Археолошки институт Београд Књига LXXII/2022.

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Photo: Z. Radosavljević – Kiki
ARHEOLO[KI INSTITUT BEOGRAD
INSTITUT ARCHÉOLOGIQUE BELGRADE

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© STARINAR LXXII/2022, 1–380, BEOGRAD 2022
 INSTITUT ARCHÉOLOGIQUE BELGRADE

STARI NAR
Nouvelle série volume LXXII/2022

RÉDACTEUR
Sne`ana GOLUBOVI], directeur de l’Institut archéologique

COMITÉ DE RÉDACTION
Miloje VASI], Institut archéologique, Belgrade
Rastko VASI], Institut archéologique, Belgrade
Bojan \URI], Université de Ljubljana, Faculté des Arts, Ljubljana
Mirjana @IVOJINOVI], Académie serbe des sciences et des arts, Belgrade
Vujadin IVANI[EVI], Institut archéologique, Belgrade
Dragana ANTONOVI], Institut archéologique, Belgrade
Miomir KORA], Institut archéologique, Belgrade
Arthur BANKOFF, Brooklyn Collège, New York
Natalia GONCHAROVA, Lomonosov, L’Université d’Etat de Moscou, Moscou
Haskel GREENFIELD, L’Université de Mantitoba, Winnipeg
Mirjana ROKSANDI], L’Université de Winnipeg, Winnipeg
Dominic MOREAU, L’Université de Lille, Lille

BELGRADE 2022
 ARHEOLO[KI INSTITUT BEOGRAD

STARI NAR
Nova serija kwiga LXXII/2022

UREDNIK
Sne`ana GOLUBOVI], direktor Arheolo{kog instituta

REDAKCIONI ODBOR
Miloje VASI], Arheolo{ki institut, Beograd
Rastko VASI], Arheolo{ki institut, Beograd
Bojan \URI], Univerzitet u Qubqani, Filozofski fakultet, Qubqana
Mirjana @IVOJINOVI], Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, Beograd
Vujadin IVANI[EVI], Arheolo{ki institut, Beograd
Dragana ANTONOVI], Arheolo{ki institut, Beograd
Miomir KORA], Arheolo{ki institut, Beograd
Artur BANKHOF, Bruklin kolex, Wujork
Natalija GON^AROVA, Univerzitet Lomonosov, Moskva
Haskel GRINFILD, Univeritet u Manitobi, Vinipeg
Mirjana ROKSANDI], Univeritet u Vinipegu, Vinipeg
Dominik MORO, Univeritet u Lilu, Lil

BEOGRAD 2022
STARINAR STARINAR
Nova serija kwiga LXXII/2022 Nouvelle série volume LXXII/2022

IZDAVA^ EDITEUR
ARHEOLO[KI INSTITUT INSTITUT ARCHÉOLOGIQUE
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Tel. 381 11 2637191 Tél. 381 11 2637191

SEKRETAR REDAKCIJE SECRÉTAIRE DE RÉDACTION

Jelena AN\ELKOVI] GRA[AR, Arheolo{ki institut, Beograd Jelena AN\ELKOVI] GRA[AR, Institut archéologique, Belgrade

LEKTOR ZA SRPSKI JEZIK LE LECTEUR POUR LA LANGUE SERBE

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Ce périodique est publié avec le soutien du

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SADR@AJ – SOMMAIRE

RASPRAVE – ETUDES

Milo{ JEVTI], Momir CEROVI]

Circular Enclosure from the Early Copper Age in North-Western Serbia
Site of [an~ina in Desi}, near [abac (excavations 2017–2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Milo{ JEVTI], Momir CEROVI]
Kru`ni zemqani objekat iz ranog bakarnog doba u severozapadnoj Srbiji.
Lokalitet [an~ina u Desi}u kod [apca (istra`ivawa 2017–2019) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Aleksandar KAPURAN, Mario GAVRANOVI], Igor JOVANOVI]

Bronze Age Burials within the Morava, Ni{ava and Timok Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Aleksandar KAPURAN, Mario GAVRANOVI], Igor JOVANOVI]
Sahrawivawe u slivovima Morave, Timoka i Ni{ave tokom bronzanog doba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Vojislav FILIPOVI], Aleksandar BULATOVI], Rada GLIGORI]

Mound 28 from the Paulje Necropolis in Brezjak.
A Contribution to the Absolute Chronology of the Late Bronze Age in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Vojislav FILIPOVI], Aleksandar BULATOVI], Rada GLIGORI]
Humka 28 sa nekropole Pauqe u Brezjaku. Prilog apsolutnoj hronologiji poznog bronzanog doba u Srbiji . . . . . . . 88

Marko DIZDAR, Asja TONC

Late La Tène Fibulae of the Rakitno Type –
Evidence of Contacts Between the Western Balkans and the Southern Part of the Carpathian Basin . . . . . . . . . . 91
Marko DIZDAR, Asja TONC
Kasnolatenske fibule tipa Rakitno –
Svedo~anstvo kontakata zapadnoga Balkana i ju`noga dela Karpatske kotline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Aurel RUSTOIU
The “Dacian” Silver Hoards from Moesia Superior.
Transdanubian Cultural Connections in the Iron Gates Region from Augustus to Trajan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Aurel RUSTOJU
„Da~ke” ostave srebra iz Gorwe Mezije. Prekodunavske kulturne veze u oblasti \erdapa od Avgusta do Trajana . . 131

Ljubomir JEVTOVI]
Production of Ceramic Building Material in Ancient Viminacium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Qubomir JEVTOVI]
Proizvodwa kerami~kog gra|evinskog materijala u anti~kom Viminacijumu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Bojana PLEMI], Adam N. CRNOBRNJA
A New Review of the Topography and Typology of the Danubian Horsemen Lead Icons
in the South-Eastern Part of Pannonia Inferior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Bojana PLEMI], Adam N. CRNOBRWA
Novi osvrt na topografsko-tipolo{ku zastupqenost olovnih plo~ica
kulta podunavskih kowanika u jugoisto~nom delu Dowe Panonije . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Nade`da GAVRILOVI] VITAS, Dan DANA

Zeus and Hera Souideptçnoi: The Sanctuary at Belava Mountain near Turres/Pirot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Nade`da GAVRILOVI] VITAS, Dan DANA
Zevs i Hera Souideptçnoi: svetili{te na planini Belava kod Pirota/Turres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Milijan DIMITRIJEVI], John WHITEHOUSE

The Vicinal Road Between Sirmium and the Great Canal of Probus.
Exploring Roman Roads in the Glac Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Milijan DIMITRIJEVI], Xon VAJTHAUS
Vicinalni put izme|u Sirmijuma i velikog Probovog kanala.
Ispitivawe rimskih puteva u okviru istra`iva~kog podru~ja Projekta Glac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

Mi{a RAKOCIJA
A Marble Statue from Ni{ of an Early Byzantine Imperial Woman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Mi{a RAKOCIJA
Mermerna statua ranovizantijske carske `ene iz Ni{a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Florin MÃRGINEAN, Erwin GÁLL

“The Outskirts of the Khagan”. The First “Avar” Conquerors in the Lower Mureş
in Light of the Graves from Pecica “Est/Smart Diesel”: Archaeological and 14C Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Florin MÃRGINEAN, Erwin GÁLL
„Die Aussenbezirke des Khagan”. Die ersten „Avar”-Eroberer im unteren Mureş
im Licht der Gräber von Pecica „Est/Smart Diesel”: Archäologische und 14C-Analysen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Kewin PECHE-QUILICHINI
Les vaisselles produites dans le nord de la Corse vers 1600 apr. J.-C. :
l’exemple de la tour littorale de L’Osari (Belgodère, Haute-Corse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Kewin PECHE-QUILICHINI
Locally Produced Northern Corsica Vessels of Around 1600 AD:
Example from the Coastal Tower of L’Osari (Belgodère, Haute-Corse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

