CHAPTER 1 Nature and Principles of Development

Important Terms in the Study of Development

GROWTH - refers to physical changes that occur from conception to maturity.

Examples of growth include measuring a newborn's head circumference when being
brought to the doctor or the increase in height among children when they reach middle
childhood through adolescence. Related to growth is aging, in a biological sense, is the
deterioration of organisms (including human beings) that leads inevitably to death.

DEVELOPMENT - does involve growth in early life, stability in early adulthood, and
the declines associated with aging in later life. Our cells age as we grow old, despite that
our bodies produce new cells, the difference lies in the rate of growth. (Important
development concepts include, MATURATION which is the biological unfolding of an
individual according to a plan contained in the genes (the hereditary characteristics
passed from parents to child at conception).
 We inherit traits from our parents ranging from physical attributes such as the
color of our eyes, hair, to other covert qualities such as our talents, intelligence
and temperament. What we inherited from our parents has its own time of
manifestation.

LEARNING - which is the process through which experience brings about relatively
permanent changes in thoughts, feelings or behavior.
 integral concept to development is ENVIRONMENT, which refers to all the external
physical and social conditions and events that can affect us, from crowded living
quarters to stimulating social interactions.
The Processes and Periods in Development

 Development can also be described in terms of PERIODA. Biological processes

involve changes in the child's body. Genetic inheritance plays a large part.
Biological processes underlie the development of the brain, gains in height,
changes in motor skills, and puberty's hormonal changes.
 Cognitive processes - involve the child's thinking, intelligence, and
language. Cognitive developmental processes enable a growing child to memorize
a poem, imagine how to solve a math problem, come up with a creative strategy,
or speak meaningfully connected sentences.
 Socioemotional processes involve changes in the child's relationships with
other people, changes in emotion, and changes in personality. (Parents' nurturance
toward a child, a boy's aggressive attack on a peer, a girl's development of
assertiveness, and an adolescent's feelings of joy after getting good grades all
reflect socioemotional processes in development).
Development follows definite stages. Although in other books, the sequence of the ages
differs, what is relevant is the focus of development.

 Prenatal: Conception to birth.

- Major Features: Physical development, including the establishment of locomotion,
rudimentary language, and social attachment.
  Infancy: Birth at full term to about 18 months.
- Major Features: Continued physical development, with the emergence of more
advanced language skills, social interaction, and the development of attachments.

 Early Childhood: About 18 months to about 6 years.

- Major Features: Language development continues, with the acquisition of more complex
language skills. Social interactions expand, including group play and preparation for
schooling.

 Late Childhood: About 6 to about 13 years.

- Major Features: Cognitive development progresses, with many cognitive processes
becoming more adult-like. This stage also involves the development of team play and
social skills.

 Adolescence: About 13 to about 20 years.

- Major Features: Puberty marks the beginning of adolescence, leading to physical and
emotional changes. Cognitive development reaches its peak, and independence from
parents is established. This stage also involves the exploration of sexual relationships.

 Young Adulthood: About 20 to about 45 years.

- Major Features: Focus shifts towards career development and family formation.

 Midlife: About 45 to about 65 years.

- Major Features: Career achievements peak, and individuals may experience a "midlife
crisis" or the "empty nest" syndrome as children leave home. Retirement is often a
significant life transition during this stage.

 Late Life: About 65 years to death.

- Major Features: This stage is characterized by a focus on family and social relationships,
with a potential for dependency and health challenges. Individuals may experience
widowhood and reflect on their life achievements.
The Lifespan Perspectives

There are a number of perspectives surrounding the understanding of development,

what you will see below are seven assumptions of the breadth and depth of development
as discussed by Paul Baltes (Baltes, Lindenburger, & Staudinger, 2006).

1. Development is a lifelong process. We do not stop growing once we reach

adulthood, we connnue developing new understandings of our environment and the
world around us. Our relationships may flourish, while maintaining few friends.

2. Development is multidirectional. Development in one area is simultaneous with

other areas. While children are learning to walk, their socialization skills is also
enhanced.
3. Development always involves both gain and loss . Development at every age
involves both growth and decline. For example, gaining a capacity for logical thought as
a school-age child may mean losing some capacity for fanciful and imaginative thinking
of a preschooler.

