that the above expression that if the value of ω.C.R is much smaller than unity,
then the capacitor voltage (Vc) and the input voltage (Vin) are in phase with each other. As a
result of this, the firing will occur almost immediately after the input voltage is positive (i.e. α =
0°, ɸ = 180°). On the other hand, if the value of ω.C.R is much larger than unity, then capacitor
voltage is delayed by practically 90° from the input voltage and is much reduced in amplitude.
This allows the firing to be delayed to almost the end of half a cycle (i.e. α = 180°, ɸ = 0°)

The diode D2 has been added to reset capacitor (C) by discharging it during it during the
negative half cycle. This allows the firing to occur at the same point in each cycle.

SCR Full-wave Rectifier

Figure below shows the circuit used for SCR full-wave rectifier. It consists of a diode bridge in
series with SCR. The gate control input is left open, because a number of different firing circuits
can be used.

43
 When the terminal A is positive, the current will flow through the diode D1, SCR, load resistance
and D2 to the terminal B. However, if the terminal B is positive, the current will flow through
diode D3, SCR, load resistance and D4 to the terminal A. Thus the four diodes forming a bridge
provide full-wave rectification, while the SCR controls the amount of voltage applied to the
load.

Figure (b) shows the full-wave rectified and load voltage waveforms. The amount of voltage
applied to the load may be controlled by adjusting the firing angle of the SCR. This can be
achieved by adjusting the gate current supplied by the control circuit.

The average value of load voltage and load current may be obtained from the equation of the
applied voltage, i.e.,

Vin = Vm sinωt = Vm sinθ

Then average value of load voltage,

Vdc = =

π
= α = [(-cosπ) – (-cosα)]

= (1+cosα) -----(1)

And the average value of load current,

Idc = = (1+cosα) --------(2)

It may be noted that if α = 0 in equation (1) and (2) then average value of voltage and current,

44
Vdc = and Idc =

These values are the same as in an ordinary diode full-wave rectifier.

Problems:
1. A 100Ω load is connected to a peak supply of 300V through a controlled half-wave rectifier. The
load power is to be varied from 25W to 80W. What is the angular firing control required?
Solution: RL = 100Ω and Vm= 300V
We know that load power, P = Vdc.Idc
=[ (1+cosα)] x [ (1+cosα)]
2
= 22.8 (1+cosα)
(a) Angular firing control when load power , P = 25W
25 = 22.8 (1+cosα)2
Or cosα = 0.096 or α = 89.4°
(b) Angular firing control when load power P = 80W
80 = 22.8 (1+cosα)2
Or cosα = 0.873 or α = 29.2°
This shows that when the load power is varied from 25W to 80W, the firing angle is reduced from
89.4° to 29.2°.
2. In a controlled half-wave rectifier, peak supply voltage is 200V and the value of load resistor is
1KΩ. Calculate the power delivered to the load circuit for firing angles of (i) 0°, (ii) 45°, (iii) 90°
and (iv) 135°.
Given Vm = 200V, and RL = 1KΩ
(i) α = 0°, Vdc = (1+cosα) = 63.6V
Idc = = = 63.6mA
Therefore load power, P = Vdc .Idc = 63.6V x 63.6mA = 4045mW= 4.045W
(ii) α = 45°, dc output voltage, Vdc = (1+cosα) = 54V
Idc = = = 54mA
Therefore load power, P = Vdc.Idc = 54V x 54mA = 2916mW = 2.916W
(iii) α = 90°, dc output voltage, Vdc = (1+cosα) = 31.8V
Idc = = = 31.8mA
Therefore load power, P = Vdc.Idc = 31.8V x 31.8mA = 1011mW = 1.011W
(iv) α = 135°, dc output voltage, Vdc = (1+cosα) = 9.3V
Idc = = = 9.3mA
Therefore load power, P = Vdc.Idc = 9.3V x 9.3mA = 86.49mW
3. An SCR is used for converting a.c. to d.c. The anode supply is 220V, 50Hz and the firing angle is
adjusted at 60°. Find out the d.c. output voltage.

