COMMUNICATIONS

COMMUNICATIONS
F.1

F.2

F3
(SL and HL) Radio communication

(SL and HL) Digital signals

(SL and HL) Optic fibre transmission

17
F.4 (SL and HL) Channels of communication

F.5 (HL) C.3 (SL) Electronics

F.6 (HL) C.4 (SL) The mobile phone system

Introduction Clearly, the majority of the information that we wish to

transmit to other people is primarily audio and/or visual
his topic looks at how information is transmitted over information. To transmit this information, we need some
large distances. For example, how can we hear a live concert means by which it can be “carried” between two points.
in our home when it is being performed on the other side If we think of the example of sound waves, information

OPTION
of the world or how can we have a telephone conversation about the source is encoded in the wave but the wave,
with someone who lives in a diferent country? as mentioned above, just does nor carry very far. On the
other hand, experience tells us that electromagnetic waves
We have learnt in Topic 4 that a wave carries energy but it can, and do travel vast distances. So, without going into
also carries information about the source that generated the history of communication theory, it is suice to say
it. If the wave is a sound wave of audible frequency, the that electromagnetic waves are, in the main, the carriers
“information” that it carries is interpreted by the ear as the used in the present day to transmit information. However,
pitch of the source. he source might be a single tuning we need to look in some detail as to how information is
fork or it might be a full concert orchestra. However, we actually carried by an em wave and this is what we look at
are well aware that sound waves lose energy quite rapidly; in the next sections.
stand a few metres from a sounded tuning fork and you will
not hear the sound it emits. You will have more success in Of course, we exclude here, the obvious case where visual
hearing a full orchestra at some distant away but not if you information needs no encoding in the respect that it is
are several kilometres away from it. So sound information carried directly to the eye by waves whose frequency lie in
is soon lost if it has to travel any distance. the visible region of the em spectrum.

391
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

F.1 (SL ANd HL) RAdIO 1

COMMUNICATION

amlplitude/mm
0
5 10 15 20
time/ ms
F.1.1 Decsribe what is meant by the modulation
of a wave.
-1
F.1.2 Distinguish between a carrier wave and a
signal wave Figure 1701 Variations in amplitude

F.1.3 Describe the nature of amplitude he variation of the amplitude with time and the frequency
modulation (AM) and frequency of the wave gives us the information about the source.
modulation (FM) In this situation, the information stays constant. If the
information changes then the wave must change in some
F.1.4 Solve problems based on the modulation way. When this happens, the wave is said to be modulated.
of the carrier wave in order to determine For example suppose that the amplitude now varies with
the frequency and amplitude of the time as shown in Figure 1702.
information signal
2

F.1.5 Sketch and analyse graphs of the

power spectrum of a carrier wave that
amlitude/ mm

is amplitude-modulated by a single-
frequency signal. 0
5 10 15 20
time/ ms
F.1.6 Define what is meant by sideband
frequencies and bandwidth.
-2
F.1.6 Define what is meant by sideband
frequencies and bandwidth. Figure 1702 A modulated wave
OPTION

F.1.7 solve problems involving sideband he original wave is still there but it has been “modulated”
frequencies and bandwidth by the superposition of another wave of a diferent
frequency. he modulation of the original wave gives
F.1.8 Describe the relative advantages and information regarding the changes that have taken place
disadvantages of AM and FM for radio at the source.
transmission and reception

F.1.9 Describe, by means of a block diagram, an F.1.2 dISTINgUISH beTWeeN A CARRIeR

AM radio receiver
© IBO 2007
WAve ANd A SIgNAL WAve

In the above discussion of modulation, if we know the

F.1.1 deCSRIbe WHAT IS MeANT by amplitude and frequency of the wave in Figure 1701 we
can use the modulation shown in Figure 1702 to determine
THe MOdULATION OF A WAve the amplitude and frequency of the wave that has been
superimposed on the original wave. In this respect, we
Figure 1701 shows how the amplitude of a wave of ixed can regard the original wave as the carrier wave and the
frequency varies with time at a particular point in space. superimposed wave as the signal wave. Essentially all
electronic communication systems involve a carrier and
signal wave and a means of modulating the carrier wave.
Figure 1703 shows a block diagram of a communication
system.

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 COMMUNICATIONS

carrier wave modulated carrier V+

voltage
wave
modulator de-modulator microphone

signal wave signal wave

time

steady dc voltage

Figure 1703 A schematic communication system

It is no secret that it is the radio wave region of the em

voltage
loud speaker
spectrum that is most used for the transmission of
information. he reason for this is that radio waves may be V-

produced at accurately maintained frequencies and also AM voltage

time

that the travel long distances without attenuation (loss

of energy). he radio spectrum also covers a wide range Figure 1704 Illustrating amplitude modulation
of frequencies varying from about 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
In a radio communication system, the carrier wave in In the absence of any sound at the microphone, the current
Figure 1703 would be a radio frequency wave and if audio in the circuit is constant resulting in a constant voltage
data is being transmitted, the signal wave would be a em across the loud speaker. he constant voltage is the carrier
wave that is in the audio frequency range (the sound waves “wave”.
having been converted to an electrical signal).
If you now, for example, speak into the microphone, the
sound waves that you produce are converted into electrical
F.1.3 deSCRIbe THe NATURe OF signals that produce a variation in the amplitude of the
current in the circuit. he variations in amplitude of the
AMPLITUde MOdULATION current in turn produce a variation of amplitude in the
voltage (the signal wave) across the speaker as shown in
(AM) ANd FReqUeNCy the insert diagrams in Figure 1704. he speaker converts
these voltage variations into sound waves.
MOdULATION (FM)
Amplitude modulation is very diferent to the example
here are several diferent ways in which waves can be we gave F.1.1 in which we just added two sine waves. If

OPTION
modulated but the principal two ways are amplitude we consider just the time variations of a wave, i.e. how
modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). the displacement of the medium at a particular point
varies with time, then we can write the displacement y as
y = Asin(ω t) where ω= 2πf. If we add two waves of the
Amplitude Modulation diferent amplitudes A and M and diferent frequencies f1
and f2 respectively, then the resultant displacement Y at
In amplitude modulation, the frequency of the carrier the point is given by
wave is constant and the signal wave is used to vary the
amplitude of the carrier wave. For example, a violinist Y = A sin 2πf1t + M sin 2π f2 t
can produce a so-called ‘tremolo’ efect by varying the
amplitude of the vibrating string by suitable movement of his is just what we have done in the example if F.1.1
the bow.
Suppose that f1 = fc (the frequency of the carrier wave) and
We can further illustrate AM with the simple situation f2 = fs (the frequency of the signal wave), then for amplitude
shown in Figure 1704 in which a microphone is used to modulation the resultant displacement YM is given by
vary the amplitude of a direct electric current of constant
value. YM = ( A + M sin 2π fs t) Asin 2π fc t

which is a very diferent expression from just adding the

two waves and give a very diferent result as is shown in
Figure 1705 in which fc = 18 fs.