PRILOZI – APERC
CUS

Dragoljub BOROJEVI]
Natural Environment as an Influencing Factor for the Architecture
of the Dinaric and Carpathian Log Cabin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Dragoqub BOROJEVI]
Prirodno okru`ewe kao faktor uticaja na arhitektoniku dinarske brvnare i brvnare na Karpatima . . . . . . . . . . . 352
KRITI^KI PRIKAZI – COMPTES RENDUS CRITIQUES

Ivan BUGARSKI
Jozef Zábojník, Július Bére{, Pohrebisko z obdobia avarského kaganátu vo Valalikoch-V{echsvätych.
Archeologica Slovaca Monographiae – Studia Instituti Archaeologici Nitriensis Academiae Scientiarum
Slovacae Tomus XXVI, Archeologicky ústav Slovenskej akadémie vied, Nitra 2016 (+ CD-ROM);
Jozef Zábojník, Pohrebisko z obdobia avarského kaganátu v Obide. Archeologica Slovaca Monographiae
– Studia Instituti Archaeologici Nitriensis Academiae Scientiarum Slovacae Tomus XXVI,
Archeologicky ústav Slovenskej akadémie vied, Bratislava – Nitra 2019 (+ CD-ROM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

IN MEMORIAM

Maja @IVI]
Ana Premk (1937–2022) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Editorial Policy and Submission Instructions for the Starinar Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
 https://doi.org/10.2298/STA2272133J
UDC: 904:738.6"652"(497.11) Original research article

LJUBOMIR JEVTOVIĆ, Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade

PRODUCTION OF CERAMIC BUILDING MATERIAL

IN ANCIENT VIMINACIUM

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. – The technology of brickmaking was introduced to the area of Viminacium by the Romans. The development
and growth of the urban settlement in the 1st–4th century necessitated the need for huge quantities of construction materials.
Large-scale production of ceramic building materials, which are often abbreviated to CBM, is attested both by the numerous finds
of the material itself, as well as traces of the manufacturing process. More than 15 kilns and several structures used in the process
were discovered in the vicinity of Viminacium. Still, the subject of Viminacium CBM production has only been modestly studied.
Thus, the aim of this paper is to analyse this production, namely the characteristics and organisation of its processes, based on
the results of archaeological excavations and previously published research. To achieve this goal, we focused on the layout of the
particular manufacturing sites, and the production process organisation, together with the necessary review of the characteristics
of the found kilns and other structures used in the production process.

Key words. – Roman CBM production, Viminacium, brick kilns, Pećine, Provalije, Livade nad Ćuprijom, Pirivoj, Kostolac

C
BM was unknown to the region of the Middle ucts, considering their epigraphic,5 morphological and
Danube prior to the arrival of the Romans. In physical characteristics and later use in buildings6. In
the centuries following the conquest of Illyri- this paper, we focus on the layout of the manufacturing
cum, Viminacium1 grew to be one of its larger urban areas, as well as on the CBM manufacturing process
settlements (Fig. 01). In the earliest phases of its de-
velopment, locally available construction materials
1
were preferred,2 but from the late 1st – early 2nd centu- Regarding the history and development of Viminacium cf.
Поповић 1968; Mirković 1986, 21–59.
ry onwards came the widespread usage of CBM. This 2 For the construction materials and techniques applied in the
is attested by the immense quantities of the material, as territory of Viminacium, cf. Nikolić 2013.
well as by numerous structures and traces of the pro- 3 The number of quadrangular kilns could be even higher, as

duction process. Disregarding the smaller finds, more Č. Jordović mentions that in the period between 1977 and 1992 a
than 15 quadrangular kilns3 and several production total of 11 brick kilns were excavated on the territory of Viminaci-
um (Јордовић 1994, 96). Three of these could not be verified, as
structures and features have been unearthed thus far. they were not published and we could not find them in the field
In spite of numerous finds, the CBM industries of documentation. Additionally, one recently discovered quadrangu-
Viminacium have not been studied from the perspec- lar kiln from the site Provalije TEKO – A could not be included in
tive of all elements of the production process whose this analysis, as due to its smaller size and the lack of finds, it can-
not be associated to CBM production with any degree of certainty.
traces were recognised at the researched sites. Most 4 Jurišić 1956; Јордовић 1994; Raičković, Redžić 2005; Jo-
kilns came to light during the rescue archaeological ex- vičić, Milovanović 2017; cf. Jevtović, Danković 2022.
cavations, and were published in the form of reports,4 5 Benea 1983; Jevtović 2013.

while a few attempts were made at analysing its prod- 6 Nikolić 2013; Radivojević 2018.

133 Manuscript received 27th February 2022, accepted 27th October 2022
Ljubomir JEVTOVIĆ
Production of Ceramic Building Material in Ancient Viminacium (133–154)

Fig. 1. Plan of Viminacium with the position of kilns (after Jevtović, Danković 2022, 117, Fig. 1)
Сл. 1. План Виминацијума са позицијом пећи (према Jevtović, Danković 2022, 117, Fig. 1)

and organisational aspects of the production. To this Unit 1 (Kiln No. 1)

end, we will examine the structures, features and finds The kiln (Fig. 2) 10 is positioned some 12 m to the
associated with the manufacture.7 The structures and south of the nearest graves, just a few metres from the
features used in the manufacture of ceramic objects main road that led from the eastern gate of the camp
other than CBM (i.e., pottery, lamps, etc.) will not be towards Pincum (today Veliko Gradište).11 The imme-
discussed in detail, although they have to be taken into diate surroundings of the kiln were not investigated, but
account since workshops often manufactured various a geophysical survey of the area to the west of the kiln
ceramic products. identified several anomalies that could be interpreted
as remains of other kilns.12 The kiln is quadrangular in
plan (4.30 x 2.90 m) with one main corridor and six
MANUFACTURING AREAS AND KILNS side flues on the same level as the bottom of the main
corridor (Fig. 3/1). The kiln operated sometime be-
Production of CBM and other ceramic finds in tween the fourth decade of the 3rd century and the third
Viminacium was located in the same zones, spreading decade of the 4th century. It was emptied after its de-
over four manufacturing areas with units, or work- struction, while its insides were filled with rubble
shops, located nearby to the east and south of Vimi- from its collapsed structure.13
nacium city and camp,8 at the sites of Pirivoj, Pećine
and Livade kod Ćuprije in the area of Kostolac vil-
lage, but also further to the west, at the site of Proval- 7 In order to simplify the analysis a new numeration of the
ije – TEKO A, situated in the zone of Kostolac town kilns from Viminacium will be used. For their detailed description
(Fig. 1). and technical characteristics, as well as for that of other structures
and features used in the manufacturing process, one should consult
the given literature.
1. Pirivoj 8 Jevtović, Danković 2022.
The Pirivoj site is located c. 425 m to the east of 9 Cf. Danković et al. 2018 with given literature.
the military camp. A single kiln was discovered on the 10 Jovičić, Milovanović 2017.
site, on the edge of the eastern necropolis of Viminaci- 11 Cf. Danković 2015.

um, which was used between the 2nd century and late 12 Cf. Jovičić, Milovanović 2017, 31, fig. 12.

Antiquity.9 13 Ibid, 32.