4. Development is characterized by lifelong plasticity. Plasticity refers to the

capacity to change in response to positive or negative experiences.

5. Development is shaped by its historical/cultural context. A person's

development is affected by the culture and the history of the society he or she grew up
in. An example of this is observed in the types of careers students in a particular
community pursue.

6. Development is multiply influenced. Human development is the product of

ongoing interactions between a changing person and his or her changing world.

7. Understanding development requires multiple disciplines. Human development

is best understood by having knowledge of the psychological perspectives, biological
underpinning and sociological context.

Basic Issues in Human Development

1. Assumptions About Human Nature

a. Original Sin: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) portrayed children as inherently selfish

and bad, believing that it was society's task to 'control their selfish and aggressive
impulses and to teach them to behave in positive ways.

b. Inberently Good: Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that children were

innately good, that they were born with an intuitive understanding of right and wrong,
and that they would develop in positive directions as long as society did not interfere
with their natural tendencies.

c. Tabula Rasa: John Locke (1632-1704) maintained that an infant is a tabula rasa, or
a blank slate waiting to be written on by his or her own experiences. Locke believed that
children were neither innately good nor bad; they could develop in any number of
directions depending on their own experiences.

2. Nature and Nurture - Nature - refers to the behavior and characteristics manifested
because of the influence of biological forces (heredity and biologically-based
dispositions)

Nurture - refers to the influences brought about by the exposure to the environment
includes learning experiences, child-reating methods, societal changes and culture).

3. Activity and Passivity - Some theorists believe that children are curious, aifre
creatures who in a very real serise orchestrate their own development by exploring the
world around then or by shaping their own environment. Other theorists view humans as
panise beings who are largely products of forces beyond their control-usually
environmental influences (but possibly strong biological forces).

4. Continuity and Discontinuity

Discontinuity theorists - picture the course of development as more like a series

of stair steps, each of which elevates the individual to a new (and presumably more
advance) level of functioning

Continuity theorists - view human development as a process that occurs in small

steps, without sudden changes

Quantitative changes - are changes in degree and indicate continuity (a person

becomes taller, knows more vocabulary words, or interacts with friends more or less
frequently).

Qualitative changes - are changes in kind and suggest discontinuity changes that
make the individual fundamentally different in some way than he or she was before (a
nonverbal infant into a speaking toddler, or a prepubertal child into a sexually mature
adolescent).

5. Universality and Context-Specificity - The extent to which developmental

changes are common to everyone (universal) or different from person to person (context
specific).

CHAPTER 2 The Filipino Child and the Adolescents

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines the child as a person 19 years or
younger unless national law defines a person to be an adult at an earlier age (WHO),
2013). The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) resonates with the WHO by defining
a child as a person below the age of 18, unless the laws of a particular country set the
legal age for adulthood younger. The Committee on the Rights of the Child, the
monitoring body for the Convention, has encouraged States to review the age of majority
if it is set below 18 and to increase the level of protection for all children under 18. The
Philippines follows WHO and UNICEF's definition of the child who is a person below 18
years of age, or over 18 years of age but is unable to fully take care of herself/ himself
from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or discrimination because of a physical or
mental disability or condition (PSA, 2018; RA 7610; RA 8972).

 The developmental milestone - involves physical, social, emotional,

cognitive and communication skills

Developmental Milestones of Children from Infancy to Adolescence

Physical Fine motor Language Cognitive Social
- Average weekly - Briefly regards - Cries when - Is egocentric. - Makes eye contact
weight gain is 5 to objects. uncomfortable. - Can distinguish when alert.
 6 ounces until 6 - Hands form a - Makes low taste. - Quiets when picked
months. fist/are tightly throaty noises. - Expects feedings up.
- Head sags when closed. - Responds to at certain - Regards faces and
not supported. - Occasionally voice. intervals. reacts to stimulation.
- Raises head brings hands to - Listens to voices. - Briefly watches - Begins to
slightly when lying mouth. - Cries less. objects. understand that
on stomach. - Wraps fingers - Makes cooing - Repeats actions hands and feet are
around object sounds. for their own sake. extensions of self.
when placed in - Recognizes - Stops crying when
palm of hand. bottle or breast. parents approach.
- Visually follows
moving objects.
- Hands open most
of the time.