393
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

Spreadsheets can be used to demonstrate amplitude Frequency Modulation

modulation using the above equation. his is why it is
given here even though it will not be required to know In frequency modulation the amplitude of the carrier
this equation for the IB examination. wave is kept constant and the signal wave is used to vary
the frequency of the carrier wave. With analogue signals
1.5 (see below) the carrier wave frequency is varied in direct
proportion to changes in the amplitude of the signal wave.
1 With digital signals (see below) the carrier wave frequency
is shited among a set of discrete values of frequencies. To
0.5 understand the principles of FM, we will just consider
analogue signals here as shown in Figure 1706.
0

-0.5

-1 C
E
-1.5 A
B F
Figure 1705 (a) Signal wave frequency = fs D
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
OPTION

Figure 1705 (b) Carrier wave frequency = 18fs A→B C D E→F

20 Figure 1706 Radio Frequency modulation

Figure 1707 shows what is happening to the amplitude of

the signal wave in the signal wave in the labelled regions
and the corresponding efect on the frequency of the
carrier wave.
0
region amplitude of frequency of carrier wave
signal wave
A → B zero constant
B → C increasing increasing with maximum at C
C → D decreasing decreasing with minimum at D
-20 D → E increasing increasing to constant value at E
E → F constant constant
Figure 1705 (c) Amplitude modulation
Figure 1707 Variations in frequency and amplitude
In Figure 1705 (c) the dotted curve shows the envelope of
the modulated wave.

Note that there are 18 complete oscillations of the wave

inside one complete period of the envelope.

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 COMMUNICATIONS

F.1.4 SOLve PRObLeMS bASed ON F.1.5 SkeTCH ANd ANALySe gRAPHS

THe MOdULATION OF THe OF THe POWeR SPeCTRUM

CARRIeR WAve IN ORdeR TO OF A CARRIeR WAve THAT IS

deTeRMINe THe FReqUeNCy AMPLITUde -MOdULATed by A

ANd AMPLITUde OF THe SINgLe -FReqUeNCy SIgNAL

INFORMATION SIgNAL It is possible to show mathematically that when

a carrier wave of frequency fc is modulated by a
signal wave of frequency fs then the modulated wave
Example actually consists of the carrier wave plus two waves,
one of frequency (fc - fs) and the other of frequency
(fc + fs). he frequencies are called the sideband frequencies
A carrier wave is modulated by a single signal wave. As and the frequency range that they cover is called the
a result of the modulation, a maximum amplitude of the bandwidth.
carrier wave occurs every 2.3 ms. Between each maximum
there are 2.1 × 105 complete oscillations of the carrier
wave. Determine the frequency of the signal wave and of F.1.6 deFINe WHAT IS MeANT by
the carrier wave.
SIdebANd FReqUeNCIeS ANd
Solution bANdWIdTH

he concepts of sideband and bandwidth are important

1
for the signal wave = 2.3 × 10-3 since they essentially determine the carrier wave
fs frequencies that can be used in broadcasting. If the carrier
to give fs = 435 Hz wave frequencies are suiciently spaced out, then the

OPTION
2.1 ×10 5 associated sidebands will not overlap and the transmission
for the carrier wave f c = = 9.1 ×10 7 = 91 MHz from diferent radio broadcasting channels will not
2.3 ×10 3
interfere. To further reduce the possibility of interference
between the diferent channels, the range of signal
Exercise frequencies is also reduced. he range of frequencies that
can be heard by the human ear is about 20 Hz to 20 kHz
but in the UK for instance, the range of transmitted signal
If the carrier wave in the above example is frequency frequencies is limited to 50 Hz to 4.5 kHz. he range is
modulated by the same signal wave as above, determine perfectly adequate for human speech and some music.
the time interval between an oscillation of the carrier wave
of maximum frequency and one of minimum frequency. We can calculate the bandwidth for any carrier wave as follows:

the bandwidth is equal to (fc - fs) - (fc + fs) = 2fc

therefore 2fc = 9.0 kHz.

Figure 1708 is a schematic representation of the frequency

spectrum of an AM transmission with a bandwidth of
9.0 kHz.

395
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

he transmitted power is concentrated in the carrier

signal, and as this carries no useful information this
means that amplitude modulation is ineicient in terms
amplitude

fc of power usage. he remaining power is split between two

identical sidebands. Since each band contains the same
information only one is actually needed so again there is
wasted power. AM can be made to be more power eicient
by eliminating one of the sidebands (single sideband
f/kHz
transmission) although the electronic circuitry needed
f c – 4.5 fc – 0.05 fc + 0.05 fc + 4.5 to do this is complicaed and adds to the expense of the
transmitter.
Figure 1708 AM amplitude spectrum

However, if the carrier wave is modulated by a single signal F.1.7 SOLve PRObLeMS INvOLvINg
wave of frequency fs, the frequency spectrum will look like
that shown in Figure 1709. SIdebANd FReqUeNCIeS ANd

bANdWIdTH

Exercises
amplitude

1. he allowed frequency range for broadcasting in the

medium frequency range is 535 kHz to 1615 kHz.
Calculate the number of 9 kHz broadcasting
channels that are available.

2. A carrier wave of frequency 535 kHz is modulated

fc - fs fc fc + fs frequency by frequencies in the range 50 Hz to 5.0 kHz.
Determine the frequencies transmitted and the
OPTION

Figure 1709 Frequency spectrum bandwidth.

of single frequency modulation

Bearing in mind that power is proportional to amplitude F.1.8 deSCRIbe THe ReLATIve
squared, Figure 1709 is translated into a power spectrum
as is shown in Figure 1710. AdvANTAgeS ANd dISAdvANTAgeS

OF AM ANd FM FOR RAdIO

TRANSMISSION ANd ReCePTION

power

One of the problems with AM transmission is the fact

that the amplitude is not likely to stay constant during
transmission. his is because of interference with
other electrical signals (unwanted signals are known as
noise) and also due to energy loss. Because of change of
amplitude during transmission, when the transmitted
fc - fs fc fc + fs frequency signal is decoded, the encoded signals will be distorted.
FM does not sufer from this problem since any change in
Figure 1710 Power spectrum amplitude does not afect the encoded signals.
of single frequency modulation
Another problem with AM is the limitation posed by
bandwidth. he relatively narrow bandwidth does not lead

396
 COMMUNICATIONS

to much distortion of speech but the higher harmonics of Tuning circuit: this is a circuit that can be “tuned” to
musical sounds will not be transmitted and this leads to a resonate (see Topic 4) with a particular frequency of a
lack of quality in the reproduced sound. carrier wave.