45
Sol: Vrms = 220Vand α = 60°
The maximum value of the applied voltage, i.e. anode supply
Vm = √2 x Vrms = √2 x 220 = 311V
The d.c. output voltage Vdc = (1+cosα) = (1+cos60°) = 74.2V
4. Find the value of resistance to limit the average current to 0.5A, when 100V r.m.s. is applied to
an SCR with a firing angle of 45°.
Sol: Idc = 0.5A, Vrms = 100V and α= 45°
Let RL is the value of resistance which limits the anode current to 0.5A
We know that maximum value of applied voltage, Vm= √2 x Vrms = √2 x 100= 141.4V
The average current, Idc = (1+cosα) = (1+cos45°) = 38.42/RL = 0.5
Therefore RL = 38.42/0.5 = 76.84Ω
5. A single phase half-wave rectifier circuit using a thyristor is fed by a transformer whose
secondary voltage is 400sinωt. Find the average load voltage, rms load voltage, average load
current and rms load current if the thyristor is fired at 30° in each positive half cycle. The load
resistance is 50Ω.
Sol: Vm = 400V, α = 30° and RL = 50Ω
Average dc voltage Vdc = (1+cosα) = (1+cos30°) = 118.8V
Average load current, Idc = = = 2.376A

RMS voltage,Vrms = Vm[ + ]0.5 = 400[ + ]0.5 = 197.1V

RMS current, Irms = = = 3.942A

6. A single phase ac supply 100sinωt is used to charge a 50V battery through a thyristor and a 10Ω
resistor. The thyristor is continuously fired by a dc signal. Find the average current in the
circuit.
Sol: The thyristor will conduct when the instantaneous value of ac voltage is more than 50V or
100sinωt = 50
Or ωt = π/6 and 5π/6
i= = 10sinωt -5
Average current = = |-10cosωt -5ωt|π/65π/6
= (-10cos + 10cos - 5x + 5x ) = 1.09A

7. If a half-wave controlled rectifier has a purely resistive load of R and the delay angle is α = π/3.
Determine (a) Rectification efficiency, (b) Form factor, (c) Ripple factor, (d) Transformer
utilization factor and (e) Peak inverse voltage for SCR
Solution:
(a) Rectification efficiency, η = where, Pdc = dc load power = V2dc/R and Pac = rms load
power = V2rms/R.

46
 Vdc = (1+cosα) , since,α=π/3 therefore Vdc = 0.239Vm

Also Vrms = Vm[ + ]0.5

For firing angle α=π/3 , Vrms = 0.485Vm

Therefore rectification efficiency η = (0.239Vm)2/(0.485Vm)2 =0 .2428 = 24.28%
(b) Form factor, (ff) = Vrms/Vdc = 0.485Vm/0.239Vm = 2.033 = 203.3%
(c) Ripple factor (Rf) = √(ff2 – 1) = 1.77 = 177%
(d) Trasformer utilization factor (TUF) = where Vs and Is are the rms secondary voltage and
current respectively.
Now Vs = Vm/√2 = 0.707Vm and Is = rms load current = Vrms/R = 0.485Vm/R
Therefore TUF =(V2dc/R)/Vs.Is = (0.239Vm)2/R/(0.707Vm x 0.485Vm/R)
= 0.166 or 16.6%
(e) Peak inverse voltage = Vm
8. An SCR is used to control the power of 1kW, 230V, 50Hz heater. Determine the heater power
for firing angles of 45° and 90°.
Solution: The heater resistance = R, and the rms current is the heat producing component of load
current.

Vrms = Vm[ + ]0.5

(i) At α=π/4, Vrms = 155V, Therefore heat power W = V2rms/R

R = 2302/1kW = 52.90Ω
Therefore W = (155)2/52.90 = 454.15 watts
(ii) At α=π/2, Vrms = 115V, Therefore W = (115)2/52.90 = 250watts

UJT Triggered SCR Phase Control

In SCR power control circuit a control circuit is needed to vary the firing or the phase angle at
which the SCR is triggered. The value of phase angle controls the power delivered to the load.
If we want to deliver the maximum power to the load, then the SCR must be triggered as soon
as the a.c. voltage across it goes positive i.e., the firing angle must be zero. Therefore, the SCR
will conduct for 180°after triggering. If the power requirement is below the maximum value,
the firing angle must be between 0° and 180°. In order to adjust the firing angle between 0°
and 180°, we need a control circuit. We have already seen that a 180° half-wave rectifier circuit
can be used to accomplish the control. But this circuit is affected by loading and supply voltage
variation. Therefore, this circuit does not give a better phase control. However, a better
control cab be achieved by using a unijunction transistor (UJT) relaxation oscillator circuit.

