Transport in animals

Transport refers to the movement of materials from one part of the organism to
another.
Requirements of transport system

1. Materials to be transported:
In animals, they include respiratory gases oxygen and carbon dioxide,
nitrogenous excretory products e.g. uric acid, nutrients e.g. glucose, amino
acid, etc. In plants, they include oxygen and carbon dioxide.
2. The medium of transport:
The medium of transport in plants and lower animals is water and it is blood
in vertebrates and in a few invertebrates like arthropods, annelids (earth
worm).
3. The channels of transport:
In most animals, these are blood vessels, in others like earth worms, it is the
body cavity (coelom). In higher plants, there is a vascular system or system
of xylem and phloem.
4. Energy:
Circulation of blood in animals requires energy supplied from respiration
used in pumping of the heart and muscle contractions.

Surface area to volume ratio

A large organism like a mammal which has a low surface area to volume ratio has
problems with transport compared to smaller organisms like protozoa. This is
because of the large distance over which materials have to cross. The surface area to
the volume ratio gets smaller as the organism gets larger.

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THE MAMMALIAN HEART
Its function is to pump blood around the body.
The heart is made of tissues called cardiac muscles which have the potential to
contract rapidly.
It’s divided in to four chambers.
The upper chambers are called atrium / auricle and the lower chambers are each
called ventricle.
The heart is divided in to sections i.e. left and right by a muscular septum whose
function is to prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Movement of blood in the heart is maintained in a single direction i.e. from the
auricle to ventricle and then to blood vessels.
Blood flow in one direction in the heart is maintained by the presence of valves.
The auricles receive blood from all parts of the body while the ventricles pump
blood to the body e.g. the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the
pulmonary vein and pump it to the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve.
The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body from the
vena cava and pumps it to the right ventricle via the tricuspid valve.
The ventricle walls are more muscular (have thicker walls) than those or the
auricles because the auricle pump blood to shorter distance i.e. to the ventricle
while the ventricles pump blood longer distances i.e. to body and lungs.
The walls of the left ventricle that pump blood in to the systemic circulation are
thicker than those of the right ventricle which pump blood to pulmonary
circulation.
Flow of blood through the heart:
(a) Deoxygenated blood from different parts of the body flows into the
heart along the vena cavae. These pour the blood into the right
atrium.
(b) This blood passes then to the right ventricle. It is sent to the lungs
through the right ventricle. It is sent to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery.
(c) Oxygenated blood from the lung returns to the left atrium along the
pulmonary veins.
(d) This blood then passes into the left ventricle.

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 (e) The blood leaves the heart through the aorta to be distributed around
the body.

Blood vessels
Blood vessels are tubes, which carry the blood around the body.
There are different types of blood vessels. These include; Arteries, Arterioles,
Capillaries, Venules and and veins
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
 The main artery is the aorta whichdivide into a numbers of main branches
called arteries.
 Arteries branch into smaller vessels called arterioles.
 Arterioles split up into tiny blood vessels called capillaries which supply
with the entire body tissues with blood. It is from these cappilaries that
movement of substances to & from the blood takes place. Capillaries join
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 together to form larger vessels called venules which join together to form
veins. Veins carry blood towards the heart.
 There is a tendency of blood not moving forward due to reduced pressure
within veins. The valves within veins stop the flow back of so that its forced
in one direction to the heart. Valves open to allow blood flow to next point
of the vein and close it. reverses its direction
Illustration of blood vessel network in mammalian body

Diagram of an Artery vein

Differences between veins and arteries

Veins Arteries
Blood travels to heart Blood travels away from heart
They have a large lumen relative to They a narrower Lumen than veins
their diameter
They possess thin wall with few Thick wall with lots of elastic fibres
elastic fibres
They have thin muscular walls They thick muscular layer

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Valves present along their entire They have no valves except at the
length to prevent blood back flow bases of aorta and pulmonary artery
Blood travels constantly and there Blood travels in pulses
are no pulses
Carry blood under low pressure Carry blood under high pressure
Blood moves slowly Blood moves rapidly
They are not capable of constriction They are capable of constriction
They transport deoxygenated blood They transport oxygenated blood from
from body tissues to the heart except the heart to the body tissues except the
the pulmonary vein which transports pulmonary artery which transports
oxygenated blood from the lungs to deoxygenated blood from the heart to
the heart the lungs