For reasons that are too complex to go into here, audio r.f (radio frequency) ampliier: this ampliies the selected
frequencies up to 15 kHz can be encoded using FM but modulated carrier wave.
in order to do this successfully a total bandwidth of about
200 kHz is needed. It is for this reason that FM signals Demodulator: this essentially removes the carrier wave
occupy the high frequency end of the radio wave leaving only the signal waves.
spectrum.
a.f (audio frequency) ampliier: this ampliies the signal
Historically, there are two main advantages of AM waves.
transmission. he circuitry involved is cheaper and
simpler but the advent of the silicon chip means that this Loudspeaker: this coverts the signal waves into sound waves.
is no longer true.

he range of AM transmission is also much greater than F.2 (SL ANd HL)
that of FM transmission. Strictly speaking to receive FM
you need to be able to see the transmitter; AM on the other dIgITAL SIgNALS
hand is relected by the ionosphere so can be received
efectively anywhere on Earth irrespective of the position
of the transmitter. However, communication satellites F.2.1 Solve problems involving the conversion
now efectively act as the “ionosphere” for FM signals, between binary numbers and decimal
relecting them to all points on the surface of Earth and numbers.
although AM is still in use, it is soon likely to be a thing
of the past. F.2.2 Distinguish between analogue and digital
signals.

F.1.9 deSCRIbe, by MeANS OF A F.2.3 State the advantages of the digital

transmission, as compared to the analogue
bLOCk dIAgRAM, AN AM transmission, of information.

OPTION
RAdIO ReCeIveR F.2.4 Describe, using block diagrams, the
principles of the transmission and reception
he Figure 1703 in F.1.2 shows the basic components of of digital signals.
a radio transmitter. In Figure 1711, we show the basic
components of a radio receiver. F.2.5 Explain the significance of the number of
bits and the bit-rate on the reproduction of
aerial
a transmitted signal

F.2.6 Describe what is meant by time-division

loudspeaker multiplexing
tuning r.f a.f.
demodulator
circuit amplifier amplifier

F.2.7 solve problems involving analogue-to-

digital conversion
Figure 1711 The basic radio receiver
F.2.8 Describe the consequences of digital
A brief description of each component is given below. communication and multiplexing on
worldwide communications.
Aerial: this detects the transmitted signal by the electric
ield in the transmitted signal oscillating the electrons in F.2.9 Discuss the moral, ethical, economic and
the aerial. environmental issues arising from access to
the Internet
© IBO 2007

397
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

Please refer to Chapter 14 Topics C.1.1.and C.1.2

F.2.4 deSCRIbe, USINg bLOCk
F.2.3 STATe THe AdvANTAgeS OF dIAgRAMS, THe PRINCIPLeS

THe dIgITAL TRANSMISSION, AS OF THe TRANSMISSION ANd

COMPARed TO THe ANALOgUe ReCePTION OF dIgITAL SIgNALS

TRANSMISSION, OF INFORMATION Figure 1712 shows the essential components of a digital

data transmitter.
In Topic 14.1.6 (C.1.6) we considered the advantages of
storing data in a digital form as compared to storing it in
parallel
analogue form. Some of these advantages clearly appertain sample
and
hold
clock ADC to serial
converter
modulator
transmission

to the transmission of data in digital form, particularly in analogue

data

respect of quality, accuracy and capacity.

to serial
converter carrier
wave

In terms of quality, digital data transmission is much

less subject to noise interference than analogue data Figure 1712 A digital data transmitter.
transmission. his is because the only variation in
“amplitude” of digital data is between 0 and 1 whereas in An outline of the function of each component is given
an analogue data the amplitude varies enormously. below. However, you should refer to 14.1.2 (C.1.2) for the
principle behind sampling and converting analogue data
Other advantages of digital data transmission are listed into digital data.
below.

• Transmission rate: since digital data is essentially Sample and hold

encoded as numerical data rather than electrically
“mimicking” the source, the rate at which the his component essentially samples the analogue data and
data is transmitted is not dependant on the rate at then “holds it”. By this we mean that before moving onto
which it is recorded. the next sampling of the data, the result of the previous
OPTION

• Source independence: audio and visual data can sample is held.

be transmitted using the same channel. his is
of particular importance in the transmission of
visual data where a bandwidth of about 6 MHz is Clock
required.
• Bandwidth and compression: digital data can be his provides the reference pulses
compressed enabling the same bandwidth to be
used by several diferent broadcasting channels;
digital data is oten compressed for transmission Analogue to digital Converter (AdC)
of audio and visual data. So called MP3, JPEG and
MPEG iles make use of compression, in which he sample data is converted into “bytes” each consisting
data that is regarded as being non-essential such as of a string of binary digits. (A byte is usually an eight-bit
audio frequencies above 20 kHz are removed. binary digit). Table 1713 shows how the numbers 0 – 4 are
encoded in four bit binary number ABCD ( a nibble).

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 COMMUNICATIONS

A B C D F.2.5 exPLAIN THe SIgNIFICANCe OF

0 0 0 0 0 THe NUMbeR OF bITS ANd THe

1 0 0 0 1 bIT-RATe ON THe RePROdUCTION

OF A TRANSMITTed SIgNAL
2 0 0 1 0
he greater the sampling rates of an analogue signal the
more accurately will the signal be encoded. A greater
3 0 0 1 1 sampling rate means a greater number of bits for each and
therefore means the greater the number of bits that have
4 0 1 0 0 to be sent to the receiver every second. he number of bits
transmitted per second is called the bit rate (or data rate or
data transfer rate) and is deined as
Figure 1713 Encoding numbers in 4-bit binary
bit rate = number of bits per sample × sampling frequency

Parallel to serial converter So, for example, encoding in 8-bit binary and sampling at
a frequency of 16 kHz will result in a bit rate of (8 × 16)
he ADC for example, produces 4-bit bytes that are = 128 kb s-1 (kilobits per second). he greater the bit rate,
encoded as binary pulses in 4 parallel lines, A, B, C and D. the higher the quality of the reproduced transmitted
he parallel to serial converter converts the bytes to pulses data. Quite oten, there is a trade of between the total
along a single line. amount of space that the data takes up and the bit rate as
in MP3 and JPEG iles. In general, though, the sampling
frequency necessary to ensure accurate reproduction to
Modulator the signal must be equal to or greater than twice the signal
frequency. (his is known as the Nyquist heorem or the
he digital data modulates the carrier wave for ‘sampling theory’).
transmission.

