Introduction to robotics

Chapter I
 Outline
1. Robotics History & Automation
2. Robot application
3. Robotic system
4. Kinematic arrangement of manipulator
5. Rigid body motion and Transformation
of coordinates
 1. Robotics History
Early Vision
• Greeks: Aristotle writes

“If every tool, when ordered, or even of its own

accord, could do the work that befits it... then
there would be no need either of apprentices(
learner) for the master workers or of slaves for
the lords.”

• Automata: water clocks, mechanical animals,

mechanical orchestra etc.
Leonardo's robot (1495)
– Leonardo Da Vinci's one of
human like robot(humanoid)
mechanically automated
machine for knights.

• Jacques de Vaucanson (1738)

– The Tambourine Player and
The Digesting Duck, which is
considered his masterpiece.
– The duck had over 400 moving
parts in each wing alone,
and could flap its wings, drink water,
digest grain, and defecate.
 • The notion of “Robot” (1921)
– Karel Capek’s play “Rossuum’s Universal Robots”:-
“Robot” is coined from Czech word “robota”
– “Robota” means labor
• Trademarks of science fiction

Famous R2-D2 (left) and C3PO (right) in

Robot Maria in classic SF movie
SF saga “Start Wars” of George Lucas
“Metropolis” of Fritz Lang (1926)
(1977)
• Three Laws of Robotics
Formulated by Russian/American writer Isaac Asimov:
The rules were introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround"

1. A robot may not harm a

human being, or, through
inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.

2. A robot must obey

the orders given to
it by human beings except
where such orders would conflict
with the First Law.

3. A robot must protect its

own existence, as long as
such protection does not
conflict with the First or
Second Law.
• 1961: The first Unimate robot was installed in a
plant of General Motors in New Jersey.
• 1963: The first artificial robotic arm to be
controlled by computer was designed at Rancho Los
Amigos Hospital, California.
……………………………………………..
…………………………………………….
• 2003: Number of industrial robots at the end of
2003
– Japan 350.000
– Italy 50.000
– Germany 112.700
– France 26.000
– North America 112.000
– Spain 18,000
– UK 14.000
Definition of robot
• In 1980, the Robot Institute of America
(RIA) came up with the following definition:
A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional
manipulator
designed to move material, parts, tools, or
specialized devices
through variable programmed motions
for the performance of a variety of tasks.
• possess certain anthropomorphic characteristics
– mechanical arm
– sensors to respond to input
– Intelligence to make decisions
1.2. Robotics applications
– Industrial (automation)
– Service areas

1.2.1. Industrial robots

• According to the ISO 8373:

1994 standard Manipulating Industrial Robots Vocabulary
defines an industrial robot as,
an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose
manipulator programmable in three or more axes.

• In a simple phrase, industrial robotics refers to the

study, design and use of robots for manufacturing

• Typical applications of industrial robots include welding,

painting, ironing, assembly, palletizing, product inspection,
and testing
• Why Robot Application?

• Need to replace human labor by robots:

■ Work environment hazardous for human beings

■ Repetitive tasks
■ Boring and unpleasant tasks
■ Multishift operations
■ Infrequent changeovers
■ Performing at a steady pace
■ Operating for long hours without rest
■ Responding in automated operations
■ Minimizing variation
• Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:
■ Material-handling applications:-
• Involve the movement of material or parts from one
location to another.
• It include part placement, palletizing and/or depalletizing,
machine loading and unloading.
■ Processing Operations:_
• Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as
the end effector.
• The application include spot welding, arc welding, riveting,
spray painting, machining, metal cutting, deburring,
polishing.
■ Assembly Applications:-
• Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools and
other automatic tasks and operations.
■ Inspection Operations:-
• Require the robot to position a workpart to an inspection
device.
• Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to
perform the inspection.
• Material handling application

• This category includes the following:

■Part Placement
■ Palletizing and/or depalletizing

■ Machine loading and/or unloading

■ Stacking and insertion operations

• The robot must have following features to facilitate material handling:

■ The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.