134 СТАРИНАР LXXII/2022

Ljubomir JEVTOVIĆ
Production of Ceramic Building Material in Ancient Viminacium (133–154)

preserved. The kilns were of similar size, with Kiln

No. 4 being the largest (5.05 x 4.00 m), Kiln No. 2
slightly smaller (4.85 x 3.90 m) and the damaged Kiln
No. 3 preserved to a lesser extent (3.80* x 4.00 m).
The upper chambers of the kilns were filled with large
amounts of fragmented bricks, tegulae and imbrices,
which could represent the displaced remains of their
load. Several fragmented tiles bore LEGVIICL stamps,
while a few were stamped with a LEGVIICLANT
stamp. Among this rubble, in Kiln Nos. 3 and 4 were
various broken but seemingly complete pottery ves-
sels and a terracotta.16
To the south and west of the kilns were the remains
of eight bases (Fig. 6), made from a combination of
Fig. 2. Kiln No. 1 (Unit 1) bricks and stones with lime mortar.17 The bases are
(after: Jovičić, Milovanović 2017, 23, Fig. 4) similar in dimensions, between 0.70 x 0.70 x 0.30 m
Сл. 2. Пећ бр. 1 (Радионица 1) and 1.00 x 0.90 x 0.25 m. They are spread over an area
(према: Jovičić, Milovanović 2017, 23, Fig. 4) 32.23 m long and c. 23.80 m wide, unevenly distribut-
ed into four unequally long, but parallel rows, c. 7.20–
7.50 m apart. The bases in each single row are be-
2. Pećine tween 3.90 and 5.45 m apart, and their layout suggests
The site of Pećine is located c. 420 m south of the the existence of more bases. They might have been the
civil settlement of Viminacium, in the area of the foundation of a single, or perhaps several porch-like
modern-day Kostolac B thermal power plant. It was structures (i.e., drying halls), as suggested by their un-
home to at least four workshops, spread over an area even disposition and the position in regard to the
of c. 16,000 m² (Fig. 4). The areas surrounding and quadrangular kilns. The bases carried a wooden con-
between the manufacture units were occupied by the struction with a roof made out of tegulae and imbrices,
necropolises,14 which were formed prior to the pro- as indicated by the intensive rubble that covered the
duction complex, during the middle of the 1st century area. A well, three smaller circular/oval, and a single
AD and lasted until the middle of the 5th century AD. small quadrangular kiln were discovered between the
After the abandonment of production, the workshops bases (Fig. 5). The finds discovered within these kilns
were also used as burial grounds. testify that they were used for pottery, lamp and terra-
cotta production.18 To the northwest of the structure, a
Unit 2 (Kiln Nos. 2–4) clay pit was partially excavated (Fig. 5).19 Its excavated
The workshop named by the researchers the Crafts­ part was c. 9 m long and 5 m wide, with a depth reach-
men Centre15 is situated c. 425 m south of the civilian ing c. 2.4 m. The pit infill contained several concentra-
settlement. The workshop comprised three quadran- tions of clay lumps20 and numerous finds. Six smaller
gular kilns, three circular and one small quadrangular waste pits were discovered on the territory of the Crafts­
kiln, a drying hall(s), a clay pit, a well and remains of men Centre, filled with broken pottery and terracotta.
several other structures (Fig. 5). The remains of two walls and a covered corridor were
The three quadrangular kilns formed a single
structure (“brick-plant”), around a common working
space (c. 45 m²) (Figs. 3/2–4, 6). The structure was 14 Зотовић, Јордовић 1990, 2; Vojvoda, Mrđić 2017, 9.
completely dug in and separated from the surrounding 15 Јордовић 1994; Raičković 2007.
16 Ibid.
ground by a perimeter wall. Two kilns were next to each
17 Јордовић 1994, 101–102.
other and the third was positioned perpendicularly.
18 Ibid, 97–98; Raičković 2007, 14.
These are quadrangular kilns with a single corridor 19 Raičković et al. 2006, 69; Documentation of the Institute
and cross flues at a higher level than the main corridor. of Archaeology, Belgrade, unpublished.
It is likely that all three kilns had 6 side flues, but the 20 Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade,

front part of Kiln No. 3 was damaged, so only 5 were un­published.

135 СТАРИНАР LXXII/2022

Ljubomir JEVTOVIĆ
Production of Ceramic Building Material in Ancient Viminacium (133–154)

Fig. 3. Kilns of Viminacium (after: Jevtović, Danković 2022, 119, Fig. 2)

Сл. 3. Основе пећи са Виминацијума (према: Jevtović, Danković 2022, 119, Fig. 2)

136 СТАРИНАР LXXII/2022

Ljubomir JEVTOVIĆ
Production of Ceramic Building Material in Ancient Viminacium (133–154)

Fig. 4. Site of Pećine

Сл. 4. Локација Пећине

also discovered on the site, but their position and rela- chamber was filled with earth, fragmented CBM and
tionship to the other structures remains unclear. four tegulae bearing LEGVIICL stamps. Amongst the
The pottery analysis,21 several coins of Emperor An- rubble, a single coin was discovered, belonging to the
tonius Pius as well as CBM bearing LEGVIICLANT22 mint of the emperor Caracalla. The surroundings of
stamps suggests that the CBM production of the the kiln were devastated prior to the excavation, but in
Craftsmen Centre occurred during the time of the Sev- its vicinity, three circular kilns around a common
eran dynasty. All mentioned structures and features stoke pit were identified.25 The pit had a rectangular
could be a part of the same workshop, as was suggested shape (2.40 x 1.45 x 2.00 m) and was filled with pottery
by the authors,23 but their layout and differences in the shards and tile fragments, which suggest that it also
construction technique indicate that at least some of served as a waste pit. The precise position and the re-
them belonged to different/later phases of its use. lationship of all the mentioned features and structures
remains uncertain.
Unit 3 (Kiln No. 5)
The third manufacture unit was excavated c. 50 m 21 Raičković 2007, 74.
to the west of the Craftsmen Centre. It was comprised 22 Јордовић 1994, 101; Mirković 1977; Kurzmann 2005,
of a single complex kiln (No. 5),24 with two main cor- 328–329; Warry 2006, 58.
ridors and 9 cross flues (Fig. 3/5, 7). It was larger in 23 Jordović 1994, 105; Raičković 2007, 50.

dimensions (7.30* x 3.80 m) but was heavily damaged, 24 Raičković, Redžić 2005, 85–86.

preserved only to the level of the grill. Its combustion 25 Ibid, 82–84; Raičković 2007, 13, 18.

137 СТАРИНАР LXXII/2022

Ljubomir JEVTOVIĆ
Production of Ceramic Building Material in Ancient Viminacium (133–154)

Fig. 5. Unit 2 – “Craftsmen Centre” (Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade)

Сл. 5. Радионица 2 – „Занатски центар” (Док. Археолошког института, Београд)

Based on the mentioned finds, Kiln No. 5 was oper- the clay pit. The researchers originally identified the
ational sometime after the reign of Emperor Hadrian,26 stamp as LEGVIICLPF,31 but a re-examination deter-
most likely in the latter half of the 2nd century, and was mined that it reads LEGVIICLPS, which dates it to
abandoned prior to the early 3rd century. the late 3rd – early 4th century.32
The borrow pit had an irregular shape, c. 40 x 32 m
Unit 4 (Kiln Nos. 6 and 7) in dimensions (c. 1,280 m²) and was more than 4 m
The unit is located in the southern part of the Pe­ći­ deep at certain points (Fig. 10). Several piles of clay
ne site, some 315 m southwest of the Craftsmen Centre. lumps and stacks of finished CBM were discovered on
It was comprised of two kilns (No. 627 and 728) 18 m its bottom (Fig. 11). Its edge in front of Kiln No. 7 was
apart, placed on the edges of a large borrow pit. 29 covered with waste from the firing of the kiln (mainly
Both kilns are simple quadrangular kilns with a single ash). After the abandonment of the workshop, the pit
main corridor and four cross flues positioned higher was filled with 2nd–4th century material, originating
than the bottom of the main corridor (Fig. 3/6–7). Kiln
No. 6 (Fig. 8) is smaller (4.30 x 2.95 m) and Kiln No.
7 (Fig. 9) is larger (5.50 x 4.00 m). The collapse of the 26 Cf. Jevtović 2013, 41–43.
grill of Kiln No. 6 caused its load of imbrices to fall into 27 Raičković, Redžić 2005, 85, 91, 93, P. I, III.
28 Ibid, 84, 91, 96, 106, Sl. 2, 4; P. I, VI; Redžić et al. 2018a,
the combustion chamber. Additionally, piles of was­
87–88.
ters were discovered on both sides of its praefurnium. 29 Redžić et al. 2018a, 87–88.
Among these, two fragments were marked with a 30 Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade,
LEGVIICL stamp.30 Kiln No. 7 had no traces of damage unpublished.
and was emptied after its destruction. A single stamped 31 Redžić et al. 2018a, 88.

brick was discovered in front of the kiln, on the edge of 32 Jevtović 2013, 46; cf. Dušanić 1978.

