DIRECT-CURRENT

GENERATOR
CHARACTERISTICS
 MODULE 2
Direct-Current Generator Characteristics

INTRODUCTION

The generator performance deals primarily with the relation between excitation,
terminal voltage, and load. These relations can be best exhibited graphically by means
of curves known as generator characteristics. These characteristics show at a glance the
behavior of the generator under different load conditions. Furthermore, it is of great
importance in judging the suitability of generator for a particular purpose.

In this module, you will learn the different types of dc generators and how each type
behaves under different operating conditions. Specifically, at the end of this module, you
should be able to:

 Differentiate the types of DC generators and know their operating characteristics

 Solve problems related to the operating characteristics of DC generators
 Evaluate the performance of DC generators based on losses and efficiency

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Read the following reference/s for a detailed discussion of the

following topics:

 Electrical Machines (2th edition) by C. Siskind Chapter 4

pp. 94 – 129

 A Textbook of Electrical Technology Vol. 2 by Chapter 28

Theraja pp. 968 - 989

Types of DC Generators

 According to the type of the main field winding used:

 Series Generator: This type of dc generator uses only the series field winding.
The series field winding consists of relatively few turns of thick wires and is
joined in series with the armature. Such generators are rarely found in use
today except for special purposes.

 Shunt Generator: This type of dc generator uses only the shunt field winding
which consists of many turns of small wires. The shunt field winding is
connected across or in parallel with the armature so that the full, or nearly
full, line voltage is impressed across it.

 Compound Generator: This type of dc generator has two sets of field

winding. One set is made of low-resistance windings in series with the
armature (series field). The other set is made of high resistance winding and
is connected in parallel with the armature circuit (shunt field). There are two
ways of making connections for the compound generator. One way is to
connect the shunt field directly across the armature (short-shunt). The other
way is by connecting the shunt field across the armature through the series
field (long-shunt). The shunt- and series-field coils around each of the main
poles should be so connected so that they create flux in the same direction
if the tendency of the generator to lose voltage is to be counteracted.
When this done, the machine is said to be cumulative-compounded. If, for
some special reason, the action of the series field must oppose, that is,
“buck”, the shunt field, the machine is referred to as differential-
compounded.

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Direct-Current Generator Characteristics
Figure 1 shows the schematic diagrams for the series and shunt types of generator,
while Fig.2 represents the short- and long-shunt connections of compound
generator.

Figure 1 Schematic diagrams for (a) Series and (b) Shunt

(a) Short-shunt connection (b) Long-shunt connection

Figure 2 Two arrangements for compound generator operation

 According to the source of excitation for its field windings:

 Separately-Excited DC Generator: Separately-excited generators are those

whose field windings are energized from a separate, source of supply. The
obvious disadvantage of a separately excited dc generator is that it
requires an external dc source of excitation. However, since the output
voltage may be controlled more easily and over a wide range (from zero
to maximum), this type of generator finds many applications.

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Figure 2 Separately-Excited Generator

 Self-Excited DC Generator: Self-excited generators are those whose field

windings are energized by the current supplied by its own armature. This
type of generator builds up its voltage from residual magnetism.

 Dual-Excited DC Generator: The sources of excitation for the field windings

are from the armature and a separate source. This applies to compound
generators.

Figure 3 Dual-Excited Generator

No-load (Open-Circuit) Characteristics of DC Generators

When a shunt or compound generator operates without load- that is, when it is driven by
a prime mover, is properly excited, and has none of the load switches closed – a voltage
will appear at the terminals that are normally connected to the electrical devices. This
generated voltage will depend, for a given machine, upon two factors:

a) the speed of rotation

b) the flux

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Direct-Current Generator Characteristics

E g  N
E g  kN
 If the flux is kept constant while the speed is increased or decreased, the voltage
will rise or fall, respectively, in direct proportion to the change in speed. This may
be shown to be true experimentally by driving a separately excited generator over
a wide range of speed as possible while the field current is kept absolutely
constant. The set-up for this experiment is shown in Fig. 4. To perform such an
experiment, it will be desirable first to adjust the generator speed to its highest
permissible value and at the same time to set the field current If so that a high
voltmeter reading is recorded.

Figure 4 Separately excited shunt generator connections to determine

experimentally the no-load characteristics

As the speed is gradually lowered without changing the field excitation, lower
readings of Eg are recorded. A plot of Eg vs. rpm will yield a straight line as depicted
in Fig. 5.

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Figure 5 Direct proportionality relationship between the no-load generated

voltage Eg and the speed rpm with constant excitation

 Similarly, if the speed is held constant while the flux (not the field current) is varied,
the voltage will change in direct proportion to the change in magnetism. However,
to show that the generated voltage is directly proportional to the flux is much more
difficult because magnetism measurements are not made as readily as are those
of amperes and volts or rpm. From a practical point of view, it is more desirable to
know how the no-load generated voltage is affected by changes in field current.
This can also be demonstrated experimentally with the same set-up in Fig. 4. In
performing this experiment, the generator is run at its normal speed. The field
current If is adjusted from zero in steps and the corresponding values of generated
emf are recorded. A so-called saturation curve (or magnetization curve) can then
be plotted to show the relationship between the generated voltage and the field
current (Fig. 6).

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Figure 6 Saturation curve for dc shunt generator operating at constant speed

The following important points may be noted from the saturation curve:

1. It should be observed that the initial voltage is not zero at zero field current.
The initial value, usually low, is due to residual magnetism.
2. The relationship between the no-load voltage and the field current is linear
up to the so-called “knee”.
3. After the knee, the curve departs from the straight line. This means that the
generated voltage does not increase as rapidly as the field current.
4. In the upper part of the curve, the voltage is leveling off. This where
magnetic saturation of the poles sets in.
5. The intersection of the saturation curve and the excitation line is the value
of voltage to which the generator will build up. The excitation line is the plot
of field voltage, Vf, versus field current, If.

NOTE: The saturation curve emphasizes the extremely important fact that the
generated voltage is directly proportional to the flux and not the field current.

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Direct-Current Generator Characteristics

Building Up the Voltage of a Self-excited Shunt Generator

To build up means to rise from its residual voltage, Er, to its normal operating value. The
self-excited shunt generator cannot build up its voltage unless all the conditions for
building up have been fulfilled. There are four requirements for build-up as discussed
below:

1. The machine must develop a small voltage resulting from residual magnetism. The
voltage of a self-excited shunt generator will not rise much above an extremely
low residual value if the residual flux is insufficient. Generators that are expected to
operate at voltages up to 250 V should have residual values of flux so that 4 to 10
residual volts are developed. A new machine or one that has lost its residual flux
because of a long period of idleness must be separately excited to create the
necessary magnetism. This is usually done while the armature is at rest by
connecting the shunt field only to a separate dc source for a few seconds. This
practice is generally referred to as flashing the field.

2. The total field resistance must be lower than the so-called critical resistance. A
Vf
generator will fail to build up if the slope of excitation line (i.e.,  R f ) is about
If
equal to or greater than the straight-line portion of the magnetization. An example
should make this clear. Suppose the build-up point is 300 V. As shown in Fig. 7, if
the total field resistance is 180 Ω, the generator cannot build up to the required
voltage. But if the total field resistance is lowered to 125 Ω, the excitation line will
cross the saturation curve at the build-up point. The so-called critical resistance is
defined as the resistance below which machine will build up and above which it
will not.