■ The robot must have the reach needed.

■ The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.

■ The robot’s controller must have a large enough memory to store

all the programmed points so that the robot can move from one
location to another.
■ The robot must have the speed necessary for meeting the
transfer cycle of the operation.
 Material handling (cont)

• Part Placement:
■ The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-
place operation.
■ This application needs a low-technology robot of the cylindrical
coordinate type.
■ Only two, three, or four joints are required for most of the
applications.
■ Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.

• Palletizing and/or Depalletizing

■ The applications require robot to stack parts one on top of the
other, that is to palletize them, or to unstack parts by removing
from the top one by one, that is depalletize them.
■ Example: process of taking parts from the assembly line and
stacking them on a pallet or vice versa.
• Machine loading and/or unloading:
■ Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.
■ There are three possible cases:
• Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a
production machine, but the parts are unloaded by some
other means.
■ Example: a pressworking operation, where the robot feeds
sheet blanks into the press, but the finished parts drop out of
the press by gravity.
• Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the
machine without robot assistance. The robot unloads the
part from the machine assisted by vision or no vision.
■ Example: bin picking, die casting, and plastic moulding.
• Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading
and unloading of the workparts by the robot. The robot loads
a raw work part into the process ad unloads a finished part.
■ Example: Machine operation
• Difficulties
■ Difference in cycle time between the robot and the production machine.
The cycle time of the machine may be relatively long compared to the
robot’s cycle time.
• Stacking and insertion operation:

■ In the stacking process the robot places flat parts on top of each other,
where the vertical location of the drop-off position is continuously
changing with cycle time.

■ In the insertion process robot inserts parts into the compartments of a

divided carton.
• Processing Operations:
■ Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
■ The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its
end effector.
■ Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during
the cycle.
■ Industrial robot applications in the processing operations
include:
• Spot welding
• Continuous arc welding
• Spray painting
• Metal cutting and deburring operations
• Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser
and waterjet cutting, and riveting.
• Rotating and spindle operations
• Adhesives and sealant dispensing
• Assembly Operations:
■ The applications involve both material-handling and the manipulation
of a tool.
■ They typically include components to build the product and to
perform material handling operations.
■ Are traditionally labor-intensive activities in industry and are highly
repetitive and boring. Hence are logical candidates for robotic
applications.
■ These are classified as:
• Batch assembly: As many as one million products might be
assembled. The assembly operation has long production runs.
• Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products
might be made.
■ The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.
■ One of the well suited area for robotics assembly is the insertion of
odd electronic components.
• Inspection Operation:

■ Some inspection operation require parts to be manipulated,

and other applications require that an inspection tool be
manipulated.
■ Inspection work requires high precision and patience, and
human judgment is often needed to determine whether a
product is within quality specifications or not.
■ Inspection tasks that are performed by industrial robots can
usually be divided into the following three techniques:

• By using a feeler gauge or a linear displacement

transducer known as a linear variable differential
transformer(LVDT), the part being measured will come in
physical contact with the instrument or by means of air
pressure, which will cause it to ride above the surface
being measured.
• By utilizing robotic vision, matrix video cameras are used
to obtain an image of the area of interest, which is
digitized and compared to a similar image with specified
tolerance.
• By involving the use of optics and light, usually a laser or
infrared source is used to illustrate the area of interest.
■ The robot may be in active or passive role.
• In active role robot is responsible for determining
whether the part is good or bad.
• In the passive role the robot feeds a gauging station
with the part. While the gauging station is
determining whether the part meets the
specification, the robot waits for the process to
finish.
 Evaluating the potential of a Robot Applications
• Evaluation of the potential of the robot depends on:
■ Analysis of the application
• Long- and short-term objectives
• Manufacturing and processes involved
• Space availability
• Budget
• System objectives
■ Feasibility Study
• How a more automated system will affect
related operations in the plant
• Material-handling methods
• Commercial equipment available
• CAD cell simulation
■ System Proposal
• Functional specifications
• System operation
• Robot type
• Tooling
• Peripheral equipment

■ System Design
• Microprocessor control
• Software
• Multiple levels of control

■ Construction Phase
• It is a good procedure for the system to be set up and
thoroughly tested at the supplier’s facility.
• This will minimize the interruption of current
production procedures.
1.1.2. Service robotics
• Basically, service robotics comprises everything that
is not in industrial robotics, and reflects the
distinction between the manufacturing and service
sectors.

