ASSIGNMENT NO: 1

RSG-608
SUBMITTED TO: SOHAIB RASHID SALEEM
SUBMITTED BY: AFROZA AWAIS
ARID NO: 20-ARID-1307

Satellite based indices in Agriculture

Soil Moisture

1. NDMI(Normalized Difference Moisture Index)

The Normalized Difference Moisture Index (NDMI) detects moisture levels in vegetation using a
combination of near-infrared (NIR) and short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectral bands. It is a reliable
indicator of water stress in crops.

● Formula of NDMI

NDMI is calculated using the near-infrared (NIR) and the short-wave infrared (SWIR) reflectance:

NDMI = (NIR – SWIR) / (NIR + SWIR)

● Bands uses

Depending on the sensor being utilized, different bands are employed for NIR and SWIR. As
an illustration:
 ✔ Landsat sensors: Bands 5 (NIR) and 6 (SWIR) are commonly used.
✔ MODIS: Band 2 (NIR) and Band 6 (SWIR) are used by MODIS sensors.
✔ Sentinel-2: Band 8 (NIR) and Band 11 (SWIR) are used by Sentinel-2 sensors.

● Information provided by NDMI?

By providing data on vegetation moisture content, the Normalized Difference Moisture Index, or
NDMI, helps with the following tasks:

The task includes:

✔ Evaluating the health and vitality of the vegetation.

✔ Keeping an eye on the drought situation.
✔ Assessing the irrigation requirements and crop health.
✔ Ecosystems are monitored in their environment.
✔ Using vegetation moisture content to determine the risk of wildfires.

● Advantages of using NDMI

✔ Applicability to various distant sensing devices.
✔ Minimization of soil influence.
✔ Sensitivity to vegetation moisture content.
✔ Utility in agriculture and environmental monitoring.
✔ Effectiveness in monitoring droughts.
✔ Assistance in data-driven decision-making.

● Limitations of using NDMI

✔ The state of the atmosphere can have an impact on NDMI.

✔ Vegetation may react differently to NDMI depending on its type.

✔ NDMI values might be impacted by soil moisture.

✔ The spatial resolution of the data determines how effective NDMI is.
 ✔ Seasonal and meteorological variations can cause NDMI measurements to fluctuate over time.

✔ The NDMI may occasionally saturate and become less sensitive to further adjustments.

✔ Validating NDMI data frequently requires measurements taken on the ground.

● Sensors used
✔ Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, or MODIS
✔ Landsat (Operational Land Imager, Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus)
✔ Sentinel (second Sentinel)
✔ Hyper spectral sensors, such as HyspIRI and AVIRIS

● Sources of NDMI

NDMI's sources include:

✔ Sentinel, MODIS, and Landsat satellite sensors2.

✔ Sensors mounted in the air that have multispectral or hyper spectral cameras.

✔ Companies that offer commercial satellite imagery, such Airbus, Planet Labs, and Digital Globe.

✔ Open access data providers, such as NASA's EOSDIS and the European Space Agency's

Copernicus program.

✔ Government research institutes and archives.

● Resolution of NDMI

The spatial resolution of the remote sensing data used determines the resolution of NDMI;
high-resolution sensors such as Sentinel-2 and Landsat typically have a spatial resolution of 10
to 30 meters.

● Applications of NDMI in agriculture

✔ Precision farming.
 ✔ Disease detection.
✔ Yield prediction.
✔ Drought monitoring.
✔ Crop mapping.
✔ Crop health monitoring.
✔ Irrigation management.

2. NDWI(Normalized Difference Water Index)

A spectral index called NDWI (Normalized Difference Water Index) is used in remote sensing to
identify water bodies and the moisture content of plants. Green (G) and near-infrared (NIR)
bands of remote sensing data are used to calculate it.

● Formula of NDWI

The Normalized Difference Water Index, or NDWI, formula is as follows:

[(NIR - G)}{(NIR + G)} = NDWI]

Where the reflectance in the near-infrared spectrum is denoted by: - \ (NIR \).

The reflectance in the green band is shown by \ (G \).

● Bands uses

The following bands are used in remote sensing data by the NDWI (Normalized Difference
Water Index):

1. The NIR (near-infrared) band

2. The band in green (G)

● Information provided by NDWI?

✔ The identification of water bodies.
✔ The measurement of vegetation's moisture content.
 ✔ The mapping of wetlands.
✔ Flood and drought monitoring.