Characteristics of capillaries;
 They are tiny, very thin walled and penetrate deep into every organ
 They are permeable and some blood components and other materials leak
through them
 The exchange of materials between blood and tissues take place through
their walls
 They do not have muscular walls
 They do not have an elastic tissue
 They have a very large lumen in relative to their diameter
 They are not capable of constriction
 They link arteries to veins through arterioles and venules
 Blood flows slowly and there are no pulses
 They do not have valves

Similarities between Veins, arteries and capillaries

 All are tubular
 All have endothelium/in lining
 All transport blood

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Diagram illustrating the arteries and veins which transport blood to the
different organs of the body

Blood
Blood is a fluid in which are found blood cells and cell fragments called
platelets. The blood cells and platelets make up for about 45% of blood
volume and the plasma about 55%

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 .

Composition of Plasma
PLASMA
Plasma is a yellow liquid containing:
- mineral salts
- blood proteins
- glucose
- amino acids
- fats
- waste products such as urea.
Among the blood proteins there is a substance known as fibrinogen that
plays an important role in the clotting of blood.

RED BLOOD CELLS OR RED CORPUSCLES

In humans, there are about five million red blood cells per cubic millimetre
of blood. each one of these cells is a flat biconcave disc and is able to

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 squeeze through small blood vessels by changing its shape. Red blood cells
have no nucleus and they contain a reddish pigment called haemoglobin.

Diagram of Red Blood Cells (a) Front View, (b) Side View

Function: They carry oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body
WHITE BLOOD CELLS OR LEUCOCYTES
Leucocytes are much less numerous than red blood cells, the ratio is 1:600.
While blood cells are much larger than the red ones. They are colourless.
Most of them are irregular in shape and they all possess a nucleus.

Function: They kill germs getting into the body

Question: Describe four ways by which antibodies attack disease causing germs

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PLATELETS
These are small fragments of cells about one quarter of the size of a white
blood cell. Their number is about 250,000 per cubic millimetre of blood.

Function: They assist in blood clotting

The Process of Blood Clotting:
When blood is exposed to air as a result of a cut or wound, the platelets in the
blood at the damaged tissue stimulate the release of a chemical called
Thromboplastin (thrombokinase). In the presence of calcium ions and vitamin
K, thromboplastin stimulates the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
enzyme. Thrombin then catalyzes the conversion of soluble blood protein
fibrinogen to the insoluble form fibrin. Fibrin forms fibers, which form a mesh
and trap blood cells and proteins. This mesh dries to form a scab, which is called
the blood clot.

Functions of Blood
Blood has many different functions, including:

 transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues

 forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss
 carrying cells and antibodies that fight infection
 bringing waste products to the kidneys which filter and clean the blood
 regulating body temperature

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HOW THE RED CELLS CARRY OXYGEN
Red cells are the body’s oxygen carriers. They carry oxygen from the lungs
to all the cells of the body.
Carriage of Oxygen by Blood
1. The red cells pick up oxygen as blood passes through the lungs.
2. The oxygen and haemoglobin join to form oxyhaemoglobin. This is
bright red.
3. As the blood passes around the body, the haemoglobin breaks down and
releases oxygen to the body cells.
4. The red cells return to the lungs for more oxygen.

The table below summarises the other materials carried by the blood.
What it carries How carried
1. Carbon dioxide from the body to Mainly in plasma (as sodium
the lungs. bicarbonate).
2. Digested food from the gut to the In the plasma.
Liver and thereafter to the rest of
thebody.
3. Wastes from the liver to the In the plasma.
kidneys.
4. Hormones from glands producing In the plasma.
Them to wherever they are needed.
5. Heat from liver and muscles to the Blood.
rest of the body so that the
temperature of the body is kept
Uniform.