Fig. I2. The rehabilitation robot FRIEND I

 Future Applications(SERVICE AREA)
• The key areas to be explored for robot applications in
future are:
■ The medical applications of the robot:

• Routine examinations
• Surgical procedures
■ Underwater applications

• Involve prospecting for minerals on the floor of the

ocean.
• Salvaging of sunken vessels, repair the ship either at
sea or in dry dock.
• Mobile firefighters to be used by Air force and Navy.
■ Surveillance and Guard duty

• In military
• Power generating plants, oil refineries and other
civilian facilities that are potential targets of
 1.3 Robotic Systems

• The mechanical arm is just one component in an overall Robotic

System, which consists of the arm, external power, sensors,
control system , programmed software system etc.
 Components of a Robot
A Robot is a system, consists of the following elements, which are
integrated to form a whole:
• Manipulator / Rover : This is the main body of the Robot and consists of
links, joints and structural elements of the Robot.

• End Effector : This is the part that generally handles objects, makes
connection to other machines, or performs the required tasks.
It can vary in size and complexity from an end effector on the space shuttle
to a small gripper
The tool, gripper, or other device mounted at the end of a manipulator, for
accomplishing useful tasks.
 Components of a Robot
A Robot is a system, consists of the following elements, which are
integrated to form a whole:
• Manipulator / Rover : This is the main body of the Robot and consists of
links, joints and structural elements of the Robot.

• End Effector : This is the part that generally handles objects, makes
connection to other machines, or performs the required tasks.
It can vary in size and complexity from an end effector on the space shuttle
to a small gripper

The end-effector (commonly known as robot hand) mounted on the wrist

enables the robot to perform specified tasks. Various types of end-
effectors are designed for the same robot to make it more flexible and
versatile. End-effectors are categorized into two major types: grippers
and tools.
 Components of a Robot

Grippers are generally used to grasp and hold an object

and place it at a desired location.
– mechanical grippers
– vacuum or suction cups
– magnetic grippers
– adhesive grippers
 Components of a Robot

At times, a robot is required to manipulate a

tool to perform an operation on a workpiece.
In such applications the end-effector is a too
itself
– spot-welding tools
– arc-welding tools
– spray-painting nozzles
– rotating spindles for drilling
– rotating spindles for grinding
 cont
• Actuator :actuator is a mechanism used to drive
the processor to allow it to move to a predetermined
point.
Actuators are the muscles of the manipulators. Common
types of actuators are servomotors, stepper motors,
pneumatic cylinders etc.

• Sensors : Sensors are used to collect information about

the internal state of the robot or to communicate with
the outside environment. Robots are often equipped with
external sensory devices such as a vision system, touch
and tactile sensors etc which help to communicate with
the environment
 cont
• Controller : Connected to a computer
 Controller function as the brain of the robot
 Controller also allows the robot to be networked to
other systems.
 Robot have controller that are run by programme set of
instruction written in code.
 The controller receives data from the computer,
controls the motions of the actuator and coordinates
these motions with the sensory feedback information.
 Degrees of Freedom

. The degrees of freedom of a rigid body is defined as

the number of independent movements it has.