OPTION
Of course digital data transmission does not just occur F.2.6 deSCRIbe WHAT IS MeANT by
in broadcasting ( in fact the use here is a relative new
phenomenon) but in transmission along optical ibres (see TIMe -dIvISION MULTIPLexINg
below) and electrical cable in general. An example of the
latter, is transmission of data from the hard drive of your he bit rate can be increased if diferent sets of data
computer to your printer and even computer generated can be sent simultaneously such as diferent telephone
data to a word processor. conversations. his is achieved by using a technique
called multiplexing. here are essentially two types of
For example in Figure 1714, four bit generated binary multiplexing, ‘frequency’ and ‘time-division’ multiplexing.
“words” are converted to a series of binary pulses along a We will look only at time division.
single cable. he serial pulses are then converted back to
4-bit words to be used by the word processor. he principle of time division multiplexing is shown in
Figure 1715.
parallel to serial serial to
Word
word generator parallel
converter processor
converter

Figure 1714 Serial transmission of a

4-bit binary word (nibble)

399
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

F.2.7 SOLve PRObLeMS INvOLvINg

input S1
ANALOgUe -TO-dIgITAL
output

input S2
CONveRSION

Exercise

control pulse he graph shows the variation with time of the output of
an electrical signal.
Figure 1715 A two input multiplexer
9
8
When the control pulse is say 1, then the switch is in 7
the position shown and the input signal S1 will appear at 6

output/V
the output, When the control pulse is 0, then the switch 5
4
changes position and S2 now appears at the output. A four
3
input multiplexer can be made out of three two input 2
multiplexers and two controls and so on. 1
0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37.5 40
To see how multiplexing works in practice, consider a time/x100 µs
situation in which sampling is done at the rate to 16 kHz,
that is one sample every 62.5 µs. If each sample takes 8 (a) he signal is sampled at every 125 µs and is
µs to convert to an 8-bit word, then there is a “vacant” converted into a 3-bit digital signal. he possible
time slot of length of 54.5 µs before the next word is outputs of the ADC are given below.
transmitted. In theory, this slot can be illed by words
from 6 diferent channels (54.5 ÷8). Figure 1716 illustrates Analogue signal/Volts ADC binary output
how a multiplexer can be used to transmit data from three
separate channels. 0 – <1 000
OPTION

1 – <2 001
A
A B C A B C A B C… time division
A 2 – <3 010
B
time division
multiplexer
multiplexer in
reverse
operation
B 3 – <4 011
C C 4 – <5 100
5 – <6 101
Figure 1716 Transmission of data 6 – <7 110
from three separate channels 7 – <8 111

Determine the

(i) the sampling rate

(ii) the digital output of the signal for the 8th
sample.
(iii) the bit rate.

(b) Assuming a binary pulse is produced every 1 µs,

calculate the maximum number of channels that
time division multiplexing can produce at this
sampling frequency for sending digital data as two
four bit bytes.

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 COMMUNICATIONS

F.2.8 deSCRIbe THe CONSeqUeNCeS F3 (SL ANd HL)

OF dIgITAL COMMUNICATION OPTIC FIbRe
ANd MULTIPLexINg ON TRANSMISSION
WORLdWIde COMMUNICATIONS
F.3.1 Explain what is meant by critical angle and
Digital communication and the development of total internal reflection
multiplexing have had a tremendous impact on worldwide
communications. he amount of information and the F.3.2 Solve problems involving refractive index
speed with which it now can be transmitted across the and critical angle.
world means that “news” is almost instantaneous. One only
has to compare, for example how long it took for news of F.3.3 Apply the concept of total internal
the Battle of Trafalgar or news of the “Boston Tea Party” to reflection to the transmission of light along
reach Europe (and just how sparse the information was), an optic fibre.
to how long it took for news of the 2005 tsunami to reach
diferent parts of the world. Also, just think how easy it F.3.4 Describe the effects of material dispersion
is now to be in contact with distant friends and relatives and modal dispersion.
by the use of email as compared to “snail” mail. Indeed,
digital communication as made the world a much smaller F.3.5 Explain what is meant by attenuation and
place. solve problems involving attenuation
measured in decibels (dB).

F.2.9 dISCUSS THe MORAL, eTHICAL, F.3.6 Describe the variation with wavelength of
the attenuation of radiation in the core of a
eCONOMIC ANd eNvIRONMeNTAL monomode fibre.

ISSUeS ARISINg FROM ACCeSS TO F.3.7 State what is meant by noise in an optic
fibre.
THe INTeRNeT

OPTION
F.3.8 Describe the role of amplifiers and
he development of the Internet is a prime example reshapers in optic fibre transmission.
of digital communication, the “information highway”.
However, its use raises many issues that you might like to F.3.9 Solve problems involving optic fibres.
© IBO 2007
discuss with your teacher. Some of issues might include
the following.

• he use of the internet to spread political or F.3.1 exPLAIN WHAT IS MeANT by

religious propaganda.
• he use of the internet to sell illegal goods. CRITICAL ANgLe ANd TOTAL
• he availability of inappropriate material such as
pornography for minors. INTeRNAL ReFLeCTION
• he advent of “internet shopping” and its efect
economically and socially. If we consider for example, light waves incident on the
• he efect on the world’s energy consumption. surface of a glass block in air, then some of the light will
be absorbed at the surface, some relected and some
transmitted. However, let us just concentrate on the
transmitted light. In Figure 1717 (a), the direction of the
incident and transmitted waves are represented by the rays
labelled I and T. Figure 1717(b) shows the waves travelling
from glass to air.

401
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)
normal

I where φc is the angle of incidence in the glass that

i air corresponds to an angle of refraction in air of 90°.
boundary
he dotted rays in Figure 1718 show what happens to
r glass
light that is incident on the glass-air boundary at angles
greater than φc; the light is totally internally relected. he
T
(a) relection is total since no light is transmitted into the air.
normal he angle of incidence at which total relection just occurs
is the angle φc and for this reason φc is called the critical
I
angle.
air

boundary

glass F.3.2 SOLve PRObLeMS INvOLvINg

(b)
T ReFRACTIve INdex ANd

Figure 1717 Refraction: (a) air to glass transmission CRITICAL ANgLe

(b) glass to air transmission

In Figure 1717(b) the light clearly just follows the same Example
path as in Figure 1717(a) but in the opposite direction.
However, whereas any angle of incidence between 0 and
90° is possible when the light is travelling from air to glass, he critical angle for a certain type of glass is 40.5°.
this is not the case when travelling from glass to air. When Determine the refractive index of the glass.
angle i = 90° in (a), this will correspond to the maximum
possible angle of refraction when the light is travelling Solution
from glass to air as is shown in Figure 1718.
1
= sin φc
air n
r air = 90° 1
therefore n = = 1.54
sin 40.5
boundary
OPTION

Exercise
glass
Determine the critical angle for light travelling from air to
water of refractive index 1.33.
i glass = f c
Figure 1718 Total internal reflection
F.3.3 APPLy THe CONCePT OF TOTAL
For light travelling from air to glass, we have from Snell’s
law (see Topic 4.5.2) that the refractive index of the glass INTeRNAL ReFLeCTION TO THe
n is given by
sin i
n= TRANSMISSION OF LIgHT ALONg
sin r
herefore travelling from glass to air, we have AN OPTIC FIbRe
1 sin iglass
= he phenomenon of total internal relection along with
n sin rair the principles of modulation and analogue to digital
For the maximum value of rair = 90° therefore conversion discussed above form the basis for data
transmission using optic ibres. In optic ibres, the carrier
1 sin iglass
= = sin φc wave is light. here are essentially three types of optic ibres
n 1 but we will only concern ourselves with the so-called step-
index ibre. Figure 1719 shows the essentially structure of