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Figure 7 Effect of Field Resistance in the Build-up process of Self-excited shunt dc

generator

3. The speed of the armature must be above the so-called critical speed. A
generator will fail to build up if, for a given field resistance, the speed is below the
so-called critical speed. The critical speed is defined as the speed above which
build-up will occur and below which it will not. As shown below, the generator will
build up to 300 V at the speed of 1800 rpm. Below 1800 rpm, it will not build up to
the desired voltage.

Figure 8 Effect of generator speed in the Build-up process of Self-excited shunt dc

generator

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The critical speed may be determined experimentally. If, starting from rest, the
armature speed is gradually increases, the critical speed will be indicated by a
sudden rapid rise in voltage.

The generator is usually operated at some definite speed originally fixed by the
manufacturer. However, should it be desirable to operate at some higher or lower
speed, the field rheostat must be adjusted for the new speed.

4. There must be a proper relation between the direction of rotation and the
connections of the field to the armature terminals. Thus, if a generator fails to build
up, and other conditions have been fulfilled, the difficulty may be corrected by:
a) reversing the direction of rotation; or
b) interchanging the field terminals with respect to the armature terminals

EXAMPLE 1

If the no-load voltage of a separately excited shunt generator is 110 V at 1350 rpm, what
will be the voltage if the speed is increased to 1600 rpm? Assume constant field
excitation.

Solution

E g  kN
Eg1 Eg2

N1 N2
Eg2 N2

Eg1 N1
 1600 
E g @ 1600    110  130.37 V.
 1350 

EXAMPLE 2

A self-excited shunt generator develops 230 V when the field current is 3.6 A. What will be
the open-circuit voltage of this machine when the field resistance is reduced until the
field current rises to 4 A. Assume that the flux changes half as much as the field current.

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Direct-Current Generator Characteristics

Solution

E g  kN
Assume constant speed :
Eg2 
 2
Eg1 1
 2  1 1  4  3.6 
  
1 2  3.6 
 2  1 1

1 18
2 19

1 18
Eg2 19

Eg1 18
 19 
E g 2   230  242.78 V
 18 

EXAMPLE 3

The following data were obtained for the magnetization curve of a 4-pole shunt
generator.

If E If E If E

0 6 0.8 160 1.56 260

0.1 20 1.0 200 1.92 280

0.4 80 1.14 220 2.40 300
0.6 120 1.32 240 3.04 320

(a) Draw the magnetization curve.

(b) If the total shunt field resistance (including the field rheostat) is 125 Ω, determine the
voltage to which the machine will build up as a self-excited generator.

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Direct-Current Generator Characteristics
Solution

If Vf  I f R f
0 0
0.1 12.5
0.4 50
0.6 75
0.8 100
1.0 125
1.14 142.5
1.32 165
1.56 195
1.92 240
2.40 300
3.04 380

The build-up voltage is 300 V and it occurs when If = 2.40 A.

Behavior of a Shunt Generator under Load

After a self-excited shunt generator builds up to a required voltage, a no-load voltage, it

is ready to supply power to a number of electrical loads up to, and a little above, its rated
capacity. One of the most important characteristics of any generator is its behavior with
regard to the terminal voltage when the load current is increased. In the shunt type of
generator, the voltage always falls down as more current is delivered to the load. There
are three reasons for this:

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1. As more current is delivered by the armature, the voltage drop in the armature
increases, thus making a lower emf available at the load terminals.
2. When the armature terminal voltage falls, the field winding suffers a corresponding
reduction in current, which, in turn, reduces the flux. The latter further reduces the
generated emf.
3. When the armature winding carries increasing values of load current, the armature
core becomes an electromagnet, apart from the effect of the main poles. This
electromagnetic action of the armature reacts with the main field flux further to
reduce the flux, the result being that the generated emf suffers an additional drop.

All three actions occur simultaneously, since they are all interdependent upon one
another.
 A load test is performed to determine the behaviour of the self-excited generator
under load or the so-called external characteristic curve. The standard procedure
is to operate the generator at rated speed as the load current is varied from zero
to somewhat above rated value. Proper adjustments should be made with the
field rheostat, so that the full-load current is delivered at name-plate voltage.
Measurements are recorded of speed (which should be kept constant), load
current, field current, and terminal voltage. Then, the external characteristic curve
similar to Fig. 9 is plotted.

Figure 9. Characteristic Terminal Voltage vs. Load Current curve of self-excited

shunt generator

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It should be noted that the load voltage falls from its no-load voltage VNL to its full-load
value VFL. The generated voltage is always greater than the terminal or load voltage by
exactly the amount of the voltage drop in the armature circuit. Analysing the circuit in
Fig. 10 leads to the following equation:

V  Eg  IA RA
V  E g  I SH  I L R A

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of self-excited shunt generator with load

NOTE: In dc shunt generator, the change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-
load is small. The terminal voltage can always be maintained constant by
adjusting the field rheostat.

EXAMPLE 4

A 25-kW, 230-V shunt generator has a no-load voltage of 250 V. If the change in voltage
is assumed to be uniform between no-load and full-load kW, calculate the kW output
when the terminal voltages are 240 and 235 volts.

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Solution

Terminal Voltage V

250

240
235
230

kW
kW@240 kW@235 25

By similar triangles :
250  230 250  240

25 kW@ 240
kW@ 240  12.5 kW

250  230 250  235


25 kW@ 235
kW@ 235  18.75 kW

Behavior of a Cumulative Compound Generator under Load

The addition of the series field connected to aid the shunt field has the important
fundamental purpose of creating additional values of flux with increasing load currents
so that the armature will generate greater voltages and thus compensate for the normal
tendency of the shunt machine to lose terminal voltage. The behavior of a cumulative
compound generator will depend upon the degree of compounding of the said
machine, i.e., whether a given generator is flat-, over-, or under-compounded. This
degree of compounding is determined primarily by the number of series-field ampere-
turns, A seTse , with respect to the shunt-field ampere turns, A shTsh .

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 Flat-compounded: If the series field will produce a sufficient amount of ampere-
turns to permit the generated voltage to increase by an amount that is exactly
equal to the armature voltage drop when the armature current changes from zero
to I AFL, then VFL can be made equal to VNL. It is customary to use flat-compound
generators where the transmission distance between the generator and the load
is short.

VFL  V NL
 Over-compounded: If, on the other hand, the series field has an
overcompensating effect so that EG increases to a greater extent between no
load to full load than the armature resistance voltage drop, then V FL will exceed
VNL. Over-compound generators are employed where the load is a considerable
distance from the generator because the machine not only must generate
sufficient voltage to overcome its own internal drop but also must compensate for
the transmission-line voltage drop.

VFL  VNL
 Under-compounded: If the full-load generated voltage is more than the no-load
value by an amount that is somewhat less than the armature-resistance drop, the
external characteristic may droop.

VFL  VNL
For testing a compound generator, the same procedure is followed as was described for
testing shunt machines. The generator is first adjusted to deliver full load at rated voltage.
Then, readings are taken as the load is reduced in steps to zero. When the data are
plotted, one of the typical curves shown in Fig. 11 will be obtained.

