Viva Questions

1. What is SQL?
Structured Query Language
2. What is database?
A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning,
representing some aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated with
data for a specific purpose.
3. What is DBMS?
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other
words it is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of
defining, constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.
4. What is a Database system?
The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.
5. Advantages of DBMS?
Redundancy is controlled.
Unauthorized access is restricted.
Providing multiple user interfaces.
Enforcing integrity constraints.
Providing backup and recovery.

6. Disadvantage in File Processing System?

Data redundancy & inconsistency.
Difficult in accessing data.
Data isolation.
Data integrity.
Concurrent access is not possible.
Security Problems.
7. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?

There are three levels of abstraction:

Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in
database and what relationship among those data.
View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.
8. Define the "integrity rules"

There are two Integrity rules.

Entity Integrity:States that ―Primary key cannot have NULL value‖
Referential Integrity:States that ―Foreign Key can be either a NULL value or should be
Primary Key value of other relation.
9. What is extension and intension?

Extension - It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is time dependent.
Intension -It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the constraints laid on
it.
10. What is Data Independence?

Data independence means that ―the application is independent of the storage structure and
access strategy of data‖. In other words, The ability to modify the schema definition in one
level should not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.
Two types of Data Independence:
Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the logical level.
Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.

NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve

11. What is a view? How it is related to data independence?

A view may be thought of as a virtual table, that is, a table that does not really exist in its own
right but is instead derived from one or more underlying base table. In other words, there is no
stored file that direct represents the view instead a definition of view is stored in data dictionary.
Growth and restructuring of base tables is not reflected in views. Thus the view can insulate
users from the effects of restructuring and growth in the database. Hence accounts for logical
data independence.
12. What is Data Model?
A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and
constraints.
13. What is E-R model?

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of
relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.
14. What is Object Oriented model?

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance
variables within the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the object.
These bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of values and the same
methods are grouped together into classes.
15. What is an Entity?

It is an 'object' in the real world with an independent existence.

16. What is an Entity type?

It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes.

17. What is an Entity set?

It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.

18. What is an Extension of entity type?

The collections of entities of a particular entity type are grouped together into an entity set.
19. What is an attribute?

It is a particular property, which describes the entity.

20. What is a Relation Schema and a Relation?

A relation Schema denoted by R(A1, A2, …, An) is made up of the relation name R and the list
of attributes Ai that it contains. A relation is defined as a set of tuples. Let r be the relation which
contains set tuples (t1, t2, t3, ...,tn). Each tuple is an ordered list of n-values t=(v1,v2, ..., vn).
21. What is degree of a Relation?

It is the number of attribute of its relation schema.

22. What is Relationship?

It is an association among two or more entities.

23. What is Relationship set?
The collection (or set) of similar relationships.
24. What is Relationship type?
Relationship type defines a set of associations or a relationship set among a given set of entity
types.
25. What is degree of Relationship type?
It is the number of entity type participating.
26. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

A data base schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called
DDL.
27. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?

It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.

28. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?

This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may specify the mapping between
two schemas.
29. What is Data Storage - Definition Language?

The storage structures and access methods used by database system are specified by a set of
definition in a special type of DDL called data storage- definition language.
30. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?

This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organized by appropriate data
model.
Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed and how
to get those data.
Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed
without specifying how to get those data.
31. What is DML Compiler?

It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the query
evaluation engine can understand.
32. What is Relational Algebra?

It is a procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations
as input and produce a new relation.
33. What is Relational Calculus?
It is an applied predicate calculus specifically tailored for relational databases proposed by E.F.
Codd. E.g. of languages based on it are DSL, ALPHA, QUEL.
34. What is normalization?

It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their Functional Dependencies
(FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
Minimizing redundancy
Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.
35. What is Functional Dependency?

A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y that are
subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a relation state r of R. The
constraint is for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X] then they have t1[Y] = t2[Y]. This
means the value of X component of a tuple uniquely determines the value of component Y.
36. When is a functional dependency F said to be minimal?
Every dependency in F has a single attribute for its right hand side.
We cannot replace any dependency X A in F with a dependency Y A where Y is a proper
subset of X and still have a set of dependency that is equivalent to F.
We cannot remove any dependency from F and still have set of dependency that is equivalent
to F.
37. What is Multivalued dependency?

Multivalued dependency denoted by X Y specified on relation schema R, where X and Y are

both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation r of R: if two tuples t1 and t2
exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X] then t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the following
properties
t3[x] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]
t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]
t3[Z] = t2[Z] and t4[Z] = t1[Z]

where [Z = (R-(X U Y)) ]

38. What is Lossless join property?

It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation schemas
after decomposition.
 39. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?
The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.
40. What is Fully Functional dependency?

It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y is

fully functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the
dependency does not hold any more.
41. What is 2NF?
A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is
fully functionally dependent on primary key.
42. What is 3NF?
A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the
following is true X is a Super-key of R.
A is a prime attribute of R.

In other words, if every non prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary key.
43. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?
A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies additional constraints
that for every FD X A, X must be a candidate key.
44. What is 4NF?
A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every Multivalued dependency X Y
that holds over R, one of following is true
X is subset or equal to (or) XY
= R. X is a super key.
45. What is 5NF?