● Sensors used

The following sensors are frequently used to calculate the Normalized Difference Water Index, or NDWI:

✔ Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, or MODIS

✔ Landsat (Operational Land Imager, Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus)

✔ Sentinel (second Sentinel)

✔ Hyper spectral sensors, such as HyspIRI and AVIRIS

● Advantages of using NDWI

✔ Minimizes the influence of non-water elements.
✔ Effectively detects water - Sensitive to changes in water content.
✔ Adaptable to a variety of sensors.
✔ Useful in a variety of situations.
✔ Facilitates prompt decision-making.
✔ Enables quantitative analysis.

● Limitations of using NDWI

✔ Sensitivity to the environment.

✔ The impact of characteristics other than water.

✔ Seasonal fluctuation.

✔ Reliance on sensor characteristics.

✔ Limited depth of detection.

✔ Requirements for validation.

 ✔ Effects of saturation.

● Sources of NDWI
✔ Airborne sensors.
✔ Commercial satellite imagery suppliers.
✔ Open access data providers.
✔ Landsat.
✔ MODI.
✔ Sentinel-2.
✔ Government archives.

● Resolution of NDWI

The spatial resolution of the remote sensing data used to construct the Normalized Difference
Water Index (NDWI) determines its resolution. For high-resolution sensors like Sentinel-2 and
Landsat, it usually varies between 10 and 30 meters.

● Applications of NDWI in agriculture

✔ NDWI is used in agriculture for the following reasons:

✔ Soil moisture measurement

✔ Crop mapping
✔ Flood monitoring
✔ Crop health monitoring
✔ Crop yield prediction
✔ Drought monitoring

3. SAVI(Soil Adjusted vegetation index)

In remote sensing, the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation indicator (SAVI) is a vegetation indicator that
measures the health or density of the vegetation. It is a modification of the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) intended to lessen the impact of differences in soil
brightness on vegetation index calculations.

● Formula of SAVI

SAVI= ((NIR−RED)/ (NIR+RED+L) × (1+L)

Where:

RED is the red band reflectance

NIR is the near-infrared band reflectance.

L is a correction factor for soil brightness, often set between -1 and +1.

● Band uses
✔ Near-Infrared (NIR) band: This band picks up light that robust vegetation reflects.

✔ Red (RED) band: Retains light that plants' chlorophyll absorbs.

✔ Soil brightness adjustment factor: Reduces the impact of soil background signals
on vegetation assessment by adjusting for them.

● Information provided by SAVI?

✔ Measurement of the health or density of the vegetation.
✔ Decrease in the influence of the soil backdrop.
✔ Observations regarding vegetation trends.

● Advantages of using SAVI

✔ Improved accuracy by reducing dirt interference.
✔ A sharpened sense of how the vegetation is changing.
✔ Applicable in a range of environmental conditions.
✔ Decreased impact of background signals from the soil.
✔ Seamless integration with the present methods of remote sensing.

● Limitations of using SAVI

✔ Sensitivity to fluctuation in the soil adjustment factor
 ✔ More computational complexity as compared to indices that are simpler
✔ Requires knowledge for appropriate interpretation
✔ Limited spectral information from only two bands
✔ Depends on high-quality input data

● Sensors used
✔ Temperature sensor
✔ Soil moisture sensor
✔ Vegetation reflectance sensor
✔ Solar radiation sensor

● Sources of SAVI
✔ Data from aerial sensors, drones, or satellites used for remote sensing
✔ The NIR (near-infrared) spectrum
✔ The spectral band Red (RED)

● Resolution of SAVI

The spatial resolution of the remote sensing data used to calculate the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation
Index (SAVI) is closely correlated with the index's resolution.

For example, the generated SAVI values will also have a spatial resolution of 30 meters if the
remote sensing data has a spatial resolution of 30 meters. In a similar vein, the SAVI resolution
will be 10 meters if the data has a greater resolution, say 10 meters.

● Applications of SAVI in agriculture

✔ Crop health monitoring: determining the health and stress of the plants in crops.
✔ Crop yield prediction: Projecting crop yields in response to changes in the vegetation.
✔ Pest and disease detection: Prompt detection of pest infestations and agricultural
diseases.
✔ Water management: adjusting irrigation schedules to maximize the health of the
vegetation.
 ✔ Precision agriculture: Increasing efficiency by customizing management techniques to
certain regions within fields.

4. SMI(Soil moisture index)

One measure for estimating the moisture content of soil is the Soil Moisture Index (SMI). It
offers data on soil moisture content, which is important for hydrology, agriculture, and
environmental monitoring. Higher values of the soil moisture index (SMI), which normally runs
from 0 to 1 or 0% to 100%, can be obtained via models, ground-based measurements, or remote
sensing data.