 One to Six Months

- Gait is - Strings three beads. - Forms short - Refers to self by - Dawdles.
steadier and - Snips paper in one sentences with name. - Is negative.
more like an place with scissors. vocabulary of about - Invents new ways to - Wants to
adult. - Draws in a straight 300 words. play with a toy. make friends,
line. - Uses pronouns. - Begins mental but unsure how.
- Separates pop beads - Verbalizes need for problem-solving and - Likes to
in one place. food, drink, and toilet. play. imitate parents.
- Turns pages one at a - Has insight and
time. forethought.
- Builds tower of 4-8
blocks.

 Six to 12 Months (The table above⬆️)

 13 to 18 Months

- Average weekly - Plays with hands at - Vowels begin to be - Picks up blocks - Makes eye
weight gain is 3 to 5 center of their vision interspersed with briefly and contact when
ounces for next 6 or in front of their face. more consonants. directly. alert.
months. - Holds on to objects - Babbles and - Inspects objects - Quiets when
- Chews and bites. for up to 30 seconds. becomes more at length. picked up.
- Reaches for objects - Both hands on bottle active during - Senses the - Regards faces
and picks up. or breast. exciting sounds. relationship and reacts to
- Rolls from stomach - Grasps small objects - Vocalizes between hands stimulation.
to back. using thumb against pleasures and and objects they - Begins to
side of index finger. displeasures. manipulate. understand that
- Crawls with one hand - Uses words hands and feet
full. meaningfully. are extensions of
- Crawls up stairs. - Responds to one self.
- Builds a tower of two or two words other - Stops crying
blocks. than name. when parents
approach.

 19 to 24 Months

- Soft spot on top - Turns more than one - Says four to six words - Understands - Feeds self with
of head closes. page at a time. at 15 months, 10 or relationship between hands.
- Abdomen - Removes lid from more at 18 months. object and use. - Enjoys being
protrudes. shoe box to retrieve - Points to desired - Beginning concept of the center of
- Imitates toy. objects. "up" and "down". attention.
housework. - Scribbles on paper. - Vocalizes voice up and - Recognizes familiar - Prefers certain
- Walks without - Strings three beads. down. pictures. people to others.
help. - Snips paper in one - Forms short sentences - Refers to self by - Dawdles.
- Average yearly place with scissors. with vocabulary of name. - Is negative.
weight gain is 4 - Draws in a straight about 300 words. - Invents new ways to - Wants to make
to 6 pounds. line. - Uses pronouns. play with a toy. friends, but
- Separates pop beads - Verbalizes need for - Begins mental unsure how.
in one place. food, drink, and toilet. problem-solving and - Likes to imitate
- Turns pages one at a play. parents.
time. - Has insight and
forethought.
- Builds tower of 4-8
blocks.

- Average yearly - Places three shapes - Vocabulary of about - Repeats three - Less negative.
weight gain is 4 in a puzzle. 900 words. numbers. - More friendly.
to 6 pounds. - Draws circles, end - Talks in sentences of - Still engages in - Begins to
- Begins to use point within one-half about nine words. fantasy play. understand
scissors. inch of beginning. - Asks many questions. - Builds tower of 9-10 taking turns and
- Runs easily. - Imitates making a - Repeats common cubes. sharing.
- Rides a tricycle. bridge with cubes. rhymes. - Dresses and - Begins to learn
- Uses a toilet. - Demonstrates hand - Asks question "What, undresses with little meaning of
- Balances on one washing. Where, Who?" help. simple rules.
foot for 4 - 8 - Cuts entire length of - Gives reasonable - Gives first and last - Shows many
seconds. traced line within one- answers to basic name. emotions.
- Jumps from step. half inch of the line. questions. - Counts to 5. - Parallel play
- Cuts straight - Begins to show a - Speaks clearly in - Builds a tower of 10 with other
with scissors. hand preference. sentences up to 5 - 6 blocks. children.
- Copies a circle. - Draws a person with words. - Dresses alone. - Plays with boys
- Bathes self. at least 8 body parts. - Uses all types of - Copies familiar and girls.
- Climbs, skips, - Colors within lines sentence structure. shapes (square, circle, - Likes playing
hops, and gallops. without crossing lines. - Imitates building triangle). with adults or
- Learning to ride - Copies the word steps with blocks. - Describes objects older children.
bikes. "Stop". seen in pictures. - Likes to have a
- Copies a diamond. - Recognizes shapes, best friend.
numbers. - Developing a
- Makes decisions sense of right
easily. and wrong.