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Fig. 6. Kiln Nos. 2–4 (Unit 2) (after Nikolić 2013, 28, Fig. 12)
Сл. 6. Пећи бр. 2–4 (Радионица 2) (према: Nikolić 2013, 28, Fig. 12)

Fig. 7. Kiln No. 5 (Unit 3) (after: Mirković 2007, 79, Abb. 72)
Fig. 8. Kiln No. 6 (Unit 4) (Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade)
Сл. 7. Пећ бр. 5 (Радионица 3) (према: Mirković 2007, 79, Abb. 72)
Сл. 8. Пећ бр. 6 (Радионица 4) (Док. Археолошког института, Београд)

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Fig. 9. Kiln No. 7 (Unit 4) (after: Raičković, Redžić 2005, 106, Sl. 4)
Fig. 10. Unit 4, The edge of the clay pit in front of Kiln No. 7 (Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade)
Сл. 9. Пећ бр. 7 (Радионица 4) (према: Raičković, Redžić 2005, 106, Сл. 4)
Сл. 10. Радионица 4, Обод јаме-глиништа испред пећи бр. 7 (Док. Археолошког института, Београд)

from the cleaning of the necropolis. Some c. 10 m to was comprised of a kiln and a clay pit.36 Kiln No. 8 is a
the south of the kilns and the pit lie the remains of a simple quadrangular kiln with a single corridor and six
large, solid wall building, traces of some wooden cross flues positioned higher than the level of the cen-
structures and a well.33 The precise function and the tral corridor (Figs. 3/8, 12). It is large (6.76 x 4.60 m)
chronology of these structures cannot be determined, and preserved to a great extent, with the oven walls
so at the moment they cannot be linked to the CBM preserved to a maximum height of 1.25 m. Due to the
production. damage to the oven floor, its lower parts were filled
The workshop operated sometime in the period
between the reign of Emperor Hadrian and the middle
of the 3rd century. This dating is based on the two men- 33 Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade,
tioned fragmented bricks with a LEGVIICL stamp,34 unpublished.
which can be unequivocally associated with the output 34 Cf. Jevtović 2013, 41–43.

of Kiln No. 6.35 35 It is our opinion that the third stamped brick, the one dis-

covered in the pit in front of Kiln No. 7, has to be excluded from

the chronological analysis. This is mainly due to its ambiguity and
Unit 5 (Kiln No. 8) its arguable attribution to the kiln (the pit was backfilled with vari-
The unit is located in the central area of the Pećine ous materials after the abandonment of the workshop).
site, some 70 m southwest of the Craftsmen Centre. It 36 Redžić et al. 2018b; Redžić et al. in prep.

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Fig. 11. Stacks of CBM in the clay pit of Unit 4 (after: Jevtović, Danković 2022, 121, Fig. 4)
Fig. 12. Kiln No. 8 (Unit 5) (Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade)
Fig. 13. Clay pit of Unit 5 (Documentation of the Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade)
Сл. 11. Наслагане опеке у јами-глиништу радионице 4 (према: Jevtović, Danković 2022, 121, Fig. 4)
Сл. 12. Пећ бр. 8 (Радионица 5) (Док. Археолошког института, Београд)
Сл. 13. Јама-глиниште радионице 5 (Док. Археолошког института, Београд)

with lumps of burnt earth mixed with soil, parts of the 3. Livade kod Ćuprije
kiln’s construction, fragmented pottery, animal and The site is located some c. 200–250 m west of the
human bones, whole and fragmented CBM, a single larger production centre on the site of Pećine. A 4th cen-
coin of Emperor Hadrian and a hinged strap of a lorica tury villa rustica was discovered on the site,40 but data
segmentata of the Corbridge type. Amongst the CBM pertaining to the site is scarce, as the results were only
from the filling and the construction of the kiln, a total partially published.
of 168 pieces bear LEGVIICL stamps of different
types.37 Unit 6 (Kiln Nos. 9 and 10)
The pit is located c. 20 m to the south of the kiln. Fragmentary information is available on the two
It had an irregular shape (105* x 58* m) and its edges kilns (No. 9 and 10) discovered on the site. Their pre-
were only partially defined (Fig. 13). It was c. 3 m cise location and relationship, both mutual and with
deep. The material from its infill indicates that it was
filled sometime after the second half of the 2nd centu-
ry, most likely in the 3rd and/or 4th century.38 37 Ibid.
The stamped CBM, other mentioned finds and the 38 Ibid.
filling of the pit indicate that the Unit 5 functioned in 39 Ibid.
the middle – second half of the 2nd century.39 40 Jovičić, Redžić 2012.

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Fig. 14. One of the kilns No. 11–13 (after: Ненадовић, Јуришић 1956, 129, Sl. 11)
Fig. 15. Kiln Nos. 14 and 15 (after: Jevtović, Danković 2022, 122, Fig. 5)
Сл. 14. Једна од пећи бр. 11–13 (према: Ненадовић, Јуришић 1956, 129, Сл. 11)
Сл. 15. Пећи бр. 14 и 15 (према: Jevtović, Danković 2022, 122, Fig. 5)

the other structures, are unknown, except for the fact Unfortunately, no further data is available on these
that they were not in the immediate vicinity of one an- structures. Since then, six kilns46 have been identified
other. Both kilns are common kilns with a central cor- and partially explored on the site.
ridor (Fig. 3/9–10).
Kiln No. 9 was larger (4.80 x 2.75 m) and had Unit 7 (Kiln Nos. 11–13)
three side flues. The only available data regarding Most details regarding Kiln Nos. 11–13 are un-
Kiln No. 10 had to be extracted from its plan. It was known,47 including their precise position and ground
only partially preserved (3.85* x 3.25 m). No details plan (Fig. 14). The kilns were 28 and 11 m apart and
are known about the finds discovered in the kilns. Re- perhaps formed a single battery with a common work-
garding their relationship with the 4th century villa ing space (c. 154 m²). All three were simple quadran-
and other structures on the site, they are dated in the gular kilns with a single corridor and a completely dug
2nd–3rd century.41 A well, several dumping pits and at in lower chamber. Two (Nos. 11–12) were of smaller
least five circular kilns were also excavated on the size (3.10 x 3.50 m; 2.60 x 2.70 m), while the third
site.42 It seems that only one of these round kilns pre- (No. 13) was mostly destroyed. One of the kilns had the
dates the villa and should be dated in the 2nd or 3rd upper chamber filled with fragmented CBM, while the
century,43 while the rest seem to date to the medieval other two were emptied prior to their abandonment.48
period. Their precise position and details regarding
other features are unknown, but one feature stands
out. According to the authors,44 one circular pit origi-
nally served as a well, or for the storage of clay, while 41 Ibid, 372.
in the later phases of the production, or after its aban- 42 Ibid; Raičković, Redžić 2005, 82; Documentation of the
donment, it served as a dumping pit. Institute of Archaeology, Belgrade, unpublished.
43 Jovičić, Redžić 2012, 372; Documentation of the Institute

4. Provalije – TEKO A of Archaeology, Belgrade, unpublished.

44 Raičković, Redžić 2005, 87.
The site of Provalije is located some 3.30 km west
45 Orlov 1960, 314.
of the civilian settlement, on the opposite bank of the
46 Remains of another quadrangular kiln were discovered
Mlava river, in the territory of the modern-day Kostolac
in 2019, but at the moment it cannot be associated with CBM
A thermal power plant. Nine brick and pottery kilns production.
were discovered and subsequently destroyed in 1942 47 Јуришић 1956, 129–130.

– 1944, during the construction of the power plant.45 48 Ibid.