● Formula of SMI
Depending on the exact technique employed, the formula for determining the Soil Moisture
Index (SMI) can change, however a typical method uses the Normalized Difference Vegetation
Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI):
SMI is calculated as:
SMI= {NDVI - NDWI}{NDVI + NDWI}.
Higher values indicate higher soil moisture levels. This algorithm yields an index value that
represents soil moisture content.

● Band use
Typically, remote sensing data in bands like Red (RED), Green (GREEN), and Near-Infrared (NIR)
are used to calculate the Soil Moisture Index (SMI). These bands are employed to measure soil
moisture levels because they record spectral information about the health of the vegetation and
its water content.

● Information provided by SMI?

✔ Assessing soil moisture levels; optimizing irrigation schedules

✔ Managing crops and plants

✔ Providing direction for the distribution of water resources

✔ Keeping an eye on ecosystems in the environment

✔ Early warning systems for possible dangers like flooding

✔ Input into climate models and studies

● Advantages of using SMI

✔ Quantitative evaluation of soil moisture content
✔ Based on information from remote sensing, allowing for extensive observation
✔ Faster and less expensive than ground-based techniques
✔ Relevant to many industries
✔ Offers spatial coverage for study at the regional level.
✔ Integrates with climatic and hydrological models
✔ Provides early warning of hazards related to water

✔ Encourages wise choices on the management of water resources

● Limitations of using SMI

✔ Reliance on data from remote sensing, which is subject to mistakes and atmospheric
interference.
✔ Accuracy in heavily vegetated areas is affected by sensitivity to changes in vegetation
cover.
✔ Accuracy may be impacted by low spatial resolution, particularly in diverse terrain.
✔ One issue in capturing quick changes in soil moisture is temporal variability.
✔ Difficulty in recording variability across various soil types or depths.
✔ It takes a lot of resources to validate and calibrate against measurements taken from the
ground.
✔ Because of its intricacy, interpretation calls for specialist knowledge.

● Sensors used
✔ Temperature sensor
✔ Humidity sensor
✔ Soil moisture sensor
 ● Sources of SAVI

The following are the main sources of the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) in relation to
soil moisture:

✔ Satellite imagery: Offers extensive coverage for evaluations at the regional level.
✔ Aerial imagery: Provides finer resolution for smaller-scale, more in-depth analysis.
✔ Ground-based measurements: Validation and calibration of direct soil moisture data.
✔ Field surveys: Extra validation information collected using portable sensors and soil
samples.

● Resolution of SMI

For global or regional satellite-based products, the Soil Moisture Index (SMI) is available at a
range of spatial resolutions: coarse (several kilometers to tens of kilometers), medium (250
meters to 1 kilometer), and fine (30 meters to a few hundred meters) for high-resolution

satellite or ground-based measurements.

● Applications of SMI in agriculture

SAVI applications in agriculture:

Monitoring crop health

✔ Optimizing irrigation
✔ Predicting crop production
✔ Identifying diseases and pests
✔ Precision farming
✔ land use planning

5. LST(Land surface temperature)

In order to measure soil moisture levels indirectly, Land Surface Temperature (LST) indices are
composite metrics that integrate LST data with other factors, such as vegetation indicators.
Especially in distant sensing applications, they take advantage of the link between temperature,
vegetation cover, and soil moisture to provide insights into soil moisture content.

● Formula of LST
The Land Surface Temperature (LST) formula, which is derived from remote sensing data, takes
into account both observed radiance values in the thermal infrared band and sensor-specific
constants. Usually, the Radioactive Transfer Equation (RTE) model is used to der

LST=ln(Lλ​K1​​+1)K2​​−273.15

Where:

LST is the Land Surface Temperature in degrees Celsius.

1K1​and 2K2​are sensor-specific constants.

Lλ​is the radiance observed in the thermal infrared band.

● Band use
The land surface temperature (LST) is measured using thermal infrared (TIR) bands, which are
usually measured between 8 and 14 micrometers in wavelength. The Earth's surface radiation is
captured by these bands, making it possible to estimate the temperature of the surface.

● Information provided by LST?