A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ...,Rn}
that holds R, one the following is true
Ri = R for some i.
The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in w
 INTRODUCTION TO SQL

Pronounced as SEQUEL: Structured English QUERY Language

 Pure non-procedural query language

 Designed and developed by IBM, Implemented by Oracle
 1978 System/R IBM- 1st Relational DBMS
 1979 Oracle and Ingres
 1982 SQL/DS and DB2 IBM
 Accepted by both ANSI + ISO as Standard Query Language for any RDBMS
 SQL86 (SQL1) : first by ANSI and ratified by ISO (SQL-87), minor
revision on 89 (SQL-89)
 SQL92 (SQL2) : major revision
 SQL99 (SQL3) : add recursive query, trigger, some OO features, and non-scholar type
 SQL2003 : XML, Window functions, and sequences (Not free)
 Supports all the three sublanguages of DBMS: DDL, DML, DCL
 Supports Aggregate functions, String Manipulation functions, Set theory
operations, Date Manipulation functions, rich set of operators ( IN,
BETWEEN, LIKE, IS NULL, EXISTS)
 Supports REPORT writing features and Forms for designing GUI based applications

FEATURES OF SQL:

SQL is both an easy-to-understand language and a comprehensive tool for managing data.
Some of the major features of SQL are
· Vendor independence
· Portability across computer systems
· SQL standards
· IBM endorsement and commitment(DB2)
· Microsoft commitment (SQL Server , ODBC, and ADO)
· Relational foundation
· High-level, English-like structure
· Interactive, ad hoc queries
· Programmatic data base access
· Multiple views of data
· Complete data base language
· Dynamic data definition
 · Client / server architecture
· Enterprise application support
· Extensibility and object technology
· Internet data base access
· Java integration(JDBC)
Industry infrastructure

Overview of SQL DDL, DML and DCL Commands.

DDL is Data Definition Language statements. Some examples:

CREATE - to create objects in the database
ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed
COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command

DML is Data Manipulation Language statements. Some examples:

SELECT - retrieve data from the a database
INSERT - insert data into a table
UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain
CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data
LOCK TABLE - control concurrency

DCL is Data Control Language statements. Some examples:

COMMIT - save work done
SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back
ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT
SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like what rollback segment to use
SYNTAX’S OF COMMANDS
1. CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE table_name (

column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name3 data_type,
....
);

2. ALTER A TABLE

To add a column in a table

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_namedatatype;

To delete a column in a table

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP COLUMN column_name;

DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE table_name;

3. TRUNCATE TABLE

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

4. INSERT

INSERT INTO table_name

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...);

(OR)

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2,

column3,...) VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...);

5. UPDATE
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value,
column2=value2,... WHERE
some_column=some_value;

6. DELETE

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE

some_column=some_value;

7. SELECT

SELECT
column_name(s)
FROM
table_name;

INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

PL / SQL stands for PROCEDURAL Language Extensions to SQL.

PL / SQL extends SQL by adding programming structures and subroutines available in
any high level language.
PL / SQL can be used for both server-side and Client side Development.
PL / SQL has syntax and rules that determine how programming statements work
together. PL / SQL is not a stand alone Programming Language.
PL / SQL is a part of the ORACLE RDBMS and hence can reside in two
environments,the CLIENT and the SERVER.
Any MODULE that is developed using PL / SQL can be moved easily between SERVER
SIDE and CLIENT SIDE applications.
Either in CLIENT / SERVER environments any PL / SQL Block or the PL / SQL
Engine processes Subroutine.
PL / SQL Engine is a special component that processes and executes any PL / SQL
statements and sends any SQL statement to the SQL statement processor.
The SQL statement processes are always located on the ORACLE SERVER.
As per the necessity the PL / SQL Engine can be located either at

SERVER
CLIENT

When PL / SQL Engine is located upon the SERVER, the whole PL / SQL block is passed
to the PL / SQL Engine on the ORACLE SERVER.
When the PL / SQL Engine is located upon the CLIENT, the PL / SQL processing is done on
the CLIENT SIDE. All SQL statements that are embedded within the PL / SQL block, are
sent to the ORACLE SERVER for further processing.

If the PL / SQL block does not contain any SQL statements, the entire block is executed
on the CLIENT SIDE.

PL / SQL BLOCK

DECLARE
--Declarations of memory variables, constants, cursors etc., in PL / SQL
BEGIN
--SQL executable statements
--PL / SQL executable
statements EXCEPTION

/ *SQL or PL / SQL code to handle errors that may arise during the execution of the
code block between BEGIN and EXCEPTION section
END;

SYNTAX's of CONTROL STATEMENTS in PL/SQL

1. BRANCHING
2. SELECTION
3. LOOPING

1. BRANCHING STATEMENTS
1.Simple IF 2.ELSIF
3.ELSE IF SIMPLE IF

a) IF condition
THEN
statement1;
statem
ent2;
END IF;

b) IF-THEN-ELSE STATEMENT

IF condition
THEN
statement1;
ELSE
statem
ent2;
END IF;

c) ELSIF STATEMENTS

IF condition1 THEN
statement1;
ELSIF
condition2
THEN
statement2;
ELSIF
condition3
THEN
statement3;
ELSE
statem
entn;
END IF;

d) NESTED IF

IF condition
THEN
statement1;
 ELSE
IF condition
THEN
statement2;
ELSE
statement3; END IF;
END IF; ELSE
state
ment3
; END
IF;

SELECTION IN PL/SQL

1. SIMPLE CASE

2. CASE SELECT OR
WHEN Expr1 THEN
statement1; WHEN Expr2
THEN statement2;
:
:
:
ELSE
Statement n; END

CASE;

SEARCHED
CASE CASE
WHEN searchcondition1 THEN
statement1; WHEN
searchcondition2 THEN
statement2;
:
:
:
ELSE
Statement n;
END CASE;

ITERATIONS IN PL/SQL
1) SIMPLE LOOP

LOOP
statement1;
EXIT [WHEN Condition];
END LOOP;

2. WHILE LOOP

WHILE condition LOOP

statement1;
statement2;
END LOOP;

3. FOR LOOP

FOR counter IN [REVERSE]

Lower Bound..Upper Bound

LOOP
statement1;
statement2;
END LOOP;