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Unit 8 (Kiln Nos. 14 and 15) identified on its territory, to the east,57 north58 and
Kiln No. 14 was discovered during small-scale south59 of the settlement and the camp. Except for the
rescue excavations, during which the outer shell of pits on the site of Pećine,60 currently these cannot be
Kiln No. 15 was also identified (Figs. 3/14, 15).49 The associated with CBM production. The pits that served
kilns are positioned next to each other and most likely Units 2, 4 and 5 are large in volume – c. 45* m², 1,280 m²
formed a single production unit. Kiln No. 14 is a com- and 6,000* m² respectively,61 which testifies to the
plex kiln with two main corridors (Fig. 15). It is a longevity of their use and the volume of production.
large kiln (5.40* x 5.80 m), with the area of the com- They were located in close proximity to the kilns, po-
bustion chamber covering c. 19.32* m². The combus- sitioned in a way that best facilitated the manufacture
tion chamber was filled with numerous broken bricks process. The area between the kilns and the pit of Unit
and tiles, as well as several green ones. A single tegula 2 was used for the manufacturing of products and we
with a LEGIIII stamp and four marked with the un- can state that a similar arrangement characterised Unit
characteristic stamp LEGVIICLATILIVIM were dis- 5. Unit 4 exemplifies a different arrangement, as the
covered in the upper chamber.50 kilns were positioned on the edge of the pit. The pits
More numerous finds of stamped CBM of the served multiple functions, as there is evidence that they
Legio VII Claudia indicate that the unit functioned were used for the preparation of the raw material and
sometime between the rule of Emperor Hadrian and for storage of products, but it seems less likely that
the middle of the 3rd century.51 The presence of CBM they also served as a workshop. The sources of clay for
of the legio IV Flavia could indicate that production the production on the other sites remain unknown, but
started in an earlier period (late 1st – early 2nd centu- we can assume that they were located in the vicinity of
ry),52 but this cannot be stated categorically without the workshops.
further evidence. The second essential element for CBM manufac-
ture is water. It could be drawn from natural sources
by water conducting and gathering systems (ditches,
ELEMENTS OF THE
PRODUCTION PROCESS
49 Jevtović, Danković 2017; Jevtović, Danković 2022, 122.
As evidenced, CBM production at Viminacium 50 Ibid.
was a vast and complex enterprise. In order to better 51 Jevtović 2013, 45–46.

understand it, further examination of the structures is 52 Various epigraphic evidence places the presence of the le-

needed from the perspective of the production pro- gion at Viminacium in the period of the late 1st – the early 2nd cen-
tury and also sometime during the 3rd century (cf. Поповић 1968,
cess. Traditionally, this process can be divided into 36–37; Mirković 1975, 907–908; Mirković 1986, 37–38; Ферјан­чић
several stages,53 which include procurement of the 2002, 159–160).
raw materials, their treatment – weathering, soaking 53 McWhirr 1984, 50, fig. 49a; Maggetti 2001, 924; Fernan­des

and refinement, later shaping into products, their drying, et al. 2010, 30–31; Radivojević 2018, 81–82, fig. 36.
54 Cf. Pliny Nat. XXXV.49.169–173; Vitruvius Arch. II.3.1–3;
firing and storage. Each phase had its own require-
II.8.16–17.
ments and left its own material remains in the form of 55 Cf. Rice 1987, 118–119; Wright 2005, 78; Quinn 2013, 154;
structures, artefacts, or different traces in the ground. Radivojević 2018, 81–82.
Still, one has to bear in mind that it was not necessarily 56 Jeremić 2001, 151–152; Jordović 1994, 96; Marrese et al.

a uniform process and that many operations left no 2015, 13–14, fig. 4a, 16–17; Osnovna geološka karta SFRJ, list
Bela Crkva, L 34–115.
material impression and are, thus, undetectable. 57 Cf. Raičković, Milovanović 2010; Vuković 2010.
58 Danković, Petaković 2014, 61.
Raw materials and their procurement 59 Валтровић 1884, 98–99; Mrđić 2009, 65, 164, 166.
Clay with the right characteristics,54 neither too 60 Another large clay pit (55* x 19.6* m) was partially dis-

“lean” nor too “greasy”, was primarily extracted from covered during recent research of the northern part of the site, but
large open pits. Preferably, the source material con- at the moment it cannot be linked to the CBM production (cf.
Redžić et al. 2021, 118–119).
tained a mixture of clay, sand and silt, where each ele- 61 Area wise, the closest analogy is the pit from Varbovski
ment contributed some necessary quality to the final livadi (Pavlikeni, Bulgaria), which is significantly smaller, cover-
product.55 The region of Viminacium is known for ing an area of 500 m² (Sultov 1985, 22).
good quality clay56 and several extraction areas were 62 Humphrey 2006, 36–38; Peacock 1982, 54; Swan 1984, 6.

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aqueducts, pipes, or cisterns/reservoirs) or from wells.62 initial purification was performed during the excava-
The area of Viminacium is characterised by relatively tion of the clay, but as the pit was used as a working
high groundwater levels, due to the proximity of the area, it does not seem implausible to conclude that a
Danube and Mlava rivers and the soil composition. section of the pit was designated for the preparation of
For this reason, it seems that wells were a preferable the raw materials.
choice,63 as indicated by the finds from the sites of the Further refinement, moulding and drying74 of
Craftsmen Centre64 and the site of Livade kod Ćupri- products was usually done in the open or, in the case
je65. Additionally, it is believed that the production on of large-scale and more organised production, in spe-
the site Pirivoj was also supplied by a single or several cial buildings of various complexity. These ranged
wells.66 from simple shelters, sheds or huts, to a single solid
An often overlooked material used in the manu- building that could even incorporate the kiln. The only
facturing of CBM was sand. It could be gathered by remains identified as such structure(s) were found in
the mining of the geological layers in the open pits, or the Craftsmen Centre (Unit 2), where single or multiple
by utilising river beds. At this moment, the source of structures covered an area of c. 600 m². Analogous,
sand for CBM production of Viminacium cannot be porch-like, multi-aisled structures, interpreted as drying
determined.67 There are some indications that geolog- halls, were identified throughout the Empire, mostly
ical layers discovered during the excavation of clay in military production centres,75 but also in privately
could have been used, but it is doubtful if these could owned workshops76. They vary in size and compared to
have supplied adequate quantities of the material. Unit 2 structure(s), they can be smaller, as with the one
The last raw material requirement in the manufac- in Vindobona (c. 182 m²),77 or significantly larger, such
turing process was fuel. No direct evidence for the as those in Hunzenschwil–Vindonissa78 (>990 m²) or
type of fuel used in the manufactories of Viminacium Xanten,79 which was c. 60 m long. In other workshops
has been discovered. It was probably some sort of bio- of Viminacium moulding and drying was at least par-
mass fuel, most probably wood and cereal chaff, but tially done in the open, as plenty of CBM carries im-
charcoal, coal or dung could also have been used.68 pressions of paws, hoofs or claws.80 Yet, as the drying
Regardless of the material, large quantities were need- was severely conditioned by climatic conditi­ons,81 the
ed for firing each kiln69 and it was obtained locally, as
the woodlands, agricultural fields and marshy areas of
Stig provided ample material.70 63 Danković, Bogdanović 2017.
64 Јордовић 1994, 101.
65 Raičković, Redžić 2005, 87.
The treatment of raw materials and
66 Jovičić, Milovanović 2017, 32.
preparation of the final products
67 The only trace of sand mining at Viminacium is a sandpit in
The second phase of production involved the
the site of Rit, which at the moment cannot be associated with the
treatment of raw materials for their final mixing and ceramic production (Danković, Petaković 2014, 63).
shaping into bricks and tiles. It included the stockpiling 68 McWhirr 1979, 100; Orton, Hughes 2013, 123–124; Rice

of raw clay in an open-air storage area, such as paved 1987, 118–119; Rowan 2015, 465; Swan 1984, 6–7.
69 Cf. Mayes 1962; Peacock 1982, 25; Brandl, Federhofer
areas, basins, tanks, or pits, where it could be left to
2010, 36.
weather, crushed and ground, soaked, purified and en- 70 Јордовић 1994, 96.
riched or thinned.71 The only structures that were 71 Adam 2005, 111; Radivojević 2018, 83.
identified as such are the circular pits discovered on 72 Raičković, Redžić 2005, 87.
the site of Livade kod Ćuprije, although the authors72 73 A similar tank/basin/pit was discovered in the pottery work­

do not provide any details that could substantiate such shop of Marcus Perennius in Arezzo (Cuomo di Caprio 2007, 150).
an interpretation. Six pits from the Craftsmen Centre 74 Cf. McWhirr 1984, 101–102.
75 Cf. Mosser 2015, 67, footnote 39; Deschler–Erb 2012, 41,
(Unit 2) and, even more likely, the rectangular pit
footnote 82 with given literature.
from the vicinity of Unit 3 could have served the same 76 Aubert 1994, 206; Ventura, Cividini 2011, 9.
purpose,73 prior to their use for waste disposal. Unfor- 77 Mosser 2015, 67.
tunately, none of these features can be directly associ- 78 Schaer 2005, 48 f. Figs. 10 and 11; Deschler–Erb 2012, 44.
ated with CBM production. The only concrete trace of 79 According to Mosser 2015, 67.

this process was piles of clay lumps, discovered in the 80 Jevtović in prep.

clay pits of Units 2 and 4. The lumps testify that the 81 Fernandes et al. 2010, 3.