The number of :
• Independent position
variables needed to locate all
parts of the mechanism,
• Different ways in which a
robot arm can move,
• Joints
 cont
.
3 position
3D Space = 6 DOF
3 orientation
In robotics:
DOF = number of independently driven joints
positioning accuracy
As DOF computational complexity
cost
flexibility
power transmission is
more difficult
 Robot Links and Joints
A manipulator may be thought of as a set of
. bodies (links) connected in a chain by joints.
1.4 Common Kinematic Arrangements Of Manipulators

1. Articulated manipulator (RRR)

– The articulated manipulator is also called a revolute, or
anthropomorphic manipulator
– The ABB IRB1400 articulated arm is shown in Figure1
• common revolute joint design is the parallelogram linkage such as the Motoman
SK16, shown in Figure 2.
• In both of these arrangements joint axis z1 and z2 are parallel and perpendicular
to zo
• This kind of manipulator is known as an elbow manipulator

Fig 2
 Fig 4:Workspace of the elbow manipulator.

Fig 3:Structure of the elbow manipulator.

2 Spherical Manipulator (RRP)
• By replacing the third or elbow joint in the revolute manipulator
by a prismatic joint one obtains the spherical manipulator
• The term spherical manipulator derives from the fact that the
spherical coordinates defining the position of the end-effector
with respect to a frame whose origin lies at the intersection of
the three z axes are the same as the first three joint variables.

Z2 Z1

Zo
Fig 5: The Stanford
 Fig 7: Workspace of the spherical manipulator.
Fig 6: The spherical manipulator.
3. SCARA Manipulator (RRP)
– The SCARA arm (for Selective Compliant Articulated Robot
for Assembly),
– Custom-made for assembly operations.
– Although the SCARA has an RRP structure, it is quite
different from the spherical manipulator in both appearance
and in its range of applications.
– Unlike the spherical design, which has z0 perpendicular to z1,
and z1 perpendicular to z2, the SCARA has z0, z1, and z2
mutually parallel.

Fig 8: The Epson E2L653S SCARA

Robot.
 Fig 9: The SCARA (Selective Compliant
Articulated Robot for Assembly).

Fig 10: Workspace of the SCARA manipulator.

4 Cylindrical Manipulator (RPP)
• The first joint is revolute and produces a rotation about the base.
• The second and third joints are prismatic and produces
translational motion.
• As the name suggests, the joint variables are the cylindrical
coordinates of the end-effector with respect to the base.

Fig 11: The Seiko RT3300

Robot.
 Fig 13: Workspace of the cylindrical
Fig 12:The cylindrical manipulator.
manipulator.
5. Cartesian manipulator (PPP)
• A manipulator whose first three joints are prismatic is known as
a Cartesian manipulator.
• For the Cartesian manipulator the joint variables are the
Cartesian coordinates of the end-effector with respect to the
base.
• kinematic description of this manipulator is the simplest of all
manipulators.
• Cartesian manipulators are useful for table-top assembly
applications and, as gantry robots, for transfer of material or
cargo.

Fig 14: The Epson Cartesian Robot.

Fig 15:The Cartesian manipulator.

Fig 16: Workspace of the Cartesian

manipulator.
 Reference Frames
 World Reference Frame which is a universal coordinate
frame, as defined by the x-y-z axes. In this case the
joints of the robot move simultaneously so as to create
motions along the three major axes.

 Joint Reference Frame which is used to specify

movements of each individual joint of the Robot. In this
case each joint may be accessed individually and thus only
one joint moves at a time.

 Tool Reference Frame which specifies the movements of

the Robots hand relative to the frame attached to the
hand. The x’,y’and z’ axes attached to the hand define the
motions of the hand relative to this local frame. All joints
of the Robot move simultaneously to create coordinated
motions about the Tool frame.
Robot Reference Frames
 Robot Reference Frames

– World frame
– Joint frame
– Tool frame z
y
z x
y T P

W R
x
 Work Envelope concept
• Depending on the configuration and size of
the links and wrist joints, robots can reach a
collection of points called a Workspace.