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Figure 11. External characteristic curves for cumulative compound generator

Degree of Compounding Adjustment

It is customary in manufacturing practice to equip compound generators with sufficient

series-field turns so that they will operate considerably over-compounded. Then, by
connecting a very low-resistance shunt across the series field, the no load voltage may
be brought up to almost any desired value to meet individual demands. It is therefore
possible to modify an over-compound generator so that it will be flat- or under-
compounded. This very low resistance shunted directly across the series field is called a
diverter because it diverts, or bypasses, part of the load current through a section of wire
that creates no flux. Figure 12 is a wiring diagram illustrating the connections of a
compound generator with a series-field diverter.

 When the diverter resistance is extremely large, the diverted current will be small
and the external characteristic will be that of an over-compounded generator.

 On the other hand, if the resistance of the diverter approaches that of a short
circuit, practically the load or armature current will be diverted around the series
field and the external characteristic will resemble that of an under-compounded
generator.

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(a) Long-shunt Compound (b) Short-shunt Compound

Figure 12. Schematic wiring diagram of a compound generator with a series-field

diverter

It must be pointed out that since the series-field resistance RSE and the diverter resistance
RD are in parallel, the total load or armature current will divide so that I SE and ID are related
to each other by an inverse ratio of the respective resistances.

I SE RD

ID R SE
I SE R SE  I D R D

EXAMPLE 5

A 20-kW 250-volt short shunt compound generator has a series field whose resistance is
0.022 Ω and each of whose four coils has 6 ½ turns. If a diverter having a resistance of
0.058 Ω is connected across the series field, calculate the series-field ampere-turns per
pole at full load.

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Solution

Load current at Full - load :

20 kW
IL   80 A
250

By Current - Divider formula :

 
  80 
RD 0.058
I SE  I L    58 A
 R D  R SE   0.058  0.0.022 
 AT se  A seTse  58 A 6.5 turns  377 ampere - turns

EXAMPLE 6

The series field of a compound generator has a resistance of 0.018 Ω. If the full-load
current is 120 A and it is necessary to divert 36 A so that the full-load voltage will be
brought down to the desired value, calculated the value of the diverter resistance, (b)
the length of the square manganin wire with resistivity of 265 Ω-CM/ft and whose cross-
sectional area is 15,616 circular mils (CM).

Solution

Ise  IL  ID  120  36  84 A

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I se RD

ID R se
I   84 
R D  R se  se   0.018   0.042 
 ID   36 
L
RD 
A
265L
0.042 
15616
L  2.48 ft.

Behavior of Series Generator under Load

Since the armature, series field, and load are all connected in series, any current that is
delivered to the load must, among all other things, simultaneously serve to perform the
following functions:

a) It must develop useful energy to the load.

b) It must provide the necessary excitation for the series field so that a voltage is
generated in the armature.
c) It creates demagnetizing armature-reaction effect.

When the load is zero (on open circuit), the current is zero. Under this condition the series
field ampere-turns will be zero and the generated voltage will be the residual value Er. If
the circuit is closed through a load resistance, a current will flow, in which event the series
field will create additional flux and thereby cause a higher voltage to be generated. At
the same time the armature will develop a demagnetizing action, and a voltage drop
will occur in the armature and series field resistances.

Therefore, the voltage that will appear at the series generator terminals will be stabilized
at some value that is a function of the net generated voltage (due to the net flux) and
the I(RA + RSE) voltage drop. The terminal emf V will, obviously, rise with the load current
so long as the overall voltage increases more rapidly that those factors which tend to
reduce it. However, for considerable loads, the iron portions of the magnetic circuit
becomes highly saturated under which condition the subtractive effects exceed the
slowly rising generated emf. Then, the terminal voltage begins to drop.

As Fig. 13 shows, the external characteristic curve rises rapidly from the initial residual
voltage value during the light-load stages, then tapers off to maximum, and finally drops
to zero.

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Figure 13. External Characteristic curve for Series generator

NOTE: Because of the varying nature of the terminal voltage with respect to load,
the series generator has few practical applications. Series generators are
sometimes used in a dc system for voltage-boosting purposes where the
external characteristic curve is advantageous to the installation. In Europe,
they are sometimes employed in the Thury high-voltage dc systems for the
transmission of electrical energy.

Voltage Regulation

A convenient standard of reference used to measure the performance of generator is

referring the change in voltage between full-load and no-load to the full-load voltage.
This ratio is represented as a percentage and is called the percent voltage regulation. In
equation form, it is expressed as:

V NL  V FL
%VR   100%
V FL

The voltage regulation is a measure of the extent to which the voltage of a generator
changes as the load is gradually lowered from its rated value to zero load. It is an
indication of how poorly or how well a generator performs.

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 The ideal would be zero change in voltage. Under this condition, the voltage
would remain essentially constant. This is never attained in shunt and series
generators. In the case of a compound generator, the degree of compounding
can be adjusted so that V NL  VFL (flat-compounded).
 On the other hand, a poor generator would be one whose voltage changes
considerably between full load and no load.

EXAMPLE 7

The voltage of a 100-kW, 250-V shunt generator rises to 260 V when the load is removed.
What full-load current does the machine deliver, and what is its percent regulation?

Solution

100 kW
I FL   400 A.
250
V  VFL 260  250
%VR  NL  100%   100%  4%
VFL 250

Magnetic Action of the Armature (Armature Reaction)

Armature Reaction is produced by the load current in the armature conductors that
results in a magnetic field whose direction is displaced 90 electrical degrees with respect
to the main field. It depends upon and directly proportional to the load current.

The following are the important effects of armature reaction:

 Field Distortion: The current in the armature winding creates a field of its own and
that this field is superimposed on the main field. Note particularly that this armature
flux is in quadrature with the main field flux. The two fields then react with each
other. The resulting magnetic action of the armature tends to distort and alter the
direction of the uniformly distributed main field and create a slight demagnetizing
effect. The resultant field has a new direction obliquely downward.

 It seriously affects commutation because sparking will occur at the brushes: One
of the most important functions of the dc machine is to commutate the armature
current properly. For successful commutation, coil elements must be short-
circuited when the coil sides are cutting no flux. This implies that the brushes must
be located so that the coil sides are in magnetic neutral zones during the short-
circuit periods. It does not necessarily mean however that the brushes line up

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 MODULE 2
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exactly on the mechanical neutral. There are two possible extreme locations for
the brushes with respect to the poles:

a) When the ends of an armature coil connect to commutator segments

midway between the coil sides, the brush neutral lines up with the center of
the pole. (Fig. 14a)
b) When the ends of an armature coil connect to commutator segments in
line with one side of a coil, the brush neutral lines up with the magnetic
neutral of the main poles. (Fig. 14b)

(a) (b)

Figure 14. Sketches illustrating position of brushes with respect to pole center for
symmetrical and unsymmetrical coils

Since the resultant field is badly twisted out of shape and is directed obliquely
downward, the magnetic neutral is shifted in the direction of rotation so that it will
always be at right angles to the resultant field. Such displacement affects
commutation, because sparking will occur at the brushes unless they are shifted
to locations that reduce sparking.