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Fig. 16. Typology of kilns based on the plan of the lower part of the kiln and the type of support for the upper structure
(after: Cuomo di Caprio 2007, 524, Fig. 169)
Сл. 16. Типологија пећи према основи доње коморе и изгледу носача решетке
(према: Cuomo di Caprio 2007, 524, Fig. 169)

material had to be protected, either by covering it with most common type on the territory of Moesia and the
straw or sand,82 or by use of simple shelters or porches. surrounding provinces. Five kilns of this type were
discovered on the territory of Moesia Superior,85 elev-
Firing en in Pannonia Inferior,86 twelve on the territory of
The final stage of the manufacturing process was Dalmatia87 and fifteen on the territory of modern-day
the firing.83 All the kilns used for firing CBM on the Bulgaria88. The kilns from the site of Provalije (No.
territory of Viminacium were quadrangular two-cham- 11–13) probably also belong to this type. However,
bered kilns with a vertical draught, typical of the Ro- they can also be identified as type II/a – a quadrangular
man Empire.84 For the purpose of this paper, we will kiln with a central wall, even though none of the quad-
use the standard classification, developed by N. Cuo- rangular kilns from Viminacium belong to this type.
mo di Caprio (1978/1979), based upon the plan of the
lower part of the kiln and the type of support for the
upper structure (Fig. 16). Two types of these kilns are
identified among 14 kilns found at Viminacium, while 82 Cf. Nolla et al. 1982, 152–156.
one kiln (Kiln No. 15) cannot be associated to any 83 Cf. McWhirr 1984, 103; Cuomo di Caprio 1972, 442.
type (Table 1). 84 Le Ny 1988, 19–29.
85 Марић 1951, 121–123; Бућић, Петровић 1984, 8; Љамић–

Quadrangular kilns with a single corridor Валовић 1985; Минић 1990.

86 Dimitrijević 1969, 108; Jeremić 2000; Vámos 2010, 68;
(type II/b)
Dobosi 2021.
The majority of kilns (No. 1–4, 6–10) belong to 87 D’Inca et al. 2010, 315–318; Kovačić et al. 2011, 519–521;
the simpler type of quadrangular kilns with a single Lipovac Vrkljan, Šiljeg 2012, 22–28; Lipovac Vrkljan 2016, 41–52;
corridor (type II/b). It is one of the most common Silajdžić 2018, 234–235.
types of quadrangular kilns in the Empire and the 88 Харизанов 2019, 358–359, Table 2.4.

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Production of Ceramic Building Material in Ancient Viminacium (133–154)

KILN PLAN KILN CROSS GRILL OVEN PLAN PRESERVED PRAEFURNIUM

KILN
SITE-UNIT TYPE DIMENSIONS HEIGHT FLUES THICKNESS DIMENSIONS OVEN PLAN
No.
(m) (m) (No.) (m) (m) HEIGHT (m) DIMENSIONS (m)

1 Pirivoj - Unit 1 II/b 4.30 x 2.90 2.30 6 0.15 2.70 x 2.50 0.70 1.05 x 0.90

2 Pećine - Unit 2 II/b 4.85 x 3.90 3.10 6 0.37 3.10 x 2.80 1.60 1.30 x 1.00

3 Pećine - Unit 2 II/b 3.80* x 4.00 3.35 5* 0.47 2.60 x 2.75 1.66 0.90* x 0.80

4 Pećine - Unit 2 II/b 5.05 x 4.00 3.50 6 / 3.30 x 2.80 1.60 0.75* x 1.10

5 Pećine - Unit 3 II/d 7.30* x 3.80 1.95 9 / / / /

6 Pećine - Unit 4 II/b 4.30 x 2.95 2.85 4 0.40 2.70 x 2.55 1.10 1.00 x 0.90

7 Pećine - Unit 4 II/b 5.50 x 4.00 > 3.00 4 0.45-0.60? 3.40 x 3.55 1.00 1.30 x 1.00

8 Pećine - Unit 5 II/b 6.76 x 4.60 3.30 6 0.23 4.00 x 3.85 1.25 2.15 x 1.80

9 Livade kod Ćuprije - Unit 6 II/b 4.80 x 2.75 1.60 3 / 2.20 x 2.15 0.40 0.85 x 0.80

10 Livade kod Ćuprije - Unit 6 II/b 3.85* x 3.25 1.80 / / 2.10 x 2.60 0.50 /

11 Provalije - Unit 7 II/a-b 3.10 x 3.50 / / / / / /

12 Provalije - Unit 7 II/a-b 2.60 x 2.70 / / / / / /

13 Provalije - Unit 7 II/a-b / / / / / / /

14 Provalije - Unit 8 II/d 5,40* x 5,80 3.55 6* 4.20* x 4.60 1.60 /

15 Provalije - Unit 8 / / / / / / / /

Table 1. Characteristics and dimensions of CBM kilns of Viminacium

Табела 1. Карактеристике и димензије опекарских пећи са Виминацијума

The kilns of this type from Viminacium range in Quadrilateral kilns with two corridors
size between 2.60 x 2.70 m (No. 12) and 6.76 x 4.60 m (type II/d)
(No. 8) (Table 1).89 Generally, most of the kilns from Two kilns (Nos. 5 and 14) belong to the more
Viminacium (No. 1–4, 6–8) have an oven area greater complex type of quadrilateral kilns with two corridors
than 6.50 m², which can be considered a larger variant. (type II/d). Both were damaged, but, based on the pre-
The remaining four kilns (Nos. 9–12) have an oven area served parts, their oven area was larger than 20 m²,
smaller than 5.50 m². Compared to the other kilns from which is almost double the capacity of the previously
Moesia and the surrounding provinces, kilns from discussed type (Table 1). This type of kiln was rare,
Viminacium fall into the larger part of the spectrum. but was present throughout the Empire, even though
Construction-wise, all kilns from Viminacium are its construction elements varied drastically. Consider-
similar in plan and construction materials, but each ing the vicinity of Viminacium and the neighbouring
slightly differs in details of their construction techni­ provinces, two kilns each were discovered on the ter-
ques. The materials used in the construction, fired brick
and tiles, adobe, mud, clay and daub, were common-
place throughout the Empire. Thus, no chronological,
89 The dimensions of Kilns Nos. 13 and 15 are not known,
regional or even local characteristics could be detected
although Kiln No. 13 most likely falls into the lower part of the
in the case of these kilns. The only significant difference
spectrum and Kiln No. 15 into the larger.
was the use of true arches instead of corbelled ones,90 as 90 Unfortunately, we do not know if the Kilns Nos. 9–13 and
opposed to all of the kilns from Moesia, except for the 15 had true or corbelled arches.
one at Margum (today Dubravica)91. 91 Марић 1951, 121–123.