• Alternately Workspace may be found

empirically, by moving each joint through its
range of motions and combining all space it
can reach and subtracting what space it
cannot reach
Rigid body motion and Coordinate
transformation
Mathematical preliminaries

• The study of robot manipulation,(Robot

manipulation implies movement in space
), is concerned with the relationship between
objects as well as between objects and
manipulators.
• The description of these relationships is based
on the
✓Vectors
✓Transformation matrices and coordinate
system
 Vectors
• Vectors are denoted by lowercase bold
letters like: v, u,…
In three-dimensional space , a vector v is considered as
column matrix of the following form:

𝑣1
𝒗 = 𝑣2
𝑣3

𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
 Vector operations

❑ The scalar product

❑ vector product
 Cartesian coordinate systems

If a set of basis vectors { Xo,Yo,Zo} are all drawn from a common origin 0, then these
vectors form an oblique coordinate system with axes 0x, 0y and 0z drawn along the
basis vectors.
➢ If the basis vectors are orthogonal to each other then they form a rectangular or
Cartesian coordinate system.

➢ Basis vectors of an orthonormal coordinate system (orthonormal (unit

length vectors) satisfy the following equations

➢ The origin of vector A is represented by Ao

➢ Any coordinate system A represented by matrix using orthonormal units
 Coordinate transformations
➢The goal of this section is to define the relationship between
two coordinate systems {A} and {B} in three-dimensional space.
Coordinate systems are required for describing
position/movement
Objective: describe rigid body motion
Starting point: there is a universe/ inertial/ stationary coordinate
system, to which any other coordinate system can be referred
Consider two coordinate systems shown in Figure 6. Let {A}
be the orthonormal reference frame and be
the unit vectors of the frame axis. The coordinate frame
{B} is completely described with respect to {A} (its position
and orientation is completely defined related to {A}) by the
following vectors:
➢For the sake of notation simplicity the following notation is
adopted:
➢ The orthonormal vectors of related coordinate system {B} with respect to {B} are
expressed by:

✓ while related to {A} these vectors can be written in the form:

✓ The vectors are mutually orthogonal since they represent the

unit vectors of an orthonormal coordinate system, i.e.

➢ Taking into account constraint equations above it follows that the nine scalar
quantities being the coordinates of vectors {B } thus represent 9 – 6 = 3 independent
scalar quantities that specify the orientation of the coordinate system {B} with respect
to {A}.
 Point Transformations
❖ How can we determine the position of a point which is known in
terms of one coordinate system with respect to the new coordinate
system defined afterward?
❖

The following vector equation can be written from the triangle

If all vectors in above equation are expressed with respect to the coordinate system
{A}, then the equation becomes:
 which can be written in compact matrix form as:

So the above equation will be

Equation above, which expresses the transformation of any point in

one coordinate system to a reference coordinate system when the
relative position and orientation of the pair of considered coordinate
systems are known, can be written in a simpler form by introducing the
homogenous transformation matrices of dimensions (4 x 4).
 Homogenous transformations matrices

➢ introduced by the mathematician August Ferdinand Möbius and allow us to

represent affine transformations by a matrix operation.

➢ Affine transformation is a combination of single transformations such as translation or

rotation
➢ play an important role in projective geometry.

➢ Homogenous coordinates embed three-dimensional space R3 into P3, the

three-dimensional projective space, which is R4.
➢ Instead of representing each point (x*, y*, z*) in three-dimensional space with a
single three- dimensional point vector

homogenous coordinates allow each point (x*, y*, z*) to be represented by any of an
infinite number of four dimensional vectors:
 And w ≠ 0 is an arbitrary scalar value

➢ Hence, the three-dimensional vector corresponding to any four-dimensional vector can be

computed by dividing the first three elements by the fourth,
➢ and a four-dimensional vector corresponding to any three-dimensional vector can be
created by simply adding a fourth element and setting it equal to one.