 3 Years to 6 Years

 7 to 12 Years
- Dexterity - Increasingly skillful - Thinks in concrete - Curious about the - Knows right
increases. with hands. terms. function and use of from left.
- Skates, rides - Fond of puzzles. - Able to read and objects. - Privacy is
bikes. - Is learning to write in write. - Concrete operational important.
- Agility and cursive. stage (age of - Hero worship
coordination relational thinking and begins.
improves. concrete concepts). - Wants to be
- Motor skills involved in clubs.
improve.

 13 to 16 Years
- Body changes - Learning to type. - Able to understand - Concerned about - Concern for
associated with - Able to write stories. advanced levels of body image and privacy.
puberty. - Able to draw a person communication. function. - Tends to be self-
- Increases in with appropriate body - Begins to develop conscious.
height/weight. parts. abstract thinking and - Beginning
- May become logic. interest in
more clumsy. - Enjoys intellectual opposite sex.
powers. - Peer groups
more important
than family.

The Current State of Filipino Children

 According to the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA), as of 2018, there
are 32,155,793 Filipinos among the 0-14 age group. Based on the statistics
released by the PSA on July 2018, showed that Filipino children make up 31.8% of
the total population of the Philippines. In terms of EDUCATION, the PSA identified a
rating of 96.5% for the simple literacy rate, or people who can read and write, in
the Philippines; while 90.3% are functionally literate, or those who acquired the
appropriate verbal, cognitive, and computational skills to accomplish practical ends
in culturally specific settings. In 2018, the Department of Education identified
1,737,313 enrollees for kindergarten; 11,151,040 enrollees for public elementary
schools, and 6,010,937 enrollees for public secondary schools.

CHAPTER 3 Perspectives and Approaches in the Study of Human Development

1. Learning Paradigm - Learning theories work on the assumption that people

undergo the stages of development through the process of interaction with one's
environment via observation, conditioning, reward, and punishment system.

 We Conditioning - explains hursan development association of ring of extimuli

which lead to a learned behavior (response), with the of cognitive classical
conditionning with behavioral orientation.

- Since children's initial responses are reflexive or automatic, they are considered as
Unconditioned Response (UR). This response is expected to be aroused when a specific
stimulus in presented which Pavlov called the Unconditioned Stimulus (US). It is called
Unconditioned (stimulus and response) since it has not been paired with other stimuli
or response.
  Operant Conditioning - explains development based on the association of
responses. The response that follows another response is an important predictor of
this association, Like the classical conditioning, responses are conditioned when
repeatedly followed one another.
 Social Cognitive Learning Theory - assumes that development is
centered with one's interaction with other people. Imitation and modeling are
central in the premise of Bandura as to learning new behaviors.

2. Socio Cultural Theories - This perspective highlights the influence of the

collective experiences of people found in the same cultural orientation. It assumes the
centrality of culture, such as language and communication, as well as social norms in the
developmental process. They become the lenses that shadow the affective, cognitive,
and behavioral experiences and changes within the individual.

a. Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev Vgotsky - is one of the prominent

developmental theory under this perspective. He is known as the father of socio-
cultural perspective. He emphasized the important role of social interaction
particularly in facilitating cognitive development of children. An iconic concept that
he introduced was the zone of
b. The Cognitive Theory of Development of Jean Piaget - also
provides a support in further explaining the premise of this perspective. Piaget
highlights the cognitive simulation that adults provide in the movement through
stage of cognitive development- sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational.