 It reduces the generated voltage: The armature flux weakens the field on one half
of each pole and strengthens the field on the other half. If the decrease is the

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 MODULE 2
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same as the increase, the magnitude of the resultant flux would remain
unchanged. But the decrease is usually greater than the increase because of
magnetic saturation. The net result is a reduction in flux (demagnetization), which
in turn, decreases the generated voltage. The extent to which the cross-
magnetizing armature reaction affects the main field may be determined by the
following analysis:

Z I
 The armature has conductors under each pole and each one carries A
P a
amperes.
ZI A
 Therefore, the total number of ampere-conductors per pole will be .
aP
 However, only those conductors that are directly under the pole faces have a
measurable magnetizing or demagnetizing effect upon the main poles,
because the conductors between the pole tips, in the interpolar zones, act
upon high-reluctance magnetic circuits. If  represents the ratio of pole arc to
ZI A
pole pitch, the maximum effective ampere-conductors per pole will be .
aP
 Since two conductors are the equivalent of one turn, it follows that one half of
each pole is effectively magnetized and the other half effectively
demagnetized. Hence, the cross-magnetizing ampere-turns per pole is

ZI A
Cross magnetizing AT per pole 
2aP
Where:
 = ratio of pole arc to pole pitch
Z = number of armature conductors
IA = armature current
P = number of poles
a = number of armature paths connected in
parallel (determined by type of armature
winding)

EXAMPLE 8

The lap-wound armature of a 6-pole dc generator has a total of 378 conductors and
carries 800 A at full load. If the pole arc is 6.75 in. and the armature-core diameter is 20
in., calculate the maximum cross-magnetizing ampere-turns per pole that has a
magnetizing or demagnetizing effect on each pole tip.

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Solution
Pole pitch will be measured in terms of the circumfere nce of the
armature core, i.e.,
armature - core circumfere nce  20 10
YP     in.
P 6 3
6.75
   0.645
10

3
0.645378800
Cross  magnetizin g AT/pole 
266
 2710 ampere - turns

Some Corrective Methods to Counteract the Effects of Armature Reaction

 Brush Shifting: When the armature of a dc machine (without interpoles) carries

current, the magnetic and mechanical neutrals do not coincide. This affects
commutation because sparking will occur at the brushes unless they occupy
positions that short-circuit coil sides in the neutral zone. The brushes must therefore,
be shifted to locations that reduce sparking. Moreover, the brushes must be shifted
back and forth continually as the load changes because the effect of armature
reaction depends upon the value of the armature current or they must be located
in some compromise position that represents the best average load.

 Chamfered Pole Shoe and Pole-core Laminations with one pole tip: One method
that partly counteracts distortion and demagnetization involves a pole-shoe
construction that increases the reluctance between the pole tips and the surface
of the armature core to reduce the flux produced by the armature mmf. Two pole-
shoe designs are employed:

 In one of these the rounded surface of the pole shoe is not concentric with
the circular armature core, i.e., the pole shoe is chamfered. (Fig. 15a)
 A second scheme uses pole-core laminations with one pole tip. In
assembling the laminations, the pole tips are alternated from one side to
the other, so that the cross-sectional area of the iron is one-half as much
under the pole tips as under the center section.(Fig. 15b)

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Figure 15. Special pole-core laminations to counteract the effect of armature reaction

 Interpoles (Commutating Poles): These are narrow poles placed exactly halfway
between the main poles, centering on the mechanical neutral planes. The existing
windings for these poles are always permanently connected in series with the
armature winding because the interpoles must produce fluxes in their air gaps that
are proportional to the armature current. Such a relationship can exist only when
the iron potions of the magnetic circuits are unsaturated, which means that the
interpoles must be operated below the knee of the magnetization curve.

 Referring to Fig. 16a, the armature magnetomotive force (mmf) or ampere-

turns creates a field vertically downward. Since the part of this field that is
detrimental to good commutation is in a narrow zone between lines aa’
and bb’, interpoles located in this area and creating an mmf of the proper
value will counteract the effect of armature reaction.
 A pair of such interpoles is shown in Fig. 16b. Note that the interpolar zones
are free of magnetism.

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Figure 16. Sketches showing how interpoles counteract the effect of armature reaction
in interpolar zones of a dc generator

NOTE: 1) The polarities of the interpoles in a generator are the same as that of
the succeeding main poles in the direction of rotation, whereas in a
motor, they must be the same as the preceding main poles in the
direction of rotation.
2) The interpoles have no effect upon the armature mmf that distorts the
main field. Field distortion is still present and flashover can occur if
abnormally heavy loads are suddenly applied.

Assuming the same number of interpoles as main poles, each one must be provided with
sufficient ampere-turns to accomplish three things simultaneously. These are:

 It must oppose the total cross-magnetizing ampere-turns in its own commutating

zone. To oppose the total cross-magnetizing ampere-turns per pole, the interpole
ZI A
must develop, first of all, amp-turns.
2aP
 It must inject flux into the armature to nullify the effect of self-induction and thus
overcome the reluctance of its own air gap. The interpole must send C maxwells
across the air gap, whose equivalent length,  e in inches, is slightly larger than the
actual air gap because of the slotted armature. But

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gi
c  x Agi
6.45
mmf 0.4 x (AT )gi
and c  
 (e x 2.54) / Agi

Where:
 gi = flux density in the air gap, lines/in2
Agi = air-gap area, cm2
(AT)gi = interpole ampere-turns for the air gap

Then equating both values of C :

gi x Agi 0.4 x (AT )gi x Agi


6.45 e x 2.54

The interpole ampere-turns required to overcome the reluctance of its own air-
gap is

(AT )gi  0.313gie

 It must overcome the reluctance of its iron magnetic-flux paths. The interpole
ampere-turns required to overcome the reluctance of the iron portions of the
magnetic circuit is usually estimated as being about 0.4 to 0.8 times the air-gap
ampere-turns. Taking an average value, the ampere-turns for the iron portion
about 0.6(AT)gi.

In all, the total interpole ampere-turns is:

ZIA
(AT )i   (0.313gie)  (0.6 x 0.313gie)
2aP
ZIA
(AT )i   0.5gie
2aP

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EXAMPLE 9

Calculate the number of ampere-turns required by an interpole to overcome the

reluctance of the air-gap for a flux density of 14 800 lines/in 2 if the equivalent length of
the air gap is 0.28 in.

Solution

(AT )gi  0.313 gie

 0.313148000.28
 13000 ampere - turns

EXAMPLE 10

The armature of a 6-pole machine has a wave winding with a total of 328 conductors
and carries a current of 280 A at full load. If the air-gap flux density under each interpole
is 12500 lines/in2 and the equivalent air-gap length is 0.24 in., calculate (a) the number of
amp-turns required by each of the six interpoles; (b) the number of turns on each
interpole.

Solution

ZI A
a  (AT )i 
 0.5 gi e
2aP
328280 ampere - turns
  0.5(12500)24  5320
226 pole
 b  (AT )i  interpole winding current  number of turns
5320 ampere - turns
number of turns   19 turns/pole
280 A

 Compensating Windings: Compensating windings are used for the purpose of

neutralizing the effect of armature reaction in the zones outside the influence of
the interpoles and particularly to maintain a uniform flux distribution under the
faces of the main poles. They are special windings placed in slots or holes in the
pole faces and carry, as do the interpole windings, the total armature current.
Figure 17 illustrates how the conductors for such a winding are placed in the pole

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faces and indicates the current directions with respect to those in the armature
winding.