47
 This circuit shows a UJT oscillator controlling a SCR circuit. The SCR is in it ‘OFF’ state until the
UJT fires. When the UJT fires, the capacitor will discharge quickly through the resistor R4. This
positive pulse will turn ‘ON’ the SCR. The SCR will remain ‘ON’ until the SCR line voltage
approaches zero. At this point, the SCR will turn ‘OFF’ throughout the entire negative circle. A
similar circuit can also be made for triac phase control.

TRIAC Power Control

The triacs, like SCR’s are also used to control average power delivered to the load by the
method of phase control. The triac can be triggered such that the a.c. power is supplied to the
load for a controlled position of each half-cycle.

The triac is in its ‘OFF’ position during each positive half-cycle of the a.c. for a certain interval
called the delay angle or firing angle. Then triac is turned ‘ON’ and passes current through the
load for the remaining portion of the positive half-cycle, except that the current passes in the
opposite direction through the load. The action during both half-cycles is illustrated in the
figure (a). The resulting waveform of load current is shown in figure (b).

A simple example of phase control using a triac is shown in the figure (a) shown below. The
diodes are used to provide trigger pulses to the gate of the triac. The diode D1 conducts during
the positive half-cycle. The value of resistance R1 sets the point on the positive half-cycle at

48
 which the triac triggers. It may be noted that during this portion of the a.c. cycle, M.T.2 and G
are positive with respect to M.T.1.

The diode D2 conducts during the negative half-cycle and the resistance R1 sets the trigger
point. It may be noted that during this portion of the a.c. cycle, M.T.2 and G are negative with
respect to M.T.1. The resulting waveform of the voltage across the load resistor is shown in Fig.
(b). In the control circuit applications, it is necessary that the triac turn ‘OFF’ occurs at the end
of each positive and negative alteration of the input voltage. But the triac turn ‘OFF’ occurs,
usually, before the alteration of (positive or negative), when the load current falls below the
holding current value.

Diac-Traic Phase Control Circuit

Figure (a) below shows a basic diac-traic phase control circuit. When the input voltage
increases, either positively or negatively, the capacitor C2 charges at the rate determined by
setting of resistance R2. When the voltage across capacitor C2 exceeds the break over voltage
of diac, it turns ‘ON’. As a result of this, the capacitor C2 discharges through the conducting
diac into the gate of triac. Hence the triac turns ON and it conducts current through the load.
The waveform of voltage across the load is as shown in Fig. (b).

The circuit of Fig. (a) has a drawback that it can cause triac to trigger before the desired turn-ON
time. Such early turn-ON gives a prior control at low conduction angles. This drawback can be
minimized by including another time constant ( R3.C3) as shown in Figure below.

49
 This circuit can be adjusted to trigger triac over a wide range i.e., practically zero to full ON. The
waveform of load voltage shown in Fig. (b) above indicates that the current rises quickly ( in
about 1 or 2 msec.) each time the triac conducts. This rapid rise produces noise or radio
frequency interference (RFI), which may be radiated and can cause direct interference
equipment. The following methods may be used to reduce radio frequency interference,
depending upon the application.

1. In light dimming and speed controls, a RFI filter may be used as shown in figure below

2. In heat controls, the current through an electrical heater may be turned ON for a few cycles and
then turned OFF for a few cycles to maintain a desired temperature. If the turn ON is only
allowed to take place when the voltage is zero, no rapid increase in current takes place as it
does if the switching takes place during the cycle.

Applications: Diac-Traic phase control circuit can be used for light dimming, heat control or universal
motor control.

Inverters
Classification of Inverters

Inverters can be classified on the basis of a number of factors:

(a) Classification According to the Nature of Input Source

Based on the nature of input power source, inverters are classified as
(i) Voltage source inverters (VSI)

50
 (ii) Current source inverters(CSI)

In case of VSI, the input to the inverter is provided by a ripple free dc voltage source whereas in CSI,
the voltage source is first converted into a current source and then used to supply the power to
the inverter.

(b) Classification According to the Wave shape of the output voltage

The inverters can be classified according to the nature of output voltage waveform as:
(i) Square wave inverter
(ii) Quasi square wave inverter
(iii) Pulse-width modulated (PWM) inverters

A square wave inverter produces a square-wave ac voltage of a constant magnitude. The output
voltage of this type of inverter can only be varied by controlling the input dc voltage. Square-wave ac
output voltage of an inverter is adequate for low and medium power applications. However, the sine-
wave output voltage is the ideal waveform for many high power applications. Two methods can be
used to make the output closer to a sinusoid. One is to use a filter circuit on the output side of the
inverter. This filter must be capable of handling the large power output of the inverter, so it must be
large and will therefore add to the cost and weight of the inverter. Moreover, the efficiency will be
reduced due to the additional power losses in the filter.