3. (Ethology) - Evolutionary and Socio-biological - This perspective accounts for two

interacting factors that explains human development. These are genetics and
adaptation to one's changing environment. Due to the process of maturation,
inherited characteristics unfold according to one's readiness. It therefore emphasized
the nature of an individual. Although there could be some observed exceptional
developments, it explains the normative development of people. Normative
development pertains to the observance of developmental behaviors according to a
certain age. Whether these pertains to cognitive, social, moral, motor, or physical
changes. The other factor is adaptation. Changes brought about by development is a
result of one's need to adapt therefore they serve survival function. Consequently,
development becomes a pattern of behaviors that are responsive to better engage
with the demands of one's developmental stage. This is regardless of one's cultural
preference and influence. In most cases, children learn to walk at about 18 months
and

A. One of the most influential scientist who have initially advanced the ethological
perspective was Konrad Lorenz who is a Nobel Prize winner for Physiology. He was able to
discover how animals are able to develop behavioral patterns which have adaptive
values for one's survival. He believes that species are genetically constructed in order to
specifically process certain information. This gives the readiness of almost all species to
respond to their needs, most especially those that are physiological in nature.
BABYISHNESS - He also observed great similarities on the proportion of head with
the body of animals and human infants together with other features that makes them
look cute.

B. Attachment Theories - such as of John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Melanie

Klein were also inspired by the Ethology Perspective. The Basic Tenet Of Attachment
Theory is that children develop a sense, of emotional bond with the immediate caregiver,
most especially to mothers, which becomes a prototype in developing social connection
in the future The ability to initiate, sustain, and end. Ainsworth observed three kinds of
attachment styles, Namely Secure, Insecure Avoidant, and insecure ambivalent. They
generally describe the degree of anxiety and stress an infant experience when separated
and reunited with one's mother. Klein - focused on the building of prototypical
relationships through the nipple experience. This is whether the nipple is generous or
otherwise.

4. System Approach - This perspective aims to put an integrated view about human
development. Integrated looks at into all the possible factors, genes, culture, and
learning as fused in explaining the changes across life span. Hence, it takes the view that
the human person is a product of an intersection of nature and nurture. The person is not
exclusively taken as a biological individual but also taken into consideration the context
by which the individual is situated.

A. The Contextualism Theory of Richard Lerner - can be considered as one

of the most influential personality, most especially during the establishment of this
school of thought. Lerner highlights the embeddedness of the organism (or the
individual) within the context. For him, it is not possible to understand the individual with
having knowledge into the situations by which the individual is in. In fact, he believes
that development has larger room of being malleable that highly predeterministic
pattern of changes. Adapting the principle of probabilistic epigenesis, putting this in the
context of education, the theory provides implications with regard to seeing learners as
having unlimited possible capabilities when given the opportunity to learn and acquire
sufficient and appropriate knowledge. Because of the concept of plasticity in
development, it is possible that a specific talent can be further honed if some degree of
environmental support are actually felt.

B. The Ecological System Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner - In the

contemporary time, is one of the most influential theories in this school of thought, if not
in the field of human developmental science. In his proposition, there are four systems
that work in the development of an individual.
Microsystem - is composed of the changes that take place within the individual; the
Mesosystem - constitutes the immediate environment of a developing child who has a
direct influence to child such as the parents, neighbor, friends, and school personnel,
Exosystem - is composed of social institutions that may have indirect impact onto the
child, like the school policies, employment set-up, mass media, and other similar
agencies,

Macrosystem - is sociological, political, cultural, and economic in nature that when

modified, may have impact on the development of the child. All these are encompassing
in the chronological system which pertains to the time component.

CHAPTER 4 Prenatal Development

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO) - Determine the influence of genetic

processes in the development of children.
The Beginning of Life:

-Ovulation: During the menstrual cycle, a mature egg cell is released from one
of the ovaries and travels through the fallopian tube. This process is called
ovulation and signals the woman's readiness for pregnancy.

- Fertilization: When a sperm cell penetrates the ovulated egg cell, the union of
the egg and sperm cells is called fertilization. The resulting cell is called a zygote.

- Blastocyst Formation: The zygote travels to the uterus wall and develops into
a blastocyst. The primary function of the blastocyst is to become the protective
membrane for the developing cell.
Development of the Embryo:

- Prenatal Stage: The prenatal stage typically lasts 40 weeks (280 days),
including the additional two weeks for the last menstrual period and ovulation.

- Pre-term and Post-term: Babies born before 37 weeks are considered pre-
term, while those born after 42 weeks are called post-term. Both situations pose
threats to the child's survival, although advancements in medical technology
have significantly improved survival rates.
Genetic Inheritance:

- Chromosomes: The zygote is a combination of 23 chromosomes from each

parent.