➢ Using the homogenous coordinates, transformation equation

above can be represented in the
where all (3 x 1) point vectors are expanded to (4 x 1) homogenous vectors with fourth
component w =1.
Introducing the notation

Transformation equation can be written in simpler

form:

▪ this matrix encompasses information about the rotation between two

coordinate systems as well as information about the distance between their
origins.
pure rotation pure translation
 As a consequence, matrix satisfying the following is an orthogonal

where I denotes the (3x3) identity matrix. Post multiplying the both sides of above by
the inverse matrix , the following useful result is obtained:
that is, the transpose of the rotation matrix is equal to its inverse.

next
?

from

We
get

Substituting in above equation we get

In general, given a transformation matrix
 Compound transformations
❑The coordinates of point 1 in Figure below are known in terms
of the coordinate system {C}.
❑The position and orientation of the coordinate system {C} are
known relative to the coordinate system {B} while the position
and orientation of the {B} coordinate system isknown relative to
the {A} coordinate system.

❑The task is to determine the coordinates of point 1 with respect

to coordinate system {A}?
 ❑ it is obvious that the transformation matrices are known

❑ Thus, the problem can be solved in two steps.

1. First, the coordinates of point 1 with respect to the coordinate system {B}

2. the coordinates of point 1 with respect to the coordinate system {A} are :

➢ Combining above equations

➢ The matrix that transfers a point directly from the coordinate

system {C} to the coordinate system {A} is
 ➢ Generally for manipulator with n+1 links joined with n joints

➢ Then, the coordinate transformation describing the position and

orientation of the coordinate frame {F} attached to the end-effector (end-
effector frame) with respect to base frame{A} is given by the following
transfer equation:
 Standard transformations
➢ the relationship between coordinate systems will be defined in terms of
rotations about the x, y or z axes.
➢ coordinate system {B} is initially aligned with coordinate system {A} and then
rotated by ϕ degrees about the z axis.
Will be calculated as follow
NOTE THAT:
• The transformation matrices representing the rotation of the coordinate system
{B} by α degrees about the x

• The transformation matrices representing the rotation of the coordinate system

{B} by β degrees about the y
The given point u= 7 3 2 1 𝑇 is rotated by 90° 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑧 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑣. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 90° 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑤. 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
4 3 7 1 𝑇 . 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦.
solution:
The matrix representing rotation about the z axis by 90° is:

Hence, the coordinates of the point v are obtained from the following equation:
The graphical presentation of the above rotation of the point u by 90° about the z
axis is shown in Figure (a) below

Now, obtained point v is rotated by 90° about the y axis as shown in Figure (b) above
which can be represented by the following transformation equation:
Combining, the transformation from point u to point w can be represented as
follows:

NOTE: it is important to note that the reverse order of rotations yields the
different position of the final point. Namely, if the given point u is first rotated
by 90° about the y axis and then by 90° about the z axis the coordinates of
final point are:
The obtained result is expected having in mind that the matrix multiplication is
non commutative BA ≠AB .
➢ FINALLY the including the translation we
get

Hence, the resulted point x is :

 Relative transformations
✓ Generally, transformations of coordinate systems (rotations and translation)
can be made with respect to the reference coordinate system or with respect
to the transformed coordinate system.
✓ Figure below (a) shows the first case where the coordinate system (frame),
initially aligned with the reference coordinate system, is first rotated about the
reference z axis by 90°, then rotated by 90° about the reference y axis and
finally translated by T=[ 4 -3 7 1].
✓ This transformation can be interpreted in reverse order with respect to
transformed coordinate system (frame). In that case the frame, initially aligned
with reference coordinate system, is first translated by T=[ 4 -3 7 1], then
rotated by 90° about the y axis of the translated coordinate system and lastly
rotated about the current z axis as shown in Figure (b) .
given a frame C and a transformation T , corresponding to a rotation by 90° about the
z axis, and a translation of 10 units in the x direction, we obtain a new position X
when the change is made in base coordinates

and a new position Y when the change is made relative to the frame axes as
Example: The coordinate system {B} is initially aligned with coordinate
system {A}. At first it is translated to point
5 4 1 1 𝑇 and then rotated by 30° 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. 𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 60° 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 2 0 2 1 𝑇 , 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐴𝑇