Passing sight distance considerations are limited to 2-lane, 2-

way highways where vehicles may overtake slower moving

vehicles
the passing maneuver must be accomplished on a lane used
by opposing traffic
OSD - minimum distance allowing a driver to safely overtake a
slow vehicle, considering traffic in the opposite direction
measured along the center line of the road, ensuring clear
visibility for overtaking, eye level of driver 1.2m above road
surface sees the top of the object 1.2m above the road surface
Factors affecting minimum overtaking sight distance
Speed of overtaking vehicle
Speed of overtaken vehicle
Speed of vehicle in the opposite direction
Distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicles
Drivers skill and reaction time
Rate of acceleration of the overtaking vehicle
Gradient of road
Overtaking can be divided into the following actions
d1 – distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during
reaction time t from position a1 to a2
d2 – distance traveled by vehicle A from a2 to a3 during
overtaking in time T
d3 – distance traveled by oncoming vehicle C from c1 to
c2 during overtaking operation of A – time T

Assumptions made to compute d1, d2, d3

› Vehicle A is moving with design velocity v
› Vehicle B is moving with velocity vb < v
› Vehicle C is moving with design velocity v
Vehicle A may have to slow down until an
opportunity appears to overtake
In that case it will move with velocity vb from
point a1 to a2
Traveled distance d1=vb·t
t – reaction time of driver that can be taken as 2s
hence d1=2vb meters
Vehicle A starts to accelerate from point a2
It changes lanes, overtakes vehicle B and changes lanes
again reaching point a3
The distance is d2=s+b+s, where
s – minimum spacing between vehicles A and B, in two
locations – a2 to b1 and b2 to a3
S=(0.7vb+6) meters meters
b=vb·T distance traveled by B during overtaking

T= where a is the acceleration of overtaking vehicle

Distance traveled by vehicle C during the
overtaking is d3=v·T
Overtaking distance is

The minimum overtaking distance should be

› d1+d2+d3 in two way traffic conditions
› d1+d2 in one way traffic conditions
› Divide highways with 4 or more lanes only the minimum
sight distance is neccesary
 It is desirable that the road is
visible ahead to allow safe
overtaking all the way
When this is not possible, zones
should be established where
overtaking is possible
In zones where overtaking is not
safe signs should be place “no passing” or “overtaking prohibited”
Zones where overtaking is allowed are overtaking zones and
should be frequent
Overtaking sight distance OSD should be enough (d1+d2) for
one way traffic and (d1+d2+d3) for two way traffic
Signs should be placed to indicate start of overtaking zone S1
and end of it S2
Length of overtaking zone min 3(d1+d2) for one or 3(d1+d2+d3)
for two way traffic, desired length is 5(d1+d2) or 5(d1+d2+d3)
Speed of overtaking v. is 70km/h, and of overtaken 40km/h, on a two
way traffic road. Average acceleration 0.99m/s2.
› Compute the safe overtaking distance OSD.
› Find minimum length of overtaking zone.
› Draw two sketches, one of the overtaking zones including sign
positions and the other showing vehicle positions during the
overtaking manouver.
Solution : Overtaking sp. v=70km/h=19.4m/s
Overtaken sp. vb=40km/h=11.1m/s a=0.99m/s2
Overtaking sight distance for two way traffic road
OSD= + +
Overtaking reac. t=2s
d1= b =11.1·2=22.2m
d2= +2s s=0.7vb+6=0.7·11.1+6=13.8m
T=(4s/a)0.5=(4·13.8/0.99)0.5=7.47s
d2= +2s=11.1·7.47+2·13.8=110.5m
d3= =19.4·7.47=144.9m
OSD= + + =22.2+110.5+144.9=277.6m≈278m
Minimum length 3OSD=3·278=834m desirable 5OSD=5·278=1390m
d1= b =11.1·2=22.2m
d2= +2s
s=0.7vb+6=0.7·11.1+6=13.8m
T=(4s/a)0.5=(4·13.8/0.99)0.5=7.47s
d2= +2s=11.1·7.47+2·13.8=110.5m
d3= =19.4·7.47=144.9m