✔ Quantification of surface temperature
✔ Detection of seasonal and diurnal fluctuations
✔ Identification of urban heat islands
✔ Impact on hydrological processes
✔ Evaluation of the health of the vegetation
✔ Assistance with environmental monitoring
✔ Input into climate studies

● Advantages of using LST

 ✔ A quantitative indicator of soil moisture that is derived from data from remote sensing,
allowing for extensive evaluation
✔ Accurate and economical tracking
✔ Relevant to multiple industries
✔ Offers spatial coverage for study at the regional level.
✔ Combining hydrological models with
✔ The ability to detect dangers related to water in advance
✔ Encourages well-informed resource management decision-making

● Limitations of using LST

✔ Impact of the atmosphere
✔ Surface features have an impact
✔ Variability in sensor properties
✔ Restrictions on the temporal and spatial resolution
✔ Interference from vegetation
✔ The effect of urban heat islands
✔ Algorithm uncertainties
✔ Complexity of data processing
✔ Difficulties with interpretation

● Sensors used

The following sensors are frequently used to calculate Land Surface Temperature (LST) indices:
Radiometer
✔ Infrared Thermometer
✔ Thermal Camera
✔ Thermal Infrared (TIR) Sensor

● Sources of LST

Land Surface Temperature (LST) data are sourced from the following:

✔ Satellite Sensors: Record the Earth's surface's thermal infrared radiation.

 ✔ Aerial Sensors: Aerial sensors, which are mounted on drones or airplanes, provide
high-resolution LST data for some regions.
✔ Ground-based Sensors: Provide localized surface temperature readings; installed in
weather stations or measurement networks.

● Resolution of LST

Depending on the source, Land Surface Temperature (LST) data has different resolutions. For
sensors such as MODIS, it usually varies from 1 to 5 kilometers, while for sensors such as
Landsat, it varies from 30 to 100 meters.

● Applications of LST in agriculture

The following are some uses of land surface temperature (LST) in agriculture:

✔ Land use planning

✔ Precision agriculture
✔ Harvest forecasting
✔ Precision agriculture
✔ Drought monitoring
✔ Crop health monitoring
✔ Agro-ecosystem modeling

Crop Health

1. CWSI(Crop water stress index)

Based on temperature differences between the plant and its surroundings, the Crop Water
Stress Index (CWSI) measures the degree of water stress that crops endure. While greater
values signal growing water stress, lower CWSI values indicate minimal stress. In order to
maximize yields and water use efficiency, it is an invaluable tool for evaluating crop health and
informing irrigation management decisions.

● Formula of CWSI
The following formula is used to calculate the Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI):

CWSI=Tplant​−Tmin​​/ Tmax​−Tmin

Where \(T_{min}\) is the minimum temperature, usually the air temperature, and \(T_{max}\) is
the maximum temperature, frequently the reference surface temperature. \(T_{plant}\) is the
crop's canopy temperature.

● Band use
✔ Thermal infrared (TIR)
✔ Shortwave infrared (SWIR)

● Information provided by CWSI?

✔ Water stress levels are quantitatively assessed
✔ Crop health is indicated
✔ Irrigation scheduling is guided; and effective water management is supported.
✔ A tool for making decisions on crop management techniques

● Advantages of using CWSI

✔ Water stress quantification
✔ Capability for early identification
✔ Assistance for objective decision-making
✔ Improving irrigation techniques
✔ Potential for higher yields
✔ Better crop health and production
✔ Preservation of water resources

● Limitations of using CWSI

✔ Reliance on sensors for precise measurements
✔ Restricted ability to capture crop variability
✔ The impact of environmental elements
✔ Implementation complexity and expense
✔ Crop-specific calibration required
 ✔ Limited geographical resolution
✔ Interpretation difficulties
✔ Seasonal variations in efficacy
✔ Insufficient attention to soil moisture

● Sensors used
✔ Air temperature
✔ Relative humidity
✔ Solar radiation
✔ Thermal infrared (TIR) sensor
✔ Leaf wetness sensor

● Sources of CWSI
✔ Data from remote sensing - Sensors positioned on Earth
✔ Weather reporting
✔ Measurements of the crop canopy
✔ The temperature of the reference surface
✔ Parameters specific to a crop
✔ Algorithms and models

● Resolution of CWSI

Crop Water Stress Index (CWSI) data resolution varies according to calculation method and
source. For products produced from satellites such as MODIS or Landsat, the resolution often
varies from moderate to fine, typically falling between 30 meters and a few kilometers.

● Applications of CWSI in agriculture

✔ Agricultural precision
✔ Forecasted yield
✔ Crop observation
✔ Management of irrigation
✔ Monitoring the drought and conserving resources
 ✔ Crop selection and breeding Decision support

2. TVDI(Temperature vegetation Dry index)

By comparing the temperature of vegetation and the ground surface, the Temperature
Vegetation Dryness Index (TVDI) is a remote sensing metric that is used to track drought
conditions. Its values range from -1 (wet) to 1 (dry), signifying relative dryness.