Protective Function of Blood

White blood cells called phagocytes ingest bacteria. Another type of white
blood cells called lymphocytes make chemicals called antibodies. These
chemicals destroy bacteria that get into the body by making them stick together
or by dissolving them. They also destroy toxins (poisons) produced by the
bacteria. There is a different antibody for each kind of bacterium

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BLOOD GROUPS
There are 4 main blood groups i.e. A, B, AB, and O
When one has got less blood than necessary, blood transfusion is carried out. The
one who gives blood to a patient is called a donor and the one receiving is known
as a recipient. Doctors have to match the blood of the donor to that of the recipient
because when incompatibles blood is mixed, the red blood cells stick together
(agglutinate) and blood clots. This is a fatal situation and will lead to death.
Agglutination is caused by the presence of proteins called antigens on the surface
of cells being mixed with specific antibodies, which work against them.
Blood groups are determined by the type of antigens one has in blood. This means
that one having antigen A belongs to blood group A. Those with antigen B belong
to blood group B. Those with antigens A and B belong to blood group AB while
those without antigens belong to blood group O.
Each blood produces particular antibodies, which work against particular antigens
when introduced into the body. For example, blood group A produces antibody b.
This means that blood group A is anti (against) blood containing antigen B (blood
group B).

The table below shows the blood groups, the antigens they carry and the antibodies
they produce
. Blood group Antigen present Antibody produced
A A b
B B a
AB A and B None
O No antigen a and b

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IMMUNITY AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist infection. The immune response is
based upon recognition of a foreign particle and the release of chemicals that
destroy it. The foreign particle may be an antigen, bacteria, virus or any other
pathogen. The substance that destroys these particles can be a white blood cell or
antibodies produced by white blood cells.

Types of immunity Active (Antibodies made by the human immune system, long
term acting due to memory cells)
Passive (Given-Antibodies, short term acting)
Natural - Response to disease - - Acquired antibodies
Rejecting transplant (via placenta, breast
milk)
Artificial (immunization) - Vaccination (Injection - Injection of antibodies
of the antigen in a from an artificial source,
weakened form) e.g. anti-venom against
snake bite
Differences - Antibody in response to - Antibodies provided -
antigen - Production of No memory cells - Short
memory cells - Long lasting
lasting

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TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

1. (a) define the term transport

(b) Give examples of materials being transported in in plants and animals
(c) Name five processes by which materials move in and out of cells.
2. (a) define the term diffusion giving examples where diffusion takes place in organisms
(b) Describe an experiment to demonstrate diffusion using potassium permanganate
(c)Discuss the factors that affect the rate of diffusion
(d) Name the two types of diffusion in organisms
(e) Give the importance of diffusion
3. (a) Define the term osmosis
(b) Describe an experiment to demonstrate osmosis in a non-living material
(c) Describe an experiment to demonstrate osmosis using a living tissue
4. Define the following terms used in osmosis
(a) Hypotonic solution
(b) Isotonic solution
(c) Hypertonic solution
(d) Crenation
(e) Haemolysis
(f) Plasmolysis
(g) Turgid
5. Give the significance of osmosis
6. (a) Define the term active transport
(b) What is the significance of active transport?
7. (a) Unicellular and tiny organisms like amoeba and bacteria do not need special transport systems. Explain.
(b) With use of mathematical expressions, show that a small organism has a large surface area to volume
ratio than a large organism
8. (a) Name the materials transported in plants
(b) Name the transport parts in plants of the named materials
9. (a) Name the series through which soil water is transported in plants
(b) With the aid of a diagram describe how water is absorbed from the soil by root hair cell
(c) How are root hairs adapted for their function of water absorption?
(d) How is water transported from root hairs to the xylem?
10. Describe how the following forces cause the movement of water up the tall plant in the xylem
(a) Root pressure
(b) Capillarity
(c) Transpirational pull
11. (a) Define the term transpiration
(b) Name the three common types of transpiration
12. Describe an experiment to demonstrate loss of water from leaf surfaces of plants
13. Describe an experiment to show that transpiration occurs mainly through the leaves
14. What are the factors which affect the rate of transpiration
15. Describe the mechanism leading to opening of the stomata
16. Describe an experiment to determine the rate of transpiration
17. Outline the importance of transpiration in plants
18. How are xerophytes adapted to control of excessive water loss