The second method, pulse-width modulation (PWM) uses a switching scheme within the
inverter to modify the shape of the output voltage waveform.

Thyristor Inverter Classification

The thyristor invertors can be classified in the following categories:

1. According to the method of commutation

2. According to the connections
(a) Classification According to the Method of Commutation
According to the method of commutation, the SCR inverters can mainly be categorized in two
types, viz
1. Line commutated inverters
2. Forced commutated inverters
1. Line Commutated inverters: In case of ac circuits, ac line voltage is available across the
device. When the current in the SCR goes through a natural zero, the device is turned-
off. This process is known as natural commutation process and the inverters based on
this principle are known as line commutated inverters.
2. Forced Commutated Inverters: In case of dc circuits, since the supply voltage does not
go through the zero point, some external source is required to commutate the device.
This process is known as the forced commutation process and the inverters based on
this principle are called as forced commutated inverters. As the device is to be

51
 commutated forcefully, these types of inverters require complicated commutation
circuitries. These inverters are further classified as: (i) Auxiliary commutated inverters
and (ii) Complementary commutated inverters.
(b) Classification According to Connections
According to the connections of the thyristors and commutating components, the inverters can
be classified mainly in three groups. These are:
1. Series inverters
2. Parallel inverters
3. Bridge inverters: Bridge inverters are further classified as: (i) Half-bridge and (ii) Full-
Bridge.

An inverter is a device that changes dc power into ac power. The inversion process can be
achieved with the help of transistors, SCRs and tunnel diodes etc. For low and medium outputs,
transistorized inverters are suitable but for high power outputs, SCR inverters are essential. For
very low voltage and high current requirements, tunnel diode inverters are used.

For inverter applications, transistors have definite advantages over SCRs regarding the
switching speed, simplicity of control circuitry, high efficiency and greater reliability. It is mainly
due to this fact that SCR inverters require complicated circuitry for triggering and commutation.

The basic working principle of an inverter may be explained with the help of circuit shown in the
following figure. It is called voltage-driven inverter because a dc voltage source is connected
through

semiconductor switches directly to the primary of a transformer. In the figure S1 and S2 are
switching devices which open and close alternately at regular intervals of time. The two
switching devices are generally driven by an astable multi-vibrator operating at the desired
frequency. When S1 is closed, the entire dc source voltage V is applied across points A and B of
the transformer primary. S1 remains closed for a certain period of time after which it is cut off
and S2 closes. It also remains closed for the same period of time during which the source

52
 voltage V is impressed across points B and C of the primary. S2 then opens out and S1 closes.
In this way, an alternating voltage is applied across the primary which induces an ac voltage in
the secondary. Since dc supply voltage is connected directly across the primary, the output
waveform of the secondary voltage is a square wave (shown in figure below) irrespective of the
type of load and load power factor. However, the waveforms of both the

primary and secondary currents depend on the type of load whether resistive, inductive or
capacitive.

Single-Phase Inverter
Figure shows a single phase inverter with a load resistor using 4 SCRs working in pairs. The
triggering and commutating circuitry of the SCRs has not been shown in the figure. The two
thyristors SCR1 and SCR4 are triggered simultaneously so that load current passes through RL
from left to right.

53
Exactly when these two SCRs are switched off by the commutating circuitry, thyristors SCR2 and SCR3
are triggered into conduction thereby sending current through RL from right to left. Hence, an
ac voltage is developed across the load whose waveform is as shown in figure.

Push Pull Inverter

Figure shows an inverter which employs two SCRs and one transformer. These two SCRs are
triggered into conduction alternately for the same period of time. As a result, current through
the primary becomes alternating which induces an ac voltage across the secondary and hence
the load. The secondary ac voltage has a square waveform. The capacitor C is connected
across the anodes of the two SCRs and provides commutation i.e. switching off of the SCRs. The
capacitor charges to double the supply voltage as a result of transformer action between the
two halves of the primary winding. This large voltage is sufficient to reverse-bias the SCRs and
drive the holding current below its rated value.

54