● Formula of TVDI

TVDI=(Ts​−Tv​)/(Ts​+Tv​)

Where:

Ts represents the land surface temperature derived from thermal infrared data.

Tv represents the vegetation temperature derived from near-infrared data.

● Bands Use

The Thermal Infrared (TIR) and Near-Infrared (NIR) bands of data are used to create TVDI
indices.

● Information provided by TVDI?

✔ Tracking the drought
✔ Evaluation of vegetation stress
✔ Management of water resources
✔ Monitoring the environment
✔ Assisting with decisions

● Advantages of using TVDI

✔ Thorough evaluation of the drought
✔ Capacity for early detection
✔ Sensitivity to the health of the plants
✔ Measurable objectively
 ✔ Broad geographic coverage
✔ GIS integration
✔ Tool for decision support

● Limitations of using TVDI

✔ Sensitivity of environmental factors
✔ Restricted spatial resolution; and type of vegetation dependency
✔ Calibration and validation requirements
✔ Interpretation challenges
✔ Variability over time
✔ Integration with ground data

● Resolution of TVDI

Depending on the source, there are differences in the resolution of Temperature Vegetation
Dryness Index (TVDI) data used in crop health assessments. For products produced from
satellites such as MODIS or Landsat, the resolution often varies from moderate to fine, typically
falling between 30 meters and a few kilometers.

● Sensors used
✔ Humidity gauge
✔ Temperature probe
✔ Visible/Near-Infrared (VNIR) sensor
✔ Thermal infrared (TIR) sensor

● Sources of TVDI
✔ Data from remote sensing (Landsat, MODIS, Sentinel, etc.)
✔ Band of thermal infrared (TIR)
✔ The NIR (near-infrared) band
✔ Data from the weather
✔ Indexes of vegetation

3. VHI(Vegetation health indices)

The health and vitality of vegetation, especially in agricultural contexts, are evaluated using
Vegetation Health Indices (VHI), which are indicators based on remote sensing data. They
incorporate several spectral bands to measure biomass, vitality, and moisture stress, among
other elements of vegetative state.

● Formula of VHI

Depending on the particular index being used, different VHI formulas may be employed. The
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI), and
Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) are examples of frequently used VHI indices. Usually, methods
that integrate reflectance readings from various spectral bands are used to compute these
indices.

● Resolution:

The spatial resolution of the remote sensing imagery utilized in the computations determines
the resolution of the VHI data. For regional or worldwide evaluations, it can have coarse
resolutions of several kilometers, while for localized or field-level analysis, it can have fine
resolutions of tens of meters.

● Bands Used:

Data from several spectral bands are usually used to create VHI indices, such as:

Near-infrared and visible light (VNIR)

✔ Infrared Shortwave (SWIR)

✔ Infrared Thermal (TIR)
✔ Ultraviolet (UV) Red-Edge

These bands are useful for tracking crop health, identifying stress, and evaluating the vigor of
the plant.

● Sensors used
✔ Thermal sensors for infrared radiation
✔ Optical sensors for visible and near-infrared wavelengths
✔ Sensors that measure the reflectance of vegetation
✔ Devices that measure the moisture content of soil

● Sources of VHI
✔ Remote sensing photos taken by drones or satellites.
✔ Photography from above.
✔ Measurements made on the ground.
✔ Weather information.

● Advantages of VHI
✔ Scalable and non-destructive technique for tracking the health of the vegetation across
wide areas.
✔ Gives information on crop stress, growth trends, and possible yield.
✔ Allows for the early detection of anomalies like water stress or pest infestations.
✔ Helps agricultural decision-making that is well-informed, such as projecting crop yield
and managing irrigation.

● Limitation of VHI
✔ Susceptible to cloud cover, atmospheric interference, and inaccurate sensor calibration.
✔ Restricted capacity to distinguish between particular stressors (e.g., water stress versus
nutritional deprivation).
✔ IT has to be verified and ground-truth in order to be accurately interpreted.
✔ It's possible that fine-scale variations in the health of the vegetation across diverse
environments would be missed.

● Applications in Agriculture:
✔ Tracking the vigor and health of the crop all during the growing season.
✔ Evaluating the efficiency of fertilizer and irrigation management techniques.
✔ Early detection of disease and pest outbreaks allows for prompt intervention.
✔ Estimating the potential yield of crops and forecasting the results of harvest.
 ✔ Encouraging efforts in precision agriculture to enhance production and conserve
resources.