Figure 17. Sketch illustrating how the conductors of a compensating winding are
arranged in the pole faces, and the current directions with respect to those in the
armature

In the simple two-pole sketch of Fig. 17,

 One set of connectors would join the upper three pole-face conductors on
the north pole to the upper three conductors on the south pole, while similar
connections would be made for the lower six conductors of the north and
south poles.
 The two sets would then be joined in series and connected in series with the
armature winding. The current directions in these conductors are opposite
to those in the wires of the armature winding directly below in order to
neutralize only that portion of the armature cross-magnetizing ampere-
turns that lie directly under the pole faces.
 It must, therefore, for 100% compensation, always build up an mmf that is
ZI A
equal to the armature mmf per pole face. This is amp-turns per pole.
2aP
But the compensating winding current is the total armature current IA. It
follows, therefore, that

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ZIA Z poleIA

2aP 2
Z
Z pole 
aP
Where:
 = ratio of pole arc to pole pitch
Z = number of armature conductors
Zpole = number of compensating conductors per
pole face
IA = armature current
P = number of poles
a = number of armature paths connected in
parallel (determined by type of armature
winding)

NOTE: The use of compensating windings together with properly designed interpole
windings in dc machine will provide sparkless commutation and eliminate the
possibility of flashover, at least insofar as armature reaction is concerned.

EXAMPLE 11

A 3000-kW, 600-V. 16-pole generator has a lap-wound armature with a total 3250
conductors. If the pole faces cover 63% of the entire circumference, calculate (a) the
current in the compensating winding; (b) the number of conductors in each pole face
of the compensating winding. Neglect the shunt-field current.

Solution

3000 kW
IA 
 5000 A
600 V
Z 0.63 x 3250
Z pole    8 conductors per pole
aP 16 x 16

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Need for Operation of Generators in Parallel

Power plants will generally be found to have several small generators rather than large
single units capable of taking care of the maximum peak loads. This is true of both dc
and ac stations. The several units can then be operated singly or in various parallel
combinations, on the basis of the actual load demand. Such practice is considered
extremely desirable from the standpoint of:

a) Efficiency
b) Continuity of Service
c) Maintenance and Repair problems
d) Addition to plant capacity as the service demands change

When generators are operated in parallel, they function together to supply power to a
common load. Moreover under ideal conditions,

a) The combined rating of the several machines is approximately equal to the total
load.
b) Each generator assumes its proportionate share of the total load on the basis of its
rating in comparison with those of the others.

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Generators

Before generators are connected in parallel, the following conditions must first be
satisfied:

a) The generators must have identical external characteristics, i.e., the voltage
changes of all machines must be exactly the same for equal changes in per cent
change of load.
b) The generators must have the same polarity.
c) The generators must have the same terminal voltage.

Operation of Shunt Generators in Parallel

Referring to Fig. 18, assume that generator A is connected to the bus bars through switch
SA and that it carries a load. As the load increases, it will ultimately become necessary to:

a) connect a larger generator than A in parallel with the latter, after which the
smaller machine, when gradually unloaded, is disconnected from the line, or;
b) connect another generator in parallel with A and have two machines operate
jointly to supply the total load.

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Figure 18. Wiring connections for the operation of two shunt generators in parallel

The procedure for accomplishing this is as follows:

1. Generator B is brought up to speed by its prime mover.

2. Field switch FB is closed, whereupon the voltage will build up. The voltage of B is
adjusted by means of its field rheostat until it equals the voltage of the line. It is
important that the polarity of the incoming generator be exactly the same as that
of the line polarity, i.e., plus to plus and minus to minus.
3. After proper adjustments are made, quickly close switch S B. This places generator
B in parallel with generator A. Generator A will still be supplying the entire load,
while generator B will be running idle or “floating”.
4. To shift the load from A to B, it is necessary merely to manipulate both field
rheostats simultaneously, cutting in resistance in the field of A and at the same
time cutting out resistance in the field B. Any degree of load shifting can be readily
accomplished in this way.
5. While the load is shifted from one generator to the other, load ammeters I A and I B
should be carefully watched to make sure that overloading does not occur. It is
also important that the field rheostats are not manipulated beyond the point
where A is carrying no load because, if they are, generator A will attempt to
operate as a motor and thus drive its prime mover.

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Operation of Compound Generators in Parallel

When two compound generators are to be operated in parallel, it is necessary to use

essentially the same wiring as that employed for shunt machines, except that an
equalizer connection must be added. If the latter connection is not used, the two
generators will not operate satisfactorily in parallel.

 An equalizer is a very low-resistance copper wire that joins together identical ends
of the series fields not otherwise electrically connected.

 If two identical over-compounded generators are operating in parallel

without an equalizer and delivering a total current I T, the machine may thus
be said to be in unstable equilibrium because any slight mechanical or
electrical disturbance will immediately initiate a series of reactions that will
cause complete instability and the resulting opening of protective circuit
breakers.
 For illustrative purposes and referring to the schematic diagram in Fig. 19, if
the speed of Generator B is momentarily increased, its generated emf will
increase. This is the initial cause of instability:

a) B immediately delivers a slightly greater share of the total load while

A supplies a correspondingly lower value of current than before.
b) The increased current through the series field of B will cause its flux to
increase and raise the generated voltage further. Conversely, the
small decrease of the current through the series field of A will reduce
its flux and lower the generated voltage.
c) The result of these incremental changes is to make B take a still larger
part of the load, while A is losing more of its proportion. This process
of load transfer having once been started continues until generator
B delivers the entire load while that of A falls to zero.
d) If this is permitted to continue, the current in A will reverse and
generator A will be operated as a differential-compound motor to
drive its prime mover.
e) The final stage- a most serious one- occurs when the series-field flux
completely nullifies the shunt field flux so that the counter emf of A
falls to zero. Machine A then becomes a virtual short circuit on
machine B.

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Figure 19. Two compound generators connected in parallel, without an equalizer,

delivering current to a common load

 With equalizer connection (Fig. 20), the two series fields are permanently
connected in parallel, a condition that results in a division of the total
current so that the ratio of the two series-field currents (ISE)A and (ISE)B
are inversely proportional to their respective resistances, that is,

I SE A R SEB

I SE B R SE A

Figure 20. Two compound generators connected in parallel, without an equalizer,

delivering current to a common load

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 The method for connecting one compound generator in parallel with another
already supplying load current follows essentially the same procedure as for shunt
generators. Load transfer, or disconnecting one machine from the line, may be
accomplished in a similar manner.

Two Cases in the Analysis of Generators in Parallel

 Case 1: External characteristics are given (i.e., no-load voltage, full-load voltage,
kW output, voltage regulation, etc.)

By similar triangles :
V V  V FLA
 NLA
I A I FLA
V V  V FLB
 NLB
I B I FLB
V  V FLA
%VR A  NLA  100%
V FLA

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V NLA  VFLA
%VR A   100%
VFLA
%VR A VFLA
V NLA  VFLA 
100
V NLB  VFLB
%VR B   100%
VFLB
%VR B VFLB
V NLB  VFLB 
100
V %VR A VFLA

I A 100I FLA
V %VR B VFLB

I B 100I FLB
V bus,new  V bus,initital  V
I Anew  I A  I A
I Bnew  I B  I B

NOTE: Use +ΔV if there is a decrease in the load current and -ΔV if there is an
increase in the load current.

Use +ΔI if there is an increase in the load current and -ΔI if there is a decrease
in the load current

 Case 2: Internal characteristics are given (i.e., generated voltage, armature

equivalent resistance, shunt-field resistance, series field resistance, interpole
winding resistance, compensating winding resistance, etc.)