402
 COMMUNICATIONS

a single step ibre and of light transmission along the ibre

by total internal relection.
core

before transmission after transmission

50 µm 125 µm
Figure 1720 Material dispersion

Using laser light as the source of the carrier wave greatly

cladding reduces material dispersion since the bandwidth of the
(a)
light emitted by a laser is only about 5 nm. Even using light
emitted by light emitting diodes (LED) reduces material
dispersion since the light emitted still as a bandwidth of
(b) only about 20 nm

Figure 1719 Optical fibre (a) structure

(b) transmission of light by TIR Modal (multipath dispersion)
Figure 1719 (a), shows that there is a two-layer structure he light travelling down a ibre from the source to the
of the ibre, the core and the cladding. he diameter of detector can be incident at a variety of diferent angles to
the core is constant, at approximately 50 to 60 µm and a the core-cladding interface. his means that diferent waves
typical refractive index index would be 1.440. he surface can travel diferent paths (or modes as they are called) in
of the core is kept as smooth as possible. he outer layer, the ibre. herefore pulses associated with diferent waves
the cladding, is bonded at all points to the surface of the will arrive at the detector at diferent times. his is called
core and a typical refractive index would be 1.411. he modal dispersion.
cladding ensures that the refractive index of the outside
of the core is always less than the inside. he cladding is
usually surrounded by a layer of plastic that protects and F.3.5 exPLAIN WHAT IS MeANT by
strengthens the ibre.
ATTeNUATION ANd SOLve

F.3.4 deSCRIbe THe eFFeCTS OF

OPTION
PRObLeMS INvOLvINg ATTeNUATION

MATeRIAL dISPeRSION ANd MeASURed IN deCIbeLS (db)

MOdAL dISPeRSION
Attenuation
Material dispersion he intensity of the carrier wave in a ibre will decrease with
the distance travelled along the ibre. his phenomenon is
Although all electromagnetic wave have the same speed called attenuation and is due to energy being carried by
in a vacuum, the speed of the wave in a medium depends the wave being lost. he energy loss is due to a variety of
on the wavelength of the wave, a phenomenon known reasons such as scattering and absorption within the core.
as dispersion. Another way to regard dispersion is to he attenuation is oten measured in decibel per kilometre.
recognise that the refractive index of a medium depends he decibel scale is a logarithmic scale (see Topic I.1.6 to
on wavelength (see Topic G.1.4). he implication of this see how it applies to hearing loss) and in optic ibres the
for optical ibres is that light of diferent wavelengths will attenuated power is deined below.
travel diferent distances along a ibre. his means that
the pulses in the ibre will spread out as they travel along loss of power (attenuation) in decibels
the ibre and the information carried by the waves will initial power I
be distorted. Figure 1720 shows how a square wave pulse = 10 log = 10 log 1
output power I2
might be distorted by this so-called material dispersion.

403
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

We see that attenuation decreases with increasing

Example wavelength and that there are two distinct minima
at about 1300 and 1500 nm. Monomode ibres using
these frequencies of carrier wave, make them the best
he power loss between source and detector in a particular choice for long-distance communication such as in tele-
optic ibre of length 1.5 km is 50%. Calculate the power communication.
loss in dB km-1.

F.3.7 STATe WHAT IS MeANT by

Solution
NOISe IN AN OPTIC FIbRe
1
power loss in dB = 10 log 10 ( ) = 3.0 dB One great advantage of using optic ibres for transmitting
2 data is that they are not very susceptible to noise. Any noise
power loss (attenuation) = 2.0 dB km-1. that does afect the signals arises from stray light entering
the ibre at the transmitting and receiving ends of the ibre.
At the receiving end, photodiodes are used to covert the
Exercise light pulses into electrical pulses and photodiodes are
subject to random noise. he noise to signal power ratio
for an optic ibre is typically in the range 10-17 to 10-18.
Calculate the length that will result in a power loss of 80%
for of an optical ibre with an attenuation of 2.0 dB km-1.
F.3.8 deSCRIbe THe ROLe OF
F.3.6 deSCRIbe THe vARIATION AMPLIFIeRS ANd ReSHAPeRS IN

WITH WAveLeNgTH OF THe OPTIC FIbRe TRANSMISSION

ATTeNUATION OF RAdIATION IN
Reshapers (regenerators)
THe CORe OF A MONOMOde FIbRe
OPTION

Monomode ibres efectively eliminate modal dispersion

A monomode ibre is one in which there is only one and although lasers reduce material dispersion the latter
transmission axis thereby eliminating modal dispersion. is still present. Suppose for example, data is transmitted at
In monomode ibres, the core is about 5 µm in diameter the rate of 1 Gb s-1, then to ensure that the pulses remain
which is the same order of magnitude as the wavelength distinct from each other, they need to be separated by at
of the carrier light. he graph in Figure 1721 shows the least 0.5 ns. Over long distances the pulses can become
variation with wavelength of the power loss in a monomode quite spread out such that even with laser light, ater
silica optic ibre . about 50 km, individual pulses will be starting to merge
together. So every 40-60 km, the pulses are detected and
then reshaped. he reshaped pulses are then encoded onto
6 a new laser beam for continued transmission. his is the
Power loss / db km–1

5 function of the reshaper.

4
3
Ampliier
2
1 Even if pulses have been re-shaped, the carrier wave and
0 signal still undergo attenuation.
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
wavelength / x 10–7 m In 1987 David Payne and his co-workers at the University
of Southampton in England developed the irst practical
Figure 1721 Attenuation loss in a monomode optic fibre optical ampliier suitable for optic ibre communication
systems.

404
 COMMUNICATIONS

hese ampliiers enable the attenuated carrier and pulses

to be ampliied at various points along the ibre. F.4 (SL ANd HL)
he combination of reshapers and ampliiers means that CHANNeLS OF
data can be transmitted along optic ibres for vast
distances. he longest optic ibre links are those that span COMMUNICATION
the World’s oceans, including several across the Atlantic
from North America to Europe and several from the
United States to Japan. he transatlantic cable laid in 1988 F.4.1 Outline different channels of
contains eight ibres and each ibre has a bit rate of communication, including wire pairs,
560 Mb s-1 enabling the cable to carry 40,000 telephone coaxial cables, optic fibres, radio waves and
calls at one time he next generation of cables which came satellite communication.
into service in 1992, is able to carry double this number of
calls. F.4.2 Discuss the uses and the relative
advantages and disadvantages of wire
pairs, coaxial cables, optic fibres and
F.3.9 SOLve PRObLeMS INvOLvINg radio waves.