4. NDVI(Normalized difference vegetation index)

The NDVI is a vegetation health and vigor index based on remote sensing. By measuring the
difference between red light reflectance and near-infrared (NIR) light reflectance, it is possible
to quantify the density and health of plants.

● Formula of NDVI

The NDVI formula is calculated as follows:

NDVI= (NIR−Red)/(NIR+Red)

​Where:

NIR is the reflectance in the near-infrared band.

Red is the reflectance in the red band.

● Resolution:

Depending on the resolution of the remote sensing images used, several spatial resolutions of
NDVI data can be produced. From coarse (several kilometers) to fine (tens of meters),
resolutions vary.

● Bands Used:

Near-infrared (NIR) and red bands of the electromagnetic spectrum are used in NDVI. These
data are usually obtained via remote sensing platforms like satellites or drones.

● Sensors used
✔ Sensing from multispectral satellites
✔ Aerial multispectral sensors
✔ The use of near-infrared (NIR) filters in digital cameras

● Sources of NDVI:
✔ Remote sensing imagery from satellites or drones.
✔ Ground-based measurements.
✔ Weather data.
● Advantages of NDVI
✔ Gives the density and health of the vegetation a numerical value.
✔ Scalable and non-destructive for monitoring a vast region.
✔ Beneficial for forecasting yields, identifying stress, and evaluating crop health.
✔ Helps make well-informed decisions in agriculture, including managing irrigation and
keeping an eye on crops.

● Limitations of NDVI:
✔ Susceptible to cloud cover, atmospheric interference, and inaccurate sensor calibration.
✔ Restricted capacity to distinguish between certain stresses (e.g., nutritional deficit vs.
water stress).
✔ Correct interpretation necessitates ground validation.
✔ It's possible that fine-scale variations in the health of the vegetation across diverse
environments would be missed.

● Applications in Agriculture:
✔ Tracking the vigor and health of the crop all during the growing season.
✔ Evaluating the efficiency of fertilizer and irrigation management techniques.
✔ Early detection of disease and pest outbreaks allows for prompt intervention.
✔ Estimating the potential yield of crops and forecasting the results of harvest.
✔ Encouraging efforts in precision agriculture to enhance production and conserve
resources.
 5. NDRE(Normalized Difference Red Edge)

The NDRE index, which is based on remote sensing, is used to evaluate the health and vigor of
plants, especially in agricultural contexts. By measuring the difference between red-edge light
reflectance and near-infrared (NIR) light reflectance, it is possible to quantify the density and
health of plants.

● Formula of NDRE

The NDRE formula is calculated as follows:

NDRE= (NIR−RE)/(NIR+RE)

​Where:

Where NIR stands for near-infrared reflectance.

RE stands for red-edge band reflectance.

● Resolution

Depending on the quality of the remote sensing images used, several spatial resolutions of
NDRE data can be produced. From coarse (several kilometers) to fine (tens of meters),
resolutions vary.

● Bands Used:

NDRE makes use of electromagnetic spectrum data from the red-edge and near-infrared (NIR)
bands, which are often obtained via remote sensing platforms like satellites or drones.

● Sensors used

NDRE indexes frequently employ the following sensors:

✔ Sensors that are multispectral

✔ Hyper spectral
✔ Systems for aerial imaging
 ✔ Drones with multispectral cameras

● Sources of NDRE:

The main source of NDRE data is remote sensing imagery that is obtained by drones or
satellites. For validation and calibration, meteorological data and measurements from the
ground may also be added to remote sensing data.

● Advantages of NDRE
✔ Gives the density and health of the vegetation a numerical value.
✔ Sensitive to minute variations in the vigor and stress of the vegetation.
✔ Scalable and non-destructive for monitoring a vast region.
✔ Beneficial for forecasting yields, identifying stress, and evaluating crop health.

● Limitations
✔ Susceptible to cloud cover, atmospheric interference, and inaccurate sensor calibration.
✔ Correct interpretation necessitates ground validation.
✔ It's possible that fine-scale variations in the health of the vegetation across diverse
environments would be missed.

● Applications in Agriculture:
✔ Tracking the vigor and health of the crop all during the growing season.
✔ Evaluating the efficiency of fertilizer and irrigation management techniques.
✔ Early detection of disease and pest outbreaks allows for prompt intervention.
✔ Estimating the potential yield of crops and forecasting the results of harvest.
✔ Encouraging efforts in precision agriculture to enhance production and conserve
resources.

6. LSWI(Land surface water index)

An indicator of the existence of water bodies or variations in the amount of water in the
landscape is the Land Surface Water Index, or LSWI. In order to determine which places have
water and plants, it examines the difference in reflectance between the NIR and SWIR bands.
 ● Formula of LSWI

The standard calculation of the LSWI index formula is as follows:

LSWI= (NIR−SWIR)/(NIR+SWIR)

Where:

The near-infrared reflectance, or NIR, is measured.

The reflectance in the shortwave infrared spectrum is known as SWIR.

● Resolution

LSWI was derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Terra
surface reflectance (MOD09A1) with a 500 m spatial resolution and an 8-day temporal
resolution.

● Bands Used:

The electromagnetic spectrum's near-infrared (NIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR) regions are
used by LSWI to process data.

● Sources of LSWI:

The main source of LSWI data is remote sensing imagery that is obtained by drones or satellites.
For validation and calibration, meteorological data and measurements from the ground may
also be added to remote sensing data.

● Sensors

Typically, sensors that collect data in the near-infrared (NIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR)
spectral bands are found atop satellites like MODIS, Landsat, Sentinel-2, and ASTER. These
sensors are used to compute the Land Surface Water Index, or LSWI. These sensors allow for the
identification and characterization of water bodies and variations in water content throughout
the terrain by providing multispectral data at different spatial resolutions.

● Advantages
✔ Effective in identifying bodies of water and variations in water content.
✔ Gives important information for environmental monitoring and the management of
water resources.
✔ Scalable and non-destructive for examinations over broad areas.
✔ Beneficial for determining regions vulnerable to drought or flooding and evaluating
hydrological dynamics.

● Limitations
✔ Susceptible to cloud cover, atmospheric interference, and inaccurate sensor calibration.
✔ Correct interpretation necessitates ground validation, particularly in intricate
environments.

✔ Limited capacity to distinguish dark items, like shadows or dark dirt, from other dark

objects, like water bodies.

● Applications in Agriculture:
✔ Keeping an eye on modifications to water features, including lakes, marshes, and rivers.
✔ Evaluating the state of the drought and the availability of water in agricultural areas.
✔ Mapping areas that have flooded for emergency management and disaster response.
✔ Studying watershed management and hydrological dynamics.
✔ Encouraging conservation and environmental monitoring initiatives.

Crop Growth

1. EVI(Enhanced vegetation index)

The EVI is a vegetation index that is more sensitive to variations in canopy structure and density
because it is obtained from satellite data. In comparison to other indices like the NDVI, it
provides better accuracy because it accounts for atmospheric impacts and soil background
effects.

● Formula of EVI

The formula to compute EVI is EVI= (NIR−Red)/ G× (NIR+C 1×Red−C 2×Blue+L).

Where:

The near-infrared reflectance, or NIR, is measured.

The reflectance in the red band is red.

The reflectance in the blue band is blue.

Gain factor G is defined as (usually 2.5).

The coefficients are 1, C, 1 and 2,C,2 (usually 6 and 7.5, respectively).

L is an adjustment factor for the canopy background, usually 1.

● Resolution

Depending on the quality of the satellite imagery used, different spatial resolutions of EVI data
can be produced. It can have small resolutions (tens of meters) or coarse resolutions (many
kilometers).

● Bands Used:

The electromagnetic spectrum's red, blue, and near-infrared bands are used to provide data for
EVI.

● Sources of LSWI:

Satellite imagery obtained by sensors like MODIS, Landsat, and Sentinel-2 is the source of EVI
data.

● Sensors
Sentinel-2, Landsat (Landsat 7 and Landsat 8), and MODIS (on Terra and Aqua satellites) are
among the satellite sensors frequently employed for EVI computations.

● Advantages
✔ Greater sensitivity to vegetation changes in comparison to the NDVI.
✔ Accounts for the effects of the soil's background and atmosphere.
✔ Suitable for tracking the dynamics and health of vegetation in a variety of environments.
✔ Extensively employed in the research of biomass, vegetation cover, and ecosystem
productivity.

● Limitations
✔ Appropriate computation necessitates knowledge of sensor-specific coefficients.
✔ Sensitive to faults in sensor calibration and ambient interference.

✔ It might not function as well in places with a lot of foliage or intricate canopy systems.

● Applications in Agriculture:
✔ Tracking the growth and health of the crop all during the growing season.
✔ Evaluating the efficiency of farming techniques like fertilizer and irrigation.
✔ Identifying stressors like illness, drought, or dietary deficits.

✔ Projecting harvest results and estimating agricultural yields.

2. VCI(Vegetation condition index)

The Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) is a remote sensing metric that evaluates the current state
of vegetation in relation to its historical or baseline conditions. Monitoring vegetation stress is a
typical use for it, especially in reaction to events like disease or drought.

● Formula of VCI

The VCI formula may change based on the particular study or application. To obtain a relative
assessment of vegetation state, however, it usually entails comparing past values of vegetation
indices (such the NDVI or EVI) to present ones.
 ● Bands Used:

Depending on the particular index or technique used, VCI often uses data from spectral bands
including red, near-infrared (NIR), and occasionally shortwave infrared (SWIR).

● Resolution

The spatial resolution of the remote sensing imagery employed determines the VCI data
resolution. Depending on the application and data source, it might have coarse resolutions
(several kilometers) or fine resolutions (tens of meters).

● Sources of VCI:

VCI data comes from aerial photography and remote sensing imagery taken by drones or
satellites. For validation and calibration, meteorological data and measurements from the
ground may also be added to remote sensing data.

● Sensors

Among the satellite sensors frequently utilized for VCI computations are MODIS, Landsat, and
Sentinel-2.

● Advantages
✔ Enables the monitoring of vegetation stress and response to environmental factors over
time.
✔ It can be used for early detection of stressors like disease, pest infestations, or drought.
✔ Promotes informed decision-making in forestry, agriculture, and environmental
management. Offers an objective and quantitative measure of the health and condition
of vegetation.

● Limitations
✔ Needs baseline or historical data for comparison, which might not always be trustworthy
or readily available.
 ✔ Sensitive to biases or mistakes brought on by alterations in data processing techniques,
environmental factors, or sensor properties.

✔ The fine-scale diversity in vegetation state among varied landscapes might not be fully
captured.

● Applications in Agriculture:
✔ Keeping an eye on the stress and health of the crops all during the growing season.
✔ Evaluating how environmental elements like disease and drought affect crop output.
✔ Encouraging efforts in precision agriculture to increase yields and optimize resource
consumption.
✔ Supporting conservation initiatives and decisions about land management.

Crop Yield

1. YSI(Yield soothing Index)

In the area of remote sensing and crop health, the word "Yield Soothing Index" lacks a
conventional meaning; however, it may refer to an index or measure used to evaluate
parameters influencing crop yield predictability or stability over time.

● Formula of YSI

It is difficult to develop a formula in the absence of precise information about the YSI formula.
On the other hand, it could involve variables like past yield data, local conditions, management
techniques, or other pertinent aspects that are connected to agricultural yield variability.

● Bands Used:

If YSI were a remote sensing index, it might use information from several spectral bands that are
important for crop health and environmental monitoring. Bands associated with temperature,
moisture content, vegetation indices, and other pertinent factors may be included in this.

● Resolution
The scale of analysis and the data used to compute it would determine the resolution of the YSI
data. It may encompass evaluations at the field, regional, or global levels.

● Sources of YSI:
✔ Historical yield data

✔ Remote sensing photos

✔ Meteorological data

✔ Soil information,

✔ Management records are a few examples of data sources that can be used to calculate YSI.

● Sensors

Data sources for YSI analysis could include ground-based sensors for soil and meteorological
observations, as well as satellite sensors like MODIS, Landsat, Sentinel-2, and others.

● Advantages
✔ Increased knowledge of the variables affecting the stability of crop yield.
✔ Improved judgment when it comes to agriculture management techniques.
✔ Increased readiness for possible variations in yield.

● Limitations
✔ Inadequate definition and methodology
✔ Difficulty integrating local-scale variability
✔ Limited validation in various agricultural contexts
✔ Difficulty quantifying factors influencing yield stability
✔ Dependency on data availability and quality
✔ Complexity in modeling yield fluctuations
✔ Potential biases in input data and assumptions
 ● Applications in Agriculture:
✔ Forecasting and controlling variations in agricultural yield.
✔ Making the best choices for planting and crops.
✔ Evaluating the effects of climate change on crop yields.
✔ Assisting risk-reduction tactics.
✔ Directing fertilization and watering.
✔ Assessing initiatives in agriculture.
✔ Encouraging decisions on crop insurance.
✔ Endorsing precision farming.
✔ Determining the top research objectives.
✔ Promoting cooperation among stakeholders.