 Use network analysis.

EXAMPLE 12

Two shunt generators A and B, with ratings of 250 and 400 kW, respectively, and having
identical straight-line voltage vs. per cent kilowatt-output external characteristic, are
connected in parallel. If the no-load voltage is 260 V and the full-load voltage is 240 V for
both generators, calculate (a) the kW output of each machine and the total kW load

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when the terminal voltage is 245 V; (b) the kW output of each machine and the terminal
voltage when the total output is 575 kW.

Solution

(a) Terminal voltage, V = 245 V

By similar triangles :
Gen. A :
260 - 240 260  245

250 PA
PA  187.5 kW

Gen. B :
260 - 240 260  245

400 PB
PB  300 kW
kW load  PA  PB  487.5 kW

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(b) kW load = 575 kW

PA  PB  575  1
By similar triangles :
Gen. A :
260 - 240 260  V

250 PA
PA  12.5260  V   3250  12.5V  2

Gen. B :
260 - 240 260  V

400 PB
PB  20260  V   5200  20V  3

1 and 2 in 1 :

3250  12.5V  5200  20V  575
V  242.308 V.
PA  3250  12.5V  221.15 kW
PB  5200  20V  353.85 kW

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EXAMPLE 13

Two 220-V dc generators are operating in parallel and taking equal shares of 3000 A, 230-
V load. The ratings of the generators are as follows:

Generator 1: %VR = 2%, rated power = 500 kW

Generator 2: %VR = 4%, rated power = 400 kW

If the load drops to 2100 A, determine the new operating voltage and the current
supplied by each generator.

Solution

1
I1  I 2  3000  1500 A
2
500 kW
I FL1   2272.73 A
220
400 kW
I FL2   1818.18 A
220

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I L  3000  2100  900
I L  I 1  I 2  900
Gen. 1 :
V V  220 0.02220
 NL1 
I 1 2272.73 2272.73
I 1  516.53V

Gen. 2 :
V V  220 0.04220
 NL2 
I 2 1818.18 1818.18
I 2  206.61V
I 1  I 2  900
516.53V  206.61V  900
V  1.245 V.
V bus,new  V bus,ini  V  231.245 V.
I 1  516.53V  643.08 A.
I 2  206.61V  257.23 A.
I 1  I 1  I 1  856.92 A.
I 2  I 2  I 2  1242.77 A.

EXAMPLE 14

Two identical shunt generators running in parallel supply a total load current of 2500 A.
Each machine has a field resistance of 50 ohms and an armature resistance of 0.01 ohm.
The emfs generated are 230 V and 235 V, respectively. Calculate the common operating
voltage of the generators in parallel.

Solution

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I A 1  I SH 1  I A 2  I SH 2  2500
230  V
I A1 
0.01
V
I SH 1 
50
235  V
I A2 
0.01
V
I SH 2 
50
230  V V 235  V V
    2500
0.01 50 0.01 50
230 235
  2500
V  0 . 01 0. 01  219.96 V
1 1 1 1
  
0.01 50 0.01 50

Efficiency of DC Generators

The efficiency of a dc generator is the ratio of the electrical power output to the
mechanical input, converted to watts. This is expressed as follows.

Pout
%   100%
Pin
Pin  Pout  PLosses
Pout
%   100%
Pout  PLosses

The two methods for determining the efficiency of a generator are:

 Direct Efficiency test: The total power output and the total power input are directly
measured. This involves an actual test upon the generator in which electrical
instruments measure the output, while a calibrated motor drives the machine
under test.

 Conventional method: This is done by making certain necessary tests from which
various power losses are determined. This involves actual test upon the generator
to determine the resistances of the armature, interpole winding, series field
winding, compensating winding, and shunt field winding after which the various

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copper losses are determined by calculations. A test is also performed to measure
the rotational loss.

Power Losses in DC Machines

The difference between the power input to a machine (in watts) and its power output (in
watts) is called the power loss because it is unavailable to drive mechanical load in a
motor or to supply electrical power in a generator.

This power loss always produces heating in the dynamo. Therefore, the greater the power
loss, as a percentage of the input, the hotter will the machine tend to become. If this loss
should reach an excessive value, the temperature rise might be high enough to cause
failure.

The following are the power losses in electric machines. Power stages of a dc generator
are shown in Fig. 21.

 Rotational Losses (or Stray-power losses): These are caused by the rotation of the
armature. Obviously, rotational losses will vary only if the speed changes. These
may be divided into five parts: bearing friction, brush friction, wind friction
(windage), hysteresis and eddy currents

 Bearing friction, brush friction and windage are mechanical losses resulting
from rotation.
 The hysteresis loss takes place in the revolving armature core because the
magnetic polarity in the iron changes in step with changing positions of the
magnetic material under various poles. When an armature-core tooth is
passing under a north pole, its polarity will be south. The iron particles are
then oriented with their north ends pointing toward the shaft center. When
this same tooth moves under a south pole, its polarity will be north and the
iron particles will then be directed away from the shaft center. The rapid
“jerking” around of the tiny magnetic molecules in the armature-core iron
as it revolves rapidly causes a sort of magnetic particle friction and
produces heating. In the modern dynamo, it depends upon the flux density
in the armature-core iron, the speed of rotation, the quality of the magnetic
iron, and the weight of the iron.

Ph  k h f 1.6w
Ph  k h' N 1.6w

Where:
Ph = Hysteresis loss
f = frequency
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 = flux density
N = speed of rotation of the armature
w = weight of the armature core
kh & kh’ = proportionality constants
For usual grades of iron, kh = 6.2 x 10-10

Hysteresis loss is unaffected by whether or not the core is laminated.

 As the armature core revolves, voltages are generated in the armature-

core exactly as they are in the copper wires. These voltages are
objectionable, however, because they create a flow of current in the iron
core in “eddies”. These eddy currents result because the generated
voltages in the iron near the outside surface are greater than those closer
to the center of the shaft because of the higher speed. The difference in
potential then causes currents to flow in the iron. Eddy currents may be
minimized by slicing or laminating the armature core and then coating
each lamination with a high-resistance varnish. Eddy-current loss depends
upon the core flux density, the speed of rotation, the thickness of the
laminations and the volume of iron. It is independent of the quality of the
magnetic iron.

Pe  k e f 2t 2  2V
Pe  k e' N 2t 2  2V

Where:
Pe = Eddy-current loss
f = frequency
 = flux density
N = speed of rotation of the armature
v = volume of the armature core
t = thickness of the laminations
ke & ke’ = proportionality constants
ke depends upon the resistivity of the iron
and the dimensions employed for the other
factors

 Hysteresis and eddy-current losses are core or iron losses.

Pcore  Ph  Pe

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 Electrical Losses: Those that result from a current flow in the various parts of the
machine. The electrical losses are affected by the current values through the
various electrical elements such as the armature winding, the fields and the brush
contacts.

 Armature copper loss takes place in the armature winding and is equal to
I A2 R A .

 The various field copper losses are (1) the shunt field, (2) the series field, (3)
the interpole field, and (4) the compensating-winding field. The shunt field
loss is the only one that remains nearly constant (except for minor line-
voltage changes). Since the other fields are always connected in the
armature circuit, their losses are almost proportional to the square of the
load.