OPTIC FIbReS F.4.3 State what is meant by a geostationary

satellite.

Exercises F.4.4 State the order of magnitude of the

frequencies used for communication with
geostationary satellites, and explain why
1. he cladding of an optic ibre has a refractive the up-link frequency and the down-link
index of 1.46 and the core a refractive index of frequency are different.
1.48. he ibre is 1.80 × 102 m long.
F.4.5 Discuss the relative advantages and
(i) Calculate the critical angle between the core disadvantages of the use of geostationary
and cladding. and of polar-orbiting satellites for
(ii) Show that the diference between the communication.

OPTION
transmission time for an axial signal and a
signal that is incident to the cladding at an F.4.6 Discuss the moral, ethical, economic and
angle that is just greater than the critical environmental issues arising from satellite
angle is about 9 ns. communication
© IBO 2007

2. he input power to an optic ibre is 10 mW and

the signal noise is 1.0 × 10-20 W. he attenuation In this section we look briely at the diferent
loss in the ibre is 2.5 dB km-1. communication channels that are available and also their
relative advantages and disadvantages.
(i) Calculate the ratio of input power to signal
noise in decibel.
(ii) he input signal needs to be ampliied when
its power is attenuated to 1.0 × 10-18 W.
Determine the maximum separation of the
ampliiers in the cable.

405
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

that coaxial cable is not suitable for the transmission of

F.4.1 OUTLINe dIFFeReNT CHANNeLS digital signals and also that it has an upper limit bit rate of
about 140 Mb s-1.
OF COMMUNICATION, INCLUdINg

WIRe PAIRS, COAxIAL CAbLeS, Optic ibres

OPTIC FIbReS, RAdIO WAveS ANd Some of the advantages of optic ibres have been referred
to in Topic F.3.
SATeLLITe COMMUNICATION

F.4.2 dISCUSS THe USeS ANd THe

Wire pairs
ReLATIve AdvANTAgeS ANd
he irst real electronic communication system was the
telegraph system that used electrical pulses transmitted dISAdvANTAgeS OF WIRe
along wires. his system led to the development of the
so-called Morse code. One type of telegraph system that PAIRS, COAxIAL CAbLeS, OPTIC
has survived is the ‘Telex’ system. his system has the
advantage over the conventional telephone system in that FIbReS ANd RAdIO WAveS
written documents can be sent.
However, it is useful to compare the advantages and
Although the development of scanners used along with disadvantages of optic ibres to those of coaxial cables.
email and Fax and Teletex have to some extend superseded
Telex, more than three million telex lines remain in
use worldwide. For instance, it is is still widely used in AdvANTAgeS
some developing countries because of its low costs and
reliability. • highly suitable for transmitting digital data
• much higher bit rate
However, wire pairs that are twisted have one great • much smaller in diameter
advantage, namely that the twisting together results in the • low noise
OPTION

cancelling out of electromagnetic interference from other • good security

sources, particularly from adjacent wires. Essentially, the
wire carry equal and opposite signals such that the noise
in one cancels out the noise in the other. Also, because of dISAdvANTAgeS
its relative low cost compared to optic ibres and coaxial
cable, twisted wires are oten used in data networks and • oten diicult to access and repair
computer systems where there are short and medium • inite life of ampliers and reshapers
length connections between components. A modern
variant of twisted wires is the so-called Ethernet
connection. Radio waves
Clearly, the main advantage of radio communication
Coaxial cables is that it does not require any wires or cables. he main
disadvantage was that it could not be used to transmit data
A coaxial cable consists of a thin copper wire surrounded contained in documents. However, the advent of wireless
by an insulator which in turn is surrounded by a copper connection for the internet means that this is no longer
grid. his grid is also surrounded by an insulator. Coaxial the case.
cable will probably be familiar to you as the cable that oten
connects the aerial to your television set. Although optic
ibres have replaced coaxial cable in many situations it is
still used to carry the majority of cable television signals
and also for broadband internet connections. he main
disadvantage of coaxial cable compared to optic ibre is

406
 COMMUNICATIONS

available to those points that are in the “ield of view” of

F.4.3 STATe WHAT IS MeANT by A the satellite. his is not true for a polar satellite as diferent
points will move out of the ield of view at diferent times.
geOSTATIONARy SATeLLITe
A disadvantage of geostationary satellites is that their
A geostationary satellite is a satellite that orbits Earth great height above the surface of Earth means that more
in a circular orbit above the equator and has an orbital power is needed for transmitting to and from the satellites
period of one sidereal day (the time that it takes the Earth than for a polar satellite. An even bigger disadvantage
to make one complete rotation about its axis). his means is that, because of the curvature of Earth, geostationary
that the satellite will maintain a ixed position over one satellites are not able to communicate with points further
point of the equator. he orbit is at about a height of 3.6 than about 60°-70° North or South. On the other hand
× 107 m above the surface of Earth. Currently there are polar satellites will be able to communicate with all points
ive or six geostationary satellites each at a diferent point in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres at some
above the equator. time during their orbit.

Geostationary satellites, because of their large orbital

F.4.4 STATe THe ORdeR OF MAgNITUde height, are much more costly to put into orbit than polar
satellites
OF THe FReqUeNCIeS USed
It should be borne in mind that satellites are also used for
FOR COMMUNICATION WITH remote imaging and that both types have advantages and
disadvantages in this respect.
geOSTATIONARy SATeLLITeS

he frequency of the carrier waves used to communicate F.4.6 dISCUSS THe MORAL,
with the satellite are in the range 0.1-10 GHz. he up-link
frequency is diferent to the down link frequency since if eTHICAL, eCONOMIC ANd
they were the same, the two signals could interfere with
each other giving unwanted feedback. eNvIRONMeNTAL ISSUeS

ARISINg FROM SATeLLITe

F.4.5 dISCUSS THe ReLATIve

OPTION
COMMUNICATION
AdvANTAgeS ANd dISAdvANTAgeS
his is a wide issue and is let as a discussion topic with
OF THe USe OF geOSTATIONARy your teacher. However, here are a few pointers:

ANd OF POLAR-ORbITINg Moral → Use in modern warfare.