OSD= + + =22.2+110.5+144.9=277.6m≈278m
Minimum length 3OSD=3·278=834m desirable
5OSD=5·278=1390
Speed of overtaking v. is 120km/h, and of overtaken 100km/h, on a
two way traffic road. Average acceleration 0.99m/s2.
› Compute the safe overtaking distance OSD.
› Find minimum length of overtaking zone.
› Draw two sketches, one of the overtaking zones including sign
positions and the other showing vehicle positions during the
overtaking manouver.
Solution : Overtaking sp. v=120km/h= m/s
Overtaken sp. vb=100km/h= m/s a=0.99m/s2
Overtaking sight distance for two way traffic road
OSD= + +
Overtaking reac. t=2s
d1= b = m
d2= +2s s=0.7vb+6= m T=(4s/a)0.5= s d2= +2s= m
d3= = m
OSD= + + = m
Minimum length 3OSD= m desirable 5OSD= m
 Approaches to intersection roads must be clear across
corners to avoid vehicle collisions
Even more important at uncontrolled intersections
Three conditions for the design
The distance should allow the vehicle on the minor road should be
able to stop hence the distance should be SSD time design speed
the supposed time is 2 seconds minimum so distance is 2v (design v)
The distance should allow the stopped vehicles to cross the
main road
› applicable if the cross section is controlled by stop sign
› distance allows the stopped vehicle to start, accelerate and pass the
cross section at v before another vehicle reaches it
The sight distance of an uncontrolled cross section should
accommodate all 3 conditions, higher value is to be used
Intermediate sight distance is implemented
on a single-lane road with two-way traffic to
offer restricted chances for overtaking.
Intermediate Sight Distance is equal to twice
of stopping sight distance.
When a vehicle moves towards an
intersection, and the driver sees a vehicle
approaching from different directions, such
distance is called Lateral Sight Distance.
Curve in plan to provide change in direction to the center line
of the road
simple circular curve is designed using the radius R or degree D
Degree of curve – central angle subtended by an arc length
30m

Relation of D and R
In horizontal curves the vehicle is under the influence of
centrifugal force – horizontally outwards through the center of
gravity
Centrifugal force P in kg , P=f(R, v, W, g)
Tends to induce skidding and overturn the vehicle
Counteracted by transverse frictional resistance between tires
and pavement

Centrifugal ratio or impact factor

In case of horizontal curve with no superelevation, the
vehicle has to rely on friction coeff. To withstand lateral
skidding
If the vehicle speed is big enough or the radius of curve is
small enough, skidding or overturning may occur
Depending on f the vehicle will skid before overturning
The pressure distribution on outer wheels increases if the
pavement is horizontal
When limiting condition for overturning occurs, the
pressure at the inner wheels equals zero
 θ θ θ !" " #= θ ! θ θ#
W – vehicle weight Dividing the Eq. by Wcosθ
P – centrifugal force
f – friction coeff.
e – transverse slope due to
elevation
$ θ $ $
! #
θ θ θ θ
% %
&
'( θ &
'( θ

!1 * '( θ# '( θ
% ,-./01 4 5
&
=
231,-./ 67
45
For small θ, 1 * '( θ=1 and tan θ=sin θ=E/B=e 8 =
67
Prepare the derivation of the equation
and appropriate drawing for the
estimation of the rate of superelevation.
 Centrifugal force P tends to
overturn the vehicle about
outer wheel B
Overturning moment is
Resistance from restoring B
moment

45
when centrifugal ratio P/W or
67
&4 5
reaches (from → #
9 67
 Transverse skidding caused by the centrifugal force
Centrifugal force > maximum transverse
Friction or transverse skid resistance vehicle
Starts to skid in transverse direction
Equilibrium condition
; <= <> ? = > ?@
f- friction coefficient between tire and pavement
;
W=" " hence A Bℎ8 @
? danger of
skidding
To avoid overturning or skidding the centrifugal ratio P/W<b/2h
If f<b/2h skidding
If f>b/2h overturning
Different tire pressure – inner pressure zero when overturning
starts
 ,-./01 45
Dℎ8 E8 8A(F 8GH(' 231,-./
=
67
Using the listed simplifications - small θ, 1 * '( θ=1 and tanθ=sinθ=E/B=e
Z01 45 ^5
= A Aa
bc
8 =
2 67 d 2_`7
\
If the friction coefficient is neglected [=
]
The equilibrium superelevatoin is attained needed
to counteract the centrifugal force, this would
45
result in very high e values e= *
67
^5
If there is no superelevation the force is
=2_`7
negotiated by friction
This is used to compute the allowable speed
v=(127fR)0.5
In some cases, negative superelevation is needed
Highways have to accommodate various vehicles
traveling with various speed
Heavy vehicles with high centers of gravity may not
travel over high superelevations
The maximal value of superelevation is limited
Recommended maximal values differ depending on
road conditions emax
› 7% in plain and rolling terrains
› Hill roads 10%
› Urban roads 4%

Important in terms of drainage

Used if computed value is less than the limit
Issues arise from the wide variety of vehicles
that need to be accommodated
Fast vehicles – neglecting lateral friction is
safer
Slow vehicles – sensitive to high e values
The superelevation should be designed to
counteract 75% of the design speed by
neglecting lateral friction
The maximal superelevation is 0.07 except hill
roads where it is 10
Compute 75% superelevation by neglecting the friction
!e.`g^#5^5
8= =__g7
2_`7
› If e<7% use the computed value
› If e>7% use 7%
Compute the friction coefficient for the maximum e=7%
^5 ^5
at the full speed 8 = 2_`7
→ = *8
2_`7
› If attained value f<0.15 the 7% superelevation is
safe for the design speed
› If f>0.15 the restricted speed is required
^l 5
8 0.07 0.15 0.22=2_`7 → m-
If va>v adequate design and e=7%
If va<v the speed is limited
 Cant or banking – transverse slope through the horizontal
length of curve – counteract skidding and overturning
ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal
width
From triangle MLN we get e rate of
Superelevation [ no NL/ML
Since θ is small, tanθ ≈ sinθ and
p N
e= ---- sin θ
>
E – superelevated height
E=eB
L
General equation of superelevation M

[ ?
q
Maximum value of superelevation
Minimun value of lateral friction coefficient
If superelevation is not possible speed limitation is introduced
 The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. Design
speed is 50km/h and lateral coefficient of friction 0.15.
› Compute the required superelevation if it is assumed full lateral
friction will develop.
› Compute the needed coefficient of friction in casesuperelevation
is not possible.
v=50km/h=13.89m/s R=100m f=0.15
r5 2u.vw5 2u.vw5
e f st
e 0.15 s2ee
e 2ee∙w.v2
* 0.15 0.047
If no superelevation is provided e=0,
r5 2u.vw5
f =
st 2ee∙w.v2
=0.197
 The radius of horizontal circular curve is 100m. Design
speed is 100km/h and lateral coefficient of friction 0.15.
› Compute the required superelevation if it is assumed full lateral
friction will develop.
› Compute the needed coefficient of friction in case
superelevation is not possible.
v=100km/h= ? m/s R=100m f=0.15
r5
e f st
e ?
If no superelevation is provided e=0,
r5
f st
=?
Maximum and minimum superelevation
› Max. value limited due to mix traffic
› Min. value may be equal to camber - drainage
slope
1. What is a camber, what is it used for?
2. what is the difference between carriageway and lane?
3. Name the types and uses of median?
4. Kerbs – types, function, issues.
5. Provide the classification and description of the road margins
6. Provide a sketch including and denoting at least 8 basic
elements of a cross section of a road.
7. What is included in the right of way?
8. What is the sight distance?
9. What is the difference between horizontal and vertical
alignment?
10. Name the forces and issues they can cause in a horizontal
curve.
11. How are the forces and issues counteracted?
12. What are the problems with not enough and too much
superelevation?
13. How does camber change in horizontal curves?
14. What is the minimal superelevation?
15. Describe the superelevation steps including basic equations
and steps depending on specific case.
 design for a mixed traffic condition different vehicles run on
the road- different speeds
beneficial for fast might cause problem for slow vehicles
compromise - superelevation should be provided to fully
counteract the centrifugal force due to 75 % of v
Superelevation design
Calculate e for 75% of design speed by neglecting lateral friction
neglected e<7% keep the value
!0.75v#_
e {
gR e>7% then e=7%=0.07
Calculate lateral friction for the maximum value of e=7%
f<0.15, e=7% is safe
. ] {
q f>0.15, compute va
Restricted/Allowable speed at curve
•€ va>v, provide e=0.07
. ] . ~
q va<v, provide va
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are
installed to restrict the speed at curves when safe speed va<v
 Design speed of a 2 lane road is 80km/h. The road has a
horizontal curve of R=480m. Design the rate of superelevation
e for mixed traffic conditions. How much should the outer
edge of pavement be raised wrt inner edge? The width of
pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5m.
v=80km/h=22.22m R=480m B=7.5m
Mixed traffic conditions mean the e should fully counteract the
centrifugal force for 75% of design speed!!
!0.75v#_
from e { , 8EF8 '8ƒ
gR
!e.`gr#5 !e.`g∙__.__#5
e 0.059
st „ve∙w.v2

e < 0.07 (7%)

adopt e=0.059

B=7.5m hence E=e·B=0.059·7.5=0.44m=44cm

 Design speed of a 2 lane road is 80km/h. The road has a
horizontal curve of R=350m. Design the rate of superelevation
e for mixed traffic conditions. How much should the outer
edge of pavement be raised wrt inner edge? The width of
pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5m.
v=80km/h=22.22m R=350m B=7.5m
Mixed traffic conditions mean the e should fully counteract the
centrifugal force for 75% of design speed!!
!0.75v#_
from e { , 8EF8 '8ƒ
gR
!e.`gr#5 !e.`g∙__.__#5
e 0.081
st uge∙w.v2

e > 0.07
`
(7%) adopt e=0.07
 Calculate the value of lateral friction for the maximum
value of e=7
. ] {
q
45 __.__5
67
-0.07 -0.07=0.074 < 0.15 e=7% is safe!
uge∙w.v2
B=7.5m hence E=e·B=0.07·7.5=0.525m=52.5cm
 Design speed of a 2 lane road is 80km/h. The road has a
horizontal curve of R=250m. Design the rate of superelevation
e for mixed traffic conditions. How much should the outer
edge of pavement be raised wrt inner edge? The width of
pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5m.
v=80km/h=22.22m R=250m B=7.5m
Mixed traffic conditions mean the e should fully counteract the
centrifugal force for 75% of design speed!!
!0.75v#_
from e { , 8EF8 '8ƒ
gR
!0.75v#_ !0.75 ∙ 22.22#_
e 0.113
gR 250 ∙ 9.81

e > 0.07

(7%) adopt e=0.07

 Calculate the value of lateral friction for the maximum
value of e=7
. ] {
q
45 __.__5
67
-0.07 -0.07=0.20 > 0.15 e=7% is NOT safe!
_ge∙w.v2
Restricted/Allowable speed at curve
•€
. ] . ~
q

•€ ! . ] . ~#ˆ‰ . ] . ~ Š. ∙ ~ . ‹/

Va=83.62km/h>v=80km/h So e=0.07 can be provided

B=7.5m hence E=e·B=0.07·7.5=0.525m=52.5cm