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ritories of Mosia Superior,92 Moesia Inferior93 and The production process created a lot of waste in
Pannonia Inferior94, while one was excavated in Dal- the form of debris from the firing of the kilns, as well as
matia95 and one in Dacia96. Kilns of this type were wasters. However, only a comparatively few waste pits
usually large, but could also be small, such as Kiln could be identified. The clay pit on the site of Pećine
No. 2 from Sirmium97, whose internal dimensions are served as a dumping area during the firing of the kilns,
3.20 x 2.20 m, or the one from Romula,98 which is and a few smaller pits were identified in the more
slightly larger – 4.12 x 3.75 m. thoroughly excavated sites of Pećine and Livade kod
Although both kilns fall into the same type, and Ćuprije. These pits could have been used in the begin-
standard materials were used in their construction, ning phases of the production process as a source of raw
they are significantly different. To name just the major material and only later used for the disposal of wasters
differences compared to their standard features – Kiln and other leftovers from the production process.
No. 14 had arches made out of two courses of bricks
instead of one, while Kiln No. 5 had no back wall.
DISCUSSION ON THE MODES
Specialisation of production OF PRODUCTION
Our research points to the conclusion that in Vimi-
nacium, CBM was made exclusively in quadrangular Archaeological research of the CBM industries of
kilns of the mentioned types. Still, numerous discover- Viminacium has identified four production areas, and
ies have shown that the shape of the kiln is not a deter- our study allows us to divide them into two groups,
ministic factor in regards to the product.99 The mixed considering two distinct modes of production, where
loads of Kilns Nos. 3 and 4 (CBM, pottery and terra- each would have been characterised by its own organ-
cotta) suggest that their load was occasionally supple- isation, structures and requirements.
mented by a variety of other ceramic material. This
phenomenon does not link to the size and complexity Large scale production
of the kilns, but rather to the size, organisation and (Units 2–5 and 7–8)
production repertoire of the workshops. Larger and Large scale production was identified at the sites
more organised workshops often had both circular and of Pećine and Provalije – TEKO A. Each production
quadrangular kilns and simultaneously produced vari- area comprised of several workshops (i.e., production
ous types of ceramic material. It was economical and units), which were operated by the Legio VII Claudia101
practical to make use of the occasional free space in and the latter perhaps in cooperation with the Legio
the quadrangular kilns to supplement the production IIII Flavia.102 Judging by the layout of Units 2 and 4,
of smaller objects. Based on the current evidence, it is the production was characterised by a high degree of
possible that at least one of the circular kilns discov-
ered in the workshop of Livade kod Ćuprije (Unit 6)
and some from Unit 2 (i.e., the Craftsmen Centre) 92 Caričin Grad and on the site Crnoklište – Gornje polje (SO
could have operated simultaneously with the CBM Pirot).
manufactories. 93 Атанасов, Ганчева 2019, 359–361; Атанасов et al. in press.
94 Iskra–Janošić 1993, 198; Jeremić 2000, 143–144.
Housing, storage and waste disposal 95 Gluščević 1989, 73–74.

No support facilities were identified in the territo- 96 Tentea, Ratiu 2014, 218.
97 Jeremić 2000, 143–144.
ry of Viminacium, neither for the accommodation of
98 Tentea, Ratiu 2014, 218.
workers nor for the storage of tools,100 materials or
99 As evidenced by two kilns discovered in Viminacium (Kiln
products. It seems likely that the vicinity of the camp
6 from the Craftsmen Centre and the kiln from the site of Više
and the settlement negated the need for housing and Grobalja) (Јордовић 1994, 97–98; Jovičić et al. 2021, 133–141).
storage infrastructure at the sites of Pirivoj, Pećine and Cf. Romeuf, Dumontet 1973; Peacock 1982, 69; Cuomo di Caprio
Livade kod Ćuprije. Some may have existed in the site 1972, 435.
100 No tools that could have been used in any phase of the
of Provalije – TEKO A, but the site has only been
production process were ever identified, although some of the agri-
moderately excavated. Finished CBM products were cultural tools might have been used (cf. Ilić, Jovičić 2021)
probably stored in the open, which is exemplified by 101 For the presence of Legio VII Claudia in Viminacium cf.

the stacks of bricks from the pit of Unit 4 (Fig. 11). Benea 1983, 33, 42–75; Mirković 1986, 35–43.

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organisation and specialisation. Their area, c. 1,280 m² the production of various ceramic items,106 until more
and 800 m², places them in the category of larger work­ straightforward evidence comes to light, this must re-
shops (>300–400 m²).103 Their layout exhibits a high main only a hypothesis.
degree of rationality, as both the clay pit and the drying
hall served multiple functions and were positioned in Other production (Units 1 and 6)
a way that best facilitated the production process and The production of CBM in the sites of Pirivoj
the organisation of labour. Unfortunately, the available (Unit 1) and Livade kod Ćuprije (Unit 6) is harder to
data for Units 3 and 5 is not sufficient to provide any analyse, due to the nature and extent of excavation work
insight into its organisation of production. The same is and the available data. The immediate surroundings of
true for production on the site of Provalije, although the kiln at Pirivoj have not been excavated, but there
the sheer number, complexity and size of the discovered are indications that it was part of a battery. This, and
kilns indicate that it was a major producti­on area with the adjacency of a major road could imply that it was
several workshops and large and organi­sed production. part of a large workshop. The kilns in Livade kod
The kilns were commonly organised into batteries, Ćuprije were seemingly isolated and their relationship
each comprising two to three kilns around a common to the nearby objects is impossible to define. As no
work platform, used during the firing of the kilns and products could be linked to the output of either work-
for the storage of fuel. This practice was common and shop, it is impossible to determine the owners of the
was used to ensure the easier and faster operation of kilns, what they were producing, or their designated
the structures.104 The pinnacle of this principle was market. The proximity of both sites to the other mili-
the fusing of kilns into a single structure, a so-called tary installations prompted the authors107 to suggest
“brick-plant”, which is noted in Unit 2. Such structu­res that the kilns were part of the military production, but
are characteristic of a highly organised and continu­ous their position, differences in kiln size and the lack of
production. The only exception to the above-menti­ stamped CBM make this less likely. They may have
oned practice is Unit 3 with Kiln No. 5, which appears been privately owned, even if private CBM produc-
to be a stand-alone. The explanation for this may lie in tion was poorly documented in Viminacium.108 If this
the size of the kiln, or the proximity to the other pro- was the case, they were most likely an estate produc-
duction units. tion model109 or, less likely, a peripatetic production
Military brickyards primarily operated simple kilns model (i.e., mobile brickworks)110. Both models imply
of the type II/b, but also the only two kilns of the com- that the products were made for a predetermined pur-
plex type II/d. Compared to the other kilns from Vimi- pose, to meet the demands of a single estate or object,
nacium, they fall into the category of larger kilns. This or to supply construction works located in its vicinity.
is in concordance with the general assumption that the In both models, the requirement for tools and produc-
kilns of higher capacity and greater complexity would
be associated with better organised and larger work-
shops. Various techniques were employed in the con-
102 The cooperation between these two legions is well attested
struction of the kilns and, as already stated, not a single
on the territory of Viminacium (Vasić 1905, 108), unequivocally in the
one was identical to another. This implies that their con­ CBM industry by a find of a tegula with the stamp LEGIIIIFETVII,
struction depended primarily on the experience and the discovered built into one of the aqueducts of the city (Mrđić 2007, 25).
skill of the builder. 103 Hasaki 2006, 225.
104 Cf. Sultov 1985, 40; Hasaki 2002, 271.
The kilns were primarily used to produce CBM,
105 Raičković, Redžić 2005, 87.
but the finds of pottery and terracotta from the kilns of
106 This is best exemplified by rare finds of military stamped
Unit 2 suggest that they may occasionally have been
pottery and lamps discovered in Nijmegen (Willems 1989, 213),
used to produce other ceramic material, most likely to Vindonissa (Schaer 2005, 45), Vindobona (Chinelli et al. 2018), Bri­
supplement the burning stock of CBM. Additionally, getio, Cannstatt and Aquincum (Peacock 1982, 147, 161; Vámos
some circular kilns discovered in the area of Units 2, 3 2012).
107 Jovičić, Redžić 2012; Jovičić, Milovanović 2017, 32.
and Provalije – TEKO A may have been concurrent with 108 Contrary to the claims of some authors (Mirković 1968:
the quadrangular kilns. Altogether, this suggests that the
141; Spasić–Đurić 2002: 144).
Legio VII Claudia produced various ceramic products105 109 Peacock 1982, 10, 129–135; McWhirr 1984, 47–48; Dar-
(pottery, lamps, terracotta, etc.) and, although there is vill, McWhirr 1984, 255–256.
ample evidence that the military units were engaged in 110 McWhirr 1984, 44–47; Darvill, McWhirr 1984, 254–255.