SATeLLITeS FOR COMMUNICATION Economic → the question of funding to make and place
satellites in orbit.
Another type of communication satellite is the polar
orbiting satellite. Clearly, a polar satellite is not Environmental → the question of a large amount of
geostationary and as such, it orbital height above the “debris” in space.
surface of Earth is much less than that of a geostationary
satellite. It is probably also worth mentioning the International
aspect of satellite communication in respect of the
It is useful to compare the advantages and disadvantages economics and shared use.
of each type of satellite in their use as communication
satellites.

he fact that they keep the same position means that,

unlike polar satellites, geostationary satellites need no
tracking system Also, geostationary satellites are always

407
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

F.5 (HL) C.3 (SL) eLeCTRONICS

he power supply, the +V and –V in the diagram, of op-
F.5.1 State the properties of an ideal operational amps may vary from ±15 V to ±30 V. It is important to
amplifier (op-amp). realise that, for example, a ± 15 V supply is not the same
as a 30 V supply. he +15 V is measured with reference to
F.5.2 Draw circuit diagrams for both inverting 0 V and so is the –15 V whereas in a 30 V supply the two
and non-inverting amplifiers (with a single supply “lines” are 30 V and 0 V.
input) incorporating operational amplifiers.
(Note that it is usual to omit the supply lines when drawing
F.5.3 Derive an expression for the gain of an circuits involving op-amps).
inverting amplifier and for a non-inverting
amplifier. he ampliier has one output terminal and the output
voltage can take any value between ±V, although in
F.5.4 Describe the use of an operational amplifier practice the output will have a slightly smaller range than
circuit as a comparator. this.

F.5.5 Describe the use of a Schmitt trigger for the here are two input terminals to the ampliier. One is
reshaping of digital pulses. an inverting input (marked -) and a non-inverting input
(marked +).
F.5.6 Solve problems involving circuits
incorporating operational amplifiers he two properties that make the ampliier such a useful
© IBO 2007
device are:

(i) its very high open loop gain (A0), typically about
F.5.1 STATe THe PROPeRTIeS OF AN 105, meaning that the without any other electrical
components connected to the ampliier, the output
IdeAL OPeRATIONAL AMPLIFIeR voltage is 105 x the input voltage

(OP-AMP) (ii) its very high input resistance, anything between

OPTION

106 and 1012 Ω, meaning that the input current to

he operational ampliier is a remarkable device that the ampliier is negligible.
has many uses in electronic and communications. It
was originally called a direct current ampliier (d.c.) to he ampliier also has very low output resistance and this
distinguish it from ampliiers that are used to amplify is of importance if the output of the ampliier is to be
analogue signals such as audio ampliiers. connected to low resistance components.

Figure 1722 shows the circuit symbol for an operational In Figure 1722 if the inverting input is V1, the non-
ampliier (op-amp). inverting input V2, and the output Vout
+V
then

Vout = A0 (V2 – V1)

-
hat is, the ampliier ampliies the diference between
inputs output
the inputs and for this reason it is sometimes called a
+ diferential ampliier. In the open loop mode of operation,
because of the high gain, the ampliier is very unstable as
small changes in the input are subject to very large changes
at the output.
-V

Figure 1722 The Operational (d.c.) amplifier

408
 COMMUNICATIONS

However, we also have that

F.5.2 dRAW CIRCUIT dIAgRAMS FOR V0
V0 = -A0 VP or VP = −
bOTH INveRTINg ANd NON- A0
But A0 , the open-loop gain, is very high so this means that
INveRTINg AMPLIFIeRS Vp ≈ zero.

herefore
The inverting ampliier
Vin = IRin
Figure 1723 shows how resistors are connected to the
ampliier in order for it to act as an inverting ampliier. and

Rf - V0 = IRf

he gain G of the ampliier is therefore

V0 R
R in
G= =− f
- Vin Rin
V in
V out
P he point P in the diagram is called a virtual earth
+
because it is efectively at zero potential with respect to
the earth-line. If in Figure 1723 we were to replace the
ampliier with a piece of plastic, the very high resistance of
0V the plastic would mean that the current in Rf would be the
same as that in Rin but, and this is the important point, the
potential diference at point P would not be zero. It is the
Figure 1723 The inverting amplifier other important property, the high gain of the ampliier,
that ensures that P will efectively be at earth potential.
In this ampliier, the non-inverting input is earthed and he inverting ampliier could therefore be replaced with
a resistor of resistance Rin is connected to the inverting the circuit shown in Figure 1724.
input. Another resistor of resistance Rf is connected

OPTION
between the output and the input. Rf is called a feedback
resistance since the resistor is efectively feeding back the R in Rf
0V
output voltage to the input.

Suppose that the potential diference between the point

P on the diagram and the earth-line (0 V) is Vp then we
have

Vin - Vp = IRin Virtual earth

where Vin is the input voltage and I is the input current. Figure 1724 Equivalent circuit for an inverting ampliflier

he input current through Rf will also be I because of the

very high input resistance of the ampliier such that

Vp – V0 = IRf

where V0 is the output voltage.

409
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

V
Remembering that the gain G = out , dividing by Vin and
F.5.3 deRIve AN exPReSSION FOR re-arranging, we have that Vin
Rf
THe gAIN OF AN INveRTINg G =1+
R
AMPLIFIeR ANd FOR A NON-
F.5.4 deSCRIbe THe USe OF AN
INveRTINg AMPLIFIeR
OPeRATIONAL AMPLIFIeR
To see how the inverting ampliier “works” suppose that
Rin = 1 kΩ, Rf = 10 kΩ and Vin = 1 V. he output voltage CIRCUIT AS A COMPARATOR
will “move” to –10 V in order to ensure that the current in
Rf is the same as that in Rin (1 mA) and that point P will be For the open-loop gain of an op-amp we saw that
at zero volts. (Hence the voltage at the inverting input is
zero). Since the input voltage to the non-inverting input is Vout = A0 (V2 – V1)
also zero, any change in the input means that the feedback
voltage changes to efectively ensure that the diference in If V2 >> V1 then the output will be a maximum and nearly
voltage between the two inputs will still be zero. equal to +V whereas if V1 >> V2 the output will be a
minimum and nearly equal to –V. his makes the op-amp
a useful device for comparing potential diferences. For
The non-inverting ampliier example an ampliier might be used to detect a temperature
rise where the temperature rise has caused the voltage at
Figure 1725 shows the circuit for the non-inverting ampliier. one of the inputs to change. Figure 1726 shows an example
of such a circuit.
Rf
+V

- T
V out
V in +
-
OPTION

R V out
+
R
0V

Figure 1725 The non-inverting amplifier

he potential diference across the resistor of resistance R -V

equals the input potential Vin ( the diference in the input
voltages is zero) such that if the current in the resistors Figure 1726 The operational amplifier used as a
R and Rf is I (remember that the current at the inputs is comparator
zero), then we have that
he resistance of the variable resistor R is adjusted so that
Vin
I= the inverting input is at a greater potential than the non-
R inverting input. In this situation Vout ≈ +V and activates
and a green light emitting diode (LED) at the output (not
shown). T is a thermistor and in the situation shown, its
Vout − Vin
I= temperature is low. When the temperature increases the
Rf resistance of T decreases and reaches a value where the
so that potential at the inverting input is greater than that at the
non-inverting input. In this situation the output Vout ≈ -
Vin Vout − Vin
= V and this switches of the green LED but activates a red
R Rf LED giving warning of the rise in temperature.

