CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
What is Computer?
The 20th century saw the birth of one of the most important tools widely in use today called a
computer. Today, computers are used for communication, management, research, drawing and
design as well as entertainment.
This 21st century is being referred to as the digital age
In basic terms, a computer is an electronic device that processes data, converting it into information
that is useful to people. Any computer—regardless of its type—is controlled by programmed
instructions, which give the machine a purpose and tell it what to do.
• Data are the raw facts may not make much meaning to the user.
• Programs are set of instructions that instruct a computer what to do.
• Information is result after data has been processed.

Computers can be Digital or Analog.

Digital computers are so called because they work “by the numbers." That is, they break all types
of information into tiny units, and use numbers to represent those pieces of information. Digital
computers also work in very strict sequences of steps, processing each unit of information
individually, according to the highly organized instructions they must follow.
A lesser-known type of computer is the analog computer; which works in a very different way
from digital computers. The earliest computers were analog systems, and today's digital systems
owe a great deal to their analog ancestors. Analog and digital computers differ in many respects,
but the most important distinction is the way they represent data. Digital systems represent data as
having one distinct value or another; with no other possibilities. Analog systems, however
represent data as variable points along a continuous spectrum of values. This makes analog
computers somewhat more flexible than digital ones, but not necessarily more precise or reliable.
Software: The programs or instructions used to tell the computer hardware what to do.
Hardware: The physical parts of a computer.
History of Computer Development
Computer was invented because “necessity is the mother of invention”. Man always searched for
a fast calculating device. It took a long time to invent the digital computer. A brief history behind
the invention of computer is as follows:
Computer Generations
There are five generations of computer:
✓ First generation – 1946 - 1958
✓ Second generation – 1959 - 1964
✓ Third generation – 1965 - 1970
✓ Fourth generation – 1971 - today
✓ Fifth generation – Today to future

The First Generation

Introduction:
1946-1959 is the period of first generation computer. J.P.Eckert and J.W.Mauchy invented the
first successful electronic computer called ENIAC, ENIAC stands for “Electronic Numeric
Integrated And Calculator”.
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were
often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
Few Examples are:
ENIAC
EDVAC
UNIVAC
IBM-701
IBM-65
Advantages:
 1. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component available during
those days.
2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.
Disadvantages:
1. These were very big in size, weight was about 30 tones.
2. These computers were based on vacuum tubes.
3. These computers were very costly.
4. It could store only a small amount of information due to the presence of magnetic drums.
5. As the invention of first generation computers involves vacuum tubes, so another
disadvantage of these computers was, vacuum tubes require a large cooling system.
6. Very less work efficiency.
7. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards were used to take inputs.
8. Large amount of energy consumption.
9. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.

The Second Generation

Introduction:
1959-1965 is the period of second-generation computer.
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. One
transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. Allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable. Still generated a great deal of heat that
can damage the computer.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or

assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved
from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
Few Examples are:
Honeywell 400
IBM 7094
CDC 1604
CDC 3600
UNIVAC 1108

Advantages:
1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum tubes, the size of electron
component decreased. This resulted in reducing the size of a computer as compared to
first generation computers.
2. Less energy and not produce as much heat as the first generation
3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for input.
4. Low cost than first generation computers.
5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.
6. Better portability as compared to first generation
Disadvantages:
1. A cooling system was required.
2. Constant maintenance was required.
3. Only used for specific purposes.

The Third Generation

Introduction:
• 1965-1971 is the period of third generation computer.
• These computers were based on Integrated circuits.
• IC was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-1959.
• IC was a single component containing number of transistors.
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Much smaller and cheaper compare to the second generation computers. It could carry out
instructions in billionths of a second.
Users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced
with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one
time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.
Few Examples are:
PDP-8
PDP-11
ICL 2900
IBM 360
IBM 370

Advantages:
1. These computers were cheaper as compared to second-generation computers.
2. They were fast and reliable.
3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the computer.
4. IC not only reduce the size of the computer but it also improves the performance of the
computer as compared to previous computers.
5. This generation of computers has big storage capacity.
6. Instead of punch cards, mouse and keyboard are used for input.
7. They used an operating system for better resource management and used the concept of
time-sharing and multiple programming.
8. These computers reduce the computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
Disadvantages:
1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.
3. Air conditioning is required.

The Fourth Generation

Introduction:
• 1971-1980 is the period of fourth generation computer.
• This technology is based on Microprocessor.
• A microprocessor is used in a computer for any logical and arithmetic function to be
performed in any program.
• Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was exploited to offer more comfort to users.
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated
circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. As these small computers became more powerful,
they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet.
Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

Few Examples are:

IBM 4341
DEC 10
STAR 1000
PUP 11
Advantages:
1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared to the previous generation of
computer.
2. Heat generated is negligible.
3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.
4. Less maintenance is required.
5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.
Disadvantages:
1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.
2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.
3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.
The Fifth Generation
Introduction:
• The period of the fifth generation in 1980-onwards.
• This generation is based on artificial intelligence.
• The aim of the fifth generation is to make a device which could respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
• This generation is based on ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology resulting in
the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic component.
Few Examples are:
Desktop
Laptop
NoteBook
UltraBook
Chromebook
These are Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI) and is Still in development. The use of parallel
processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. The goal is to
develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization. There are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
The characteristics of fifth generation computers are:
• Parallel and Distributed computing.
• Computers have become smarter, faster and smaller.
• Development of robotics.
• Natural Language Processing.
• Development of Voice Recognition Software.
Advantages:
1. It is more reliable and works faster.
2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.
3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features.
Disadvantages:
1. They need very low-level languages.
2. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.
Uses and Limitations
Basic units of Personal Computers