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tion objects was minimal, the clay would be excavated CBM production in Viminacium. Additionally, an in-
in the vicinity, and the production was seasonal and depth interdisciplinary study of both the structures and
organised to meet current needs. the products (CBM and other various ceramic finds) is
needed. This will provide an insight into other econo­
mic aspects of production, especially defining the pro­
CONCLUSIONS ducts of the individual workshops, their distribution,
designated markets and usage, as well as those factors
The study gives a general outline of the CBM pro- that influenced the whole production process. Luckily,
duction in Viminacium, based on the current state of as vast portions of the site remain unexplored, we are
research. Unfortunately, virtually all the finds present- certain that future discoveries in conjunction with fur-
ed in this study have come to light during the limited ther study of previously discovered remains and finds
rescue excavations, which has, thus, limited our abili- will provide additional insight into the intricacies of
ty the reconstruct the workshops. The layout of the the CBM industry of ancient Viminacium and, more
manufacturing sites and the analysis of the structures importantly, its usage, as it truly was one of the key
allowed some insight into the production process and building materials of ancient Viminacium.
discussion of its organisation. It is obvious that the
military was the main producer of CBM in Viminaci- Acknowledgements
um. It operated two large-scale production areas with This paper would not be possible without the help
several workshops, which were characterised by high- of Alexander Harizanov (National Archaeological In-
ly organised production and high output. The manu- stitute with Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences)
facture was located on two additional sites, but the and Tomáš Janek (National Museum in Prague, De-
lack of adequate data makes any detailed analysis of partment of Prehistory and Classical Antiquity) that
its production difficult. provided their great knowledge of the subject. Addi-
Our study shows that the CBM production in tionally, it would not see the light of day without the
Viminacium was a major enterprise. Yet, it is nothing wise insights and encouragement of my dear compa-
more than the latest step in a long research journey, as triot, colleague and friend Ivan Bogdanović (Institute of
it exemplifies that many aspects require further inves- archaeology, Belgrade) to whom I am in debt. I would
tigation. It is our belief that the perquisite for any fu- also like to thank my colleagues Željko Jovanović,
ture study should be a more thorough chronological Milan Milovanović and Ivan Marjanović from the
analysis of the discovered sites and finds. This will Centre for the New technologies Viminacium for their
provide a better understanding of the development of technical prowess and patience.

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Резиме: ЉУБОМИР ЈЕВТОВИЋ, Археолошки институт, Београд

ПРОИЗВОДЊА КЕРАМИЧКОГ ГРАЂЕВИНСКОГ МАТЕРИЈАЛА

У АНТИЧКОМ ВИМИНАЦИЈУМУ

Кључне речи. – римскa производња керамичких грађевинских материјала, Виминацијум, цигларске пећи, Пећине, Провалије,
Ливаде над Ћупријом, Пиривој, Костолац

Технологија производње и употреба печене опеке предста- бунарима (радионице 2 и 6?). Порекло песка, као и гориво
вља иновацију коју на простор средњег Подунавља уводе коришћено за паљење пећи није могуће утврдити. Глинена
Римљани. На археолошком налазишту Виминацијум ин- смеша је обрађивана у јамама, чији је број несразмерно
тензивна производња и употреба овог материјала почиње мали, али постоје индиције да је овај процес могао бити
од краја 1. века н. е. Упркос небројеним налазима опека и вршен и у деловима великих јама-глиништа. Трагови даље
бројним производним објектима, овај аспект римске еконо- обраде су ретки и само се један објекат може везати за овај
мије античког Виминацијума је слабо познат. Стога, овај рад део производног процеса – хала за сушење опека у склопу
преставља анализу до сада откривених производних објека­ радионице 2 (Занатски центар). Из овог разлога претпо-
та са циљем да се сагледа процес и организација производње ставка је да су опеке махом прављене и сушене на отворе-
на Виминацијуму. ном. За печење опека су најчешће коришћене пећи правоу-
Приликом досадашњих истраживања античког Вими- гаоног облика са једним ложишним каналом (тип II/b
нацијума откривено је преко 15 пећи и више објеката за према Cuomo di Caprio 1978/1979), а ређе и веће пећи ком-
прављење опека на 4 локације. Једна пећ је откривена на плекснијег типа са два ложишна канала (тип II/d). У склопу
локацији Пиривој (радионица 1), међутим, њена околина поменутих радионица нису откривени остаци објеката за
није истражена, иако постоје индиције да је у питању већа смештај људства и складиштење алатки и сировина.
радионица. Највећа концентрација производних објеката је Покретни налази указују да је производња на локаци-
идентификована на локацији Пећине, где су откривене 4 јама Пећине и Провалије – Теко А била под управом VII
радионице. Највећа и најбоље истражена радионица је За- Клаудијеве легије, а истражени објекти сведоче да је про­
натски центар (радионица 2), са глиништем, бунаром, ха- изводња високо организована и великог обима. Одликују је
лом за сушење, три пећи за печење опека и више мањих веће пећи једноставног облика и једине две пећи сложени-
пећи за печење другог керамичког материјала. Радионицу 3 јег облика и знатно већег капацитета. С друге стране, до-
чини једна велика пећ, сложеног типа са два ложишна кана­ ступни подаци нису довољни како би се дефинисао карак-
ла, а радионицу 4 две пећи на ободу велике јаме – глиништа. тер радионица на локацијама Пиривој и Ливаде код
Радионицу 5 чине једна пећ и глиниште. Према западу, две Ћуприје. Како ни у једном од ова два случаја нису откриве-
пећи су идентификоване на локацији Ливаде код Ћуприје ни покретни налази, није могуће утврдити власнике ових
(радионица 6), у непосредној близини античке виле. У бли- радионица.
зини ових пећи откривено је више структура за производ- Досадашња истраживања су показала да је опекарска
њу керамичких материјала, међутим, услед ограничености индустрија у Виминацијуму била развијена и великог обима.
доступних података њих није могуће са сигурношћу везати На основу доступних података, јасно је да је војска била
за пећи. Друга велика производна област откривена је на главни произвођач керамичких грађевинских материјала,
супротној обали реке Млаве, на локацији Провалије – ТЕКО међутим, ово не искључује могућност развијене приватне
А. На овој локацији откривено је више од пет правоугаоних про­изводње, каква је можда откривена на локацијама Пири­
пећи за опеке (радионице 6 и 7), међутим, доступни подаци вој и Ливаде код Ћуприје. Нажалост, сви наведени налази
не омогућавају изношење закључака о организацији ових откривени су приликом заштитних археолошких истражи-
радионица. вања, што у знатној мери ограничава могућности истражива­
Откривени остаци указују да је на Виминацијуму гли- ња. Нова открића и будуће студије, како самих радионица и
на ископавана у великим јамама-глиништима, лоцираним у објеката производње, тако и производа ових радионица,
непосредној близини радионица, какве су откривене у значајно ће допринети разумевању опекарске индустрије, а
склопу радионица 2, 4 и 5, док је вода најчешће црпљена тиме и живота и развоја античког Виминацијума.

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(1909) ; novi red, god. 5, br. 1/2 (1910) – god. 6, br. 1/2 (1911) ;
tre}a serija, kw. 1 (1922) – kw. 15 (1940) ; n.s., kw. 1,
god. 1 (1950) – . – Beograd : Arheolo{ki institut,
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