 There will be another loss at the brush contacts between the copper
commutator and the carbon brushes. In practice, this loss depends upon
the brush-contact voltage drop and the armature current. In low-voltage
machines (115 to 230 V), the brush drop, EB, varies between 1 and 3 V, while
in higher-voltage machines (550 to 1100 V) EB may be as much as 6 V. The
brush contact loss is nearly proportional to the load current.

PB  E BI A

Where:
PB = brush-contact loss
EB =brush-contact voltage drop
IA = armature current

 Stray-load loss: This loss is very difficult to determine because it results from factors
such as:
a) the distortion of the flux because of armature reaction
b) lack of uniform division of the current in the armature winding through the
various paths and through the individual conductors of large cross-
sectional area
c) short-circuit currents in the coils undergoing commutation

The indeterminate nature of the stray-load loss makes it necessary to assign it a

reasonable value arbitrarily. It is usually assumed to be 1% of the output of the
machine when the rating is about 150 kW (200 hp) or more. For the smaller ratings,
the stray-load loss is generally neglected when efficiency calculations are made,
without much loss of accuracy.

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Figure 21. Power stages in dc generator

Rotational (Stray-Power) Loss Measurement

Either of two procedures may be followed to determine the stray-power loss:

 No-load Test: The machine, whether generator or motor, is operated free of any
load as a shunt motor at rated speed and with a voltage across the armature
circuit equal to the normal generated emf. The correct armature voltage to be
applied is:

For a generator: E A  V  E B  I A R A'

For a motor: E A  V  E B  I A R A'

The rotational (stray-power) loss is determined from this equation:

SPL  E A I A  I A2 R A'

Where:
SPL = stray-power loss (rotational)
EA = supply voltage during test
V = rated name-plate voltage
EB =brush-contact voltage drop
IA = rated armature current
RA’ = equivalent armature resistance (sum of all
resistances in the armature circuit, i.e,
series-field resistance, interpole-winding

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resistance, compensating-winding
resistance, etc.)

 Separate-Motor Test: The machine whose SPL are to be determined is operated as

a separately excited generator being coupled to and driven at rated speed by a
comparatively small shunt motor (the size be about the same order of magnitude
as the losses to be measured and its normal speed nearly the same as the tested
machine). Two sets of data are taken, namely:

a) With the driving motor running free (uncoupled)

b) With the machines coupled together

The SPL is determined using this equation:

SPL  (E A I A  I A2 R A' )coupled  (E A I A  I A2 R A' )uncoupled

Maximum Efficiency

If a test is performed upon a dynamo, or calculations are made, to determine its

performance, it will be found that the efficiency increases with increasing values of load,
reaches a maximum and then proceeds to drop.

The following analysis derives the condition for maximum efficiency:

Pout
% 
Pout  PLoss
Pout  VI L
PLoss  SPL  I A2 R A'VshI SH  E B I A  SPL  I L  I SH 2 R A'VshI SH  E B I L  I SH 
VI L
% 
VI L  SPL  I L  I SH 2 R A'VshI SH  E B I L  I SH 


V VI L  SPL  I L  I SH 2 R A'VshI SH  E B I L  I SH  
d  VI L V  2I L  I SH R A' E B 
  0
dI L VI L  SPL  I L  I SH  R A'VshI SH  E B I L  I SH 
2
2


V VI L  SPL  I L  I SH 2 R A'VshI SH  E B I L  I SH  
 VI L V  2I L  I SH R A' E B   0

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VI L  SPL  I L  I SH 2 R A'VshI SH  E B I L  I SH 
 VI L  2I L  I SH I L R A' E B I L  0

since I L  I SH  IL  I A
VI L  SPL  I A 2 R A'VshI SH  E B I A  VI L  2I A 2 R A' E B I A  0
SPL  VshI SH  I A 2 R A'

 SPL and shunt-field losses are regarded as constant losses because they are not
affected by the change in the load or armature current.
 Armature-copper losses are considered as variable losses because they vary as
the square of the load.

Hence, for maximum efficiency,

Constant Losses  Variable Losses

EXAMPLE 15

The hysteresis and eddy current losses of a dc machine running at 1000 rpm are 250 W
and 100 W respectively. If the flux remains constant, at what speed will the total iron loss
be halved.

Solution

Let :
k 1  k h'  1.6w
k 2  k e' t 2  2V
At speed of 1000 rpm :
Ph  k 1 1000  1000k 1  250
k 1  0.25
Pe  k 2 10002  100
k 2  1  10  4
 Ph  0.25N and Pe  1  10  4 N 2

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Pcore  Ph  Pe
1
0.25N  1  10  4 N 2  250  100
2
0.25N  1  10  4 N 2  175
N  570.03 rpm

EXAMPLE 16

The following information is given in connection with a 10 kW 250-V flat-compound

generator: Rsh = 125 Ω, Ra = 0.4 Ω, Rse = 0.05 Ω, SPL = 452 watts, EB (assumed constant)
= 3 volts. Calculate the efficiency (a) at full load; (b) at 50% load

Solution

Assume long-shunt connection:

IL

0.4 ISH
IA

125 V L

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(a) Full - Load :
V  250 V.
Pout  10 kW
10 kW
IL   40 A
250
VSH 2 2502
Shunt - field loss : PSH    500 W
R SH 125
Armature - copper losses :
250
I A  I SH  I L   40  42 A
125
PA  I A2 R A'  422 0.4  0.05  793.8 W
Brush - contact loss : PB  E B I A  342  126 W
SPL  452 W
Total Power Losses : PLoss  500  793.8  126  452  1.8718 kW
Pout 10
%   100%   100%  84.23%
Pout  PLoss 10  1.8718

(b) 50% load :

V  250 V.
Pout  5 kW
5 kW
IL   20 A
250
VSH 2
Shunt - field loss : PSH   500 W
R SH
Armature - copper losses :
250
I A  I SH  I L   20  22 A
125
PA  I A2 R A'  22 2 0.4  0.05  217.8 W
Brush - contact loss : PB  E B I A  322  66 W
SPL  452 W
Total Power Losses : PLoss  500  217.8  66  452  1.2358 kW
Pout 5
%   100%   100%  80.18%
Pout  PLoss 5  1.2358

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EXAMPLE 17

A 10-kW 220-V 1400-rpm shunt generator is operated at rated speed as a motor. The
armature takes 2.95 A from a 232-volt source. The total armature resistance including
brushes is 0.26 Ω, and the shunt field resistance is 146.5 Ω. Determine (a) the SPL; (b) the
full load efficiency when the machine is operating as a generator.

Solution

a  SPL  E A I A  I A 2 R A'
 2322.95  2.952 0.26  682.14 W

IL

0.26 ISH
IA

146.5 VL L

(b) Full load :

V  220 V
Pout  10 kW
10 kW
IL   45.45 A
220
VSH 2 2202
Shunt - field loss : PSH    330.38 W
R SH 146.5

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Armature - copper losses :
220
I A  I SH  I L   45.45  46.95 A
146.5
PA  I A2 R A'  46.952 0.26  573.12 W
SPL  682.14 W
Total Power Losses : PLoss  330.38  573.12  682.14  1.58564 kW
Pout 10
%   100%   100%  86.31%
Pout  PLoss 10  1.58564

EXAMPLE 18

In Ex. 16, calculate (a) the power output of the generator when the efficiency is maximum
and (b) the maximum efficiency.