410
 COMMUNICATIONS

he potential across R2 is
F.5.5 deSCRIbe THe USe OF A
V + Vo = 6.0 = IR2 = 100 I 2
SCHMITT TRIggeR FOR THe
herefore I = 0.060 mA, such that
ReSHAPINg OF dIgITAL PULSeS
Vin = 22 × 0.060 +1 = 2.3 V
As we have seen, one problem associated with transmitting
data in digital form, is that the voltage pulses (we will We could of course, have done the calculation by
not concern ourselves here with optical pulses) can considering R1 and R2 as a potential divider across which
become misshapen during transmission due to noise and the potential diference is Vin + 5.0.
attenuation. Op-amps are used in a circuit called a Schmitt
trigger that enables digital pulses to be reshaped. Figure 1728 shows the output of a Schmitt trigger that is
the reshaped pulses of misshaped pulse inputs.
Figure 1727 shows the circuit of a non-inverting Schmitt
trigger.

V/ - +V o
Vo reshaped pulse
+
/
V

output misshapen pulse

V in
R1 P R2
time

Figure 1727 A non-inverting Schmitt trigger

Suppose that in the situation shown that the values of the

potential at the two inputs is such that the output voltage
-V o
is at its minimum value – Vo. his means that the potential
at point P, Vp (the potential at the non-inverting input),

OPTION
is less than the potential V/ at the inverting input. If Vp
increases above V/, it will reach a value at which the output Figure 1728 Reshaped pulse output of a Schmitt trigger
will switch to its maximum value +V0. Remembering
that the ampliier draws no current, let us calculate by he output of the Schmitt trigger is at -Vo until the input
how much Vin has to rise in order for Vo to switch to its reaches V/ at which point the output switches to +Vo and
maximum value. To illustrate this, we will consider a remains at this value until the input drops to V/ again,
particular circuit in which Vp = V/ = 1.0 V (i.e. the input when it switches back to -Vo. In this way the pulses are
signals are equal) and re-shaped. In order for the reshaped output pulses to have
only a positive value, a diode is connected between R2
R1 = 22 kΩ, R2 = 100 kΩ and Vo = ± 5.0 V. (Figure 1727) and the output.

In the situation where Vo is = -5.0 V, the potential across

R1 is
Vin − 1.0 = IR1 = 22 I

where I is the current in the resistors

411
 CHAPTER 17 (OPTION F)

F.5.6 SOLve PRObLeMS INvOLvINg F.6 (HL) C.4 (SL)

CIRCUITS INCORPORATINg THe MObILe
OPeRATIONAL AMPLIFIeRS PHONe SySTeM
Exercises F.6.1 State that any area is divided into a number
of cells (each with its own base station) to
which is allocated a range of frequencies.
1. his exercise shows how an op-amp can be used
as a summing ampliier. In the circuit below each F.6.2 Describe the role of the cellular exchange
resistor has the same value of resistance R. For the and the public switched telephone network
circuit, show that the output voltage is the sum of (PSTN) in communications using mobile
the three input voltages i.e VA + VB + VC = Vout phones.

F.6.3 Discuss the use of mobile phones in

VA multimedia communication.

VB - F.6.4 Discuss the moral, ethical, economic,

V out
VC environmental and international issues
+
arising from the use of mobile phones.
© IBO 2007

0V Introduction
2. he two Schmitt triggers shown below each have a here is little doubt that the development of the mobile
maximum output voltage of + 12 V. Calculate the phone system has revolutionised electronic comm-
switching potential for each trigger. unication, and in such a relatively short space of time.
Twenty years ago, mobile phones were rare and expensive.
OPTION

(a) In the present day, the number of mobile phones now

outnumber land-line telephones and also, in the UK for
0V - example, outnumber the population. In 2006, the estimated
number of mobile phone users was 2.5 × 109 and the
+ number is still growing. It is expected that over 90% of the
world’s population will have access to mobile phone
networks by 2010.

33 kΩ 100 kΩ F.6.1 STATe THAT ANy AReA IS

(b)
dIvIded INTO A NUMbeR OF
5.0 V -
CeLLS
+
he mobile phone system uses a range of operating
frequencies just below 1 GHz. Each country that has a
mobile phone system, is divided into a large number of
small geographical regions ranging in about 2-20 km in
47 kΩ 470 kΩ diameter. hese regions as called ‘cells’. At the centre of
each cell is a low power transmitter and receiver that is
assigned a diferent frequency to neighbouring cells. he
low power of the transmitter means that the physical

412
 COMMUNICATIONS

size of the phone can be reduced whereas the diferent

operating frequencies minimises interference between F.6.4 dISCUSS THe MORAL, eTHICAL,
neighbouring cells. he use of a cellular network is the
reason that mobile phones are sometimes referred to as eCONOMIC, eNvIRONMeNTAL
cell phones.
ANd INTeRNATIONAL ISSUeS

F.6.2 deSCRIbe THe ROLe OF ARISINg FROM THe USe OF

THe CeLLULAR exCHANge MObILe PHONeS

ANd THe PUbLIC SWITCHed Like all innovations, there are beneits and there are
downsides associated with mobile phone use. Here we
TeLePHONe NeTWORk (PSTN) outline only some of the possible downsides that your
teacher might like to discuss with you in more detail; there
IN COMMUNICATIONS USINg are of course many others.

MObILe PHONeS
Moral and ethical
Each cell overlaps other cell sites. All of the mobile phone
cell sites are connected to cellular telephone exchanges Use of mobile phones raises the problem of the invasion
which act as switches directing calls to other phones or of other people’s private space in respect of their use in
to another cellular exchange. hese cellular exchanges are public spaces. hey also allow the private download of
also connected to the public switched telephone network material that might be illegal.
(PSTN). Connection to the PSTN means that mobile
phones can make connection to landline phones and also Recently there have been cases reported of phones
to the internet. being used to “bully” individuals by harassment with text
messages.
As a mobile phone user moves from one cell area to
another, the cellular exchange automatically switches
the cell site the phone was using to a cell with a stronger environmental

OPTION
signal. he phone also switches to the frequency used by
this new cell. Apart from the invasion of other people’s privacy, there is
the very diicult problem of the disposal of “old” phones.

F.6.3 dISCUSS THe USe OF MObILe You might like to try as an exercise, to think of some
economic and international beneits and downsides
PHONeS IN MULTIMedIA connected with the use of mobile phones. As mentioned
at the beginning of this Option Topic, the revolution
COMMUNICATION in modern telecommunication is making the world a
much smaller place and mobile phones are part of that
As you are probably well aware, mobile phones can now revolution.
connect to the internet, send emails, download music iles,
video and picture iles and send these on to other mobile
phone users. hey can also of course be used as a camera.

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OPTION

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