- Genes: These chromosomes contain genes that determine the individual

characteristics of a child, including physical attributes (hair color, eye color,
height, complexion, muscular build), cognitive functioning (intelligence), and
personality characteristics.
Genotype and Phenotype:

- Genotype: Refers to the complete set of genetic characteristics inherited from

parents, including both dominant and recessive genes.

- Phenotype: Represents the observable characteristics of an individual, resulting

from the interaction of genotype with environmental factors. Some genetic traits may
not be expressed immediately but may manifest later in life.

Sex Determination:

- Chromosomes: Human sex is determined by the combination of X and Y

chromosomes inherited from parents. Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while
males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).

- Inheritance: The mother always contributes an X chromosome, while the father can
contribute either an X or a Y chromosome. The sex of the offspring is determined by the
father's contribution.

Stages of Prenatal Development:

The prenatal development is divided into three distinct stages:

- Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 weeks): The zygote travels through the fallopian
tube and implants in the uterine wall. Cell division (mitosis) occurs, leading to the
formation of the blastocyst.

- Embryonic Stage (2 weeks to 8 weeks): Major organs begin to form, including the
respiratory, digestive, and nervous systems. This stage is characterized by rapid growth
and development.

- Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth): The fetus continues to grow and mature, with organs
becoming functional. The final trimester is marked by significant brain development and
weight gain.

C. Fetal - The fetal stage is crucial as all organs are developing and becoming more
functional. The fetus can respond to the mother's heartbeat and voice, with senses
becoming more sensitive. Locomotion can be felt by the mother, especially when the
fetus is stimulated. The fetus also develops a certain degree of memory, particularly
related to the mother's voice.

Factors Affecting Prenatal Development

A. Threats to Prenatal - The delicate condition of pregnancy can be vulnerable to

several threats that may compromise the success of a healthy pregnancy.

1. Miscarriage: This occurs when the baby is lost before the 20th week of gestation.
While considered stillbirth, it is more common than stillbirth. The most common reason
is chromosomal abnormalities. Other reasons include the pregnant woman's health and
lifestyle.

2. Ectopic Pregnancy: This occurs when the zygote implants itself outside the
uterus, usually in the fallopian tube. This is detrimental to a successful pregnancy as the
environment is not designed to grow a zygote. Common reasons for ectopic pregnancy
include infection or inflammation of the fallopian tube, scar tissue from previous infection
or surgery, and abnormalities in the fallopian tube's shape.

3. Complications Associated to Pregnancy : Hormonal and biological

changes during pregnancy can cause medical complications that can lead to loss of
pregnancy. Some of these complications include gestational diabetes, preeclampsia
(high blood pressure), and infections. Untreated, these can cause fatality.

4. Bleeding or Spotting: This is a blood discharge during gestation, especially

during the first trimester. The danger of bleeding depends on the frequency, the amount
of bleeding, and the primary reason for the bleeding. When the amount of bleeding is
excessive, it should be reported immediately to a medical doctor as it may signal
irregularities in the development of the baby.

B. Factors Affecting Pregnancy - There are numerous factors that affect

comfortable or complicated pregnancy as well as the development of the baby. Below
are the factors that can contribute to the easiness or difficulty of the pregnancy and
child's development.

1. Maternal Context: The characteristics and the readiness of the mother's

biological system greatly affect the quality of development that will take place. Since the
zygote will collect nutrients from the mother's body, it is important that the mother is
ready to provide what the zygote needs to achieve stable development.

2. Medical-related Concern - Medical-related Concern is the second point in the

list of factors affecting pregnancy. It starts with the sentence: "The kinds of medication
the mother has taken before and during pregnancy can possibly cause deformities,
delayed development, and fatality.

3. Environmental Factors: This section discusses how the amount of social

support provided by the immediate environment can affect the quality of pregnancy
experienced by the mother. It suggests that positive environmental support can
stimulate the release of hormones responsible for positive emotion.

4. Other Factors: This section emphasizes the importance of the quality of sperm that
comes from the father. It states that genetic make-up shared by the father may result in
deteriorated physical and cognitive functioning of the child. Color blindness is given as
an example, which is inherited exclusively from the father's genetic make-up and is
common among males. This condition is associated with the Y chromosome