Solution

For maximum efficiency :

constant losses  variable losses
SPL  shunt field loss  I A 2 R A'
452  500  952  I A 2 0.4  0.05
I A  46 A
250
I L  I A  I SH  46   44 A
125
Pout  44250  11 kW  output at max. efficiency
PLoss  952  952  346  2.042 kW
11
% max   100%  84.34%
11  2.042

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Discussion Questions

Test your knowledge by answering the following questions.

1. Distinguish between a separately-excited and a self-excited shunt generator.

2. Why is it not desirable to operate a generator at a speed lower than the one for
which it is designed?
3. How does the no-load voltage of a shunt generator vary with changes in speed if
the field current is kept constant?
4. What determines the voltage to which a self-excited generator will build up?
5. What causes the voltage of a separately-excited shunt generator to drop when it
is loaded?
6. What causes the voltage of a self-excited shunt generator to drop when it is
loaded?
7. How can the degree of compounding be most readily adjusted?
8. Explain why the terminal voltage of a series generator rises from its residual value
at no-load to some maximum value as load is applied.
9. What causes the terminal voltage of a series generator to level off to some
maximum value as load is increased and then to decrease rapidly to zero with
further applications of load?
10. Why is it necessary to shift the brushes in non-interpole generators when the load
changes?
11. In non-interpole generators, how can the main pole tips be constructed to
minimize the effect of armature reaction?
12. Do interpoles prevent flux distortion? Explain.
13. Do compensating windings correct flux distortion? Explain.
14. Why will two shunt generators operating in parallel always be in stable equilibrium?
15. Why will two compound generators operating in parallel be in unstable equilibrium
when no equalizer is used?
16. Explain why low efficiency affects the temperature rise of a dynamo.

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EXERCISES

Practice your problem-solving skills by working on the

exercises below. Final answers are shown at the end of each
problem to serve as your guide.

1. A 50-kW, 250-V compound generator (short shunt) has a series field in which each
coil is wound with 8.5 turns. How many ampere-turns are produced by each coil?
 AT se  1700 amp - turns
2. Calculate the % voltage regulation of a shunt generator in which the no-load and
full-load voltages are 135 V and 120 V, respectively.
%VR  12.5%
3. If the no-load voltage of a separately excited shunt generator is 110 V at 1350 rpm,
what will be the voltage if the speed is increased to 1600 rpm?
E g @ 1600  130.37 V
4. A shunt generator has a no-load terminal voltage of 270 V and a voltage of 240 V
when it delivers 180 A. Assume a straight-line external characteristic and
determine the voltage when the current is 120 A. What is the equivalent load
resistance under this condition?
V  250 V, R L  2.083 
5. A 150-kW, 250-V compound generator is connected long-shunt. If the shunt-field
resistance is 20 Ω, what is the series field current at full-load?
Ise  612.5 A
6. A long-shunt compound generator has a shunt field with 1200 turns per pole and
a series field with 4.5 turns per pole. If the shunt-field and series-field ampere-turns
are, respectively, 1200 and 196, calculate the power delivered to the load when
the terminal voltage is 230 V.
Ise  9.79 kW
7. A short-shunt compound generator has a full-load current of 60 A. If the series-field
resistance is 0.04 Ω and a diverter carries 24 A, what is the diverter resistance?
R D  0.06 
8. A 5-kW, 120-V compound generator has an armature resistance of 0.23 Ω, a series-
field resistance of 0.04 Ω, and a shunt-field resistance of 57.5 Ω. Assuming a long-
shunt connection and a voltage drop at the brushes of 2 V, calculate the
generated emf at full load.
E g  133.81 V

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9. The following information is given for a 300-kW, 600-V long-shunt, flat-compounded
generator: shunt-field resistance = 75 ohms; armature resistance including brushes
= 0.03 ohm; commutating-field winding resistance = 0.011 ohm; series-field
resistance = 0.012 ohm; diverter resistance = 0.036 ohm. When the machine is
delivering its rated load, calculate the voltage and power generated by the
armature.
E g  625.4 V, Pg  317.70 kW
10. A 10-kW, 250-V compound (long-shunt) generator has a no-load voltage of 230 V.
The shunt field has 800 turns per pole and the series field 8.5 turns per pole. The
shunt- and the series-field resistances are 80 ohms and 0.07 ohm, respectively. In
order to make the generator flat-compound, so that it will have a no-load voltage
of 230 V and a full-load voltage of 230 V, the series must produce 225 amp-turns.
Calculate: (a) the resistance of the diverter to accomplish this change; (b) the
total number of ampere-turns produced by each pole at no-load and at full-load.
R D  0.093 ,  ATno  load  2313.96 amp - turns
 ATfull load  2525 amp - turns
11. A 3000-kW, 500-V, 14-pole generator has a lap-wound armature with 2340
conductors. The pole faces cover 67% of the entire circumference. How many
conductors are there in each pole of a compensating winding?
Z pole  8
12. Two shunt generators, A and B, are connected in parallel to deliver a common
load. Generator A has a no-load voltage of 240 V and a voltage of 220 V when it
delivers 120 A. Generator B has a no-load voltage of 235 V and a voltage of 220
V when it delivers the same current as A. Assuming straight-line external
characteristics for both machines, calculate (a) the total line voltage and total kW
load when generator B is “floating”; (b) the load delivered by each machine and
the total load when the terminal emf is 225 V.
a  V  235 V, PL  7.05 kW
 b  PA  20.25 kW, PB  18 kW,
PL  38.25 kW
13. Two shunt generators are operating in parallel and taking equal shares of a 2400
A, 230-V load. The ratings of the generators are as follows:

Machine Parameters Generator 1 Generator 2

Regulation (%) 3 4
Rated Power (kW) 500 600
Rated Voltage (V) 250 250

If an additional load of 600-A is connected to the bus, determine the current

delivered by each generator at this condition.
I1  1515.8 A, I 2  1484.2 A

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Direct-Current Generator Characteristics
14. A 150-kW generator has an efficiency of 91% at full load. Calculate the input in kW
and the power loss.
Pin  164.84 kW, PLoss  14.84 kW
15. A 10-kW, 220-V (short-shunt) compound generator is operated at no load at the
proper armature voltage and speed, from which the stray-power loss calculations
are determined to be 705 W. The shunt-field resistance is 110 ohms, the armature
resistance is 0.265 ohm, and the series field resistance is 0.035 ohm. Assume a 2-V
brush drop and calculate the full-load efficiency.
%  83.92%
16. A 25-kW series generator has an efficiency of 85% when operating at rated load.
If the stray-power loss is 20% of the full-load loss, calculate the efficiency of the
generator when it is delivering a load of 15 kW.
%  87.45%
17. A 250-V shunt generator has a full-load armature current of 40 A, under which
condition the losses are: friction + windage = 200 W; shunt field = 100 W; core = 260
W; brush contact = 120 W; armature copper = 400 W. For operation at maximum
efficiency, calculate the load and efficiency.
PL  11.732 kW, %  90.29%

QUIZ

Work on Graded Quiz No. 3.

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Direct-Current Generator Characteristics
References

Books

Fitzgerald, A. E. et.al. (2003). Electri Machinery. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.

Puchstein, A. (1956). Alternating Current Machines. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.

Siskind, C. S. (1982). Electrical Machines. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Theraja, B. T. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology Vol.2. New Delhi: S. Chand and
Company Ltd.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

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