Training and Development

Training and development describes the formal, ongoing efforts that are made within organizations
to improve the performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a variety of educational
methods and programs. In the modern workplace, these efforts have taken on a broad range of
applications—from instruction in highly specific job skills to long-term professional development. In
recent years, training and development has emerged as a formal business function, an integral
element of strategy, and a recognized profession with distinct theories and methodologies. More and
more companies of all sizes have embraced "continual learning" and other aspects of training and
development as a means of promoting employee growth and acquiring a highly skilled work force. In
fact, the quality of employees and the continual improvement of their skills and productivity through
training, are now widely recognized as vital factors in ensuring the long-term success and profitability
of small businesses. "Create a corporate culture that supports continual learning," counseled
Charlene Marmer Solomon in Workforce. "Employees today must have access to continual training of
all types just to keep up'¦. If you don't actively stride against the momentum of skills deficiency, you
lose ground. If your workers stand still, your firm will lose the competency race."

For the most part, the terms "training" and "development" are used together to describe the overall
improvement and education of an organization's employees. However, while closely related, there
are important differences between the terms that center around the scope of the application. In
general, training programs have very specific and quantifiable goals, like operating a particular piece
of machinery, understanding a specific process, or performing certain procedures with great
precision. Developmental programs, on the other hand, concentrate on broader skills that are
applicable to a wider variety of situations, such as decision making, leadership skills, and goal setting.

TRAINING IN SMALL BUSINESSES

Implementation of formal training and development programs offers several potential advantages to
small businesses. For example, training helps companies create pools of qualified replacements for
employees who may leave or be promoted to positions of greater responsibility. It also helps ensure
that companies will have the human resources needed to support business growth and expansion.
Furthermore, training can enable a small business to make use of advanced technology and to adapt
to a rapidly changing competitive environment. Finally, training can improve employees' efficiency
and motivation, leading to gains in both productivity and job satisfaction. According to the U.S. Small
Business Administration (SBA), small businesses stand to receive a variety of benefits from effective
training and development of employees, including reduced turnover, a decreased need for
supervision, increased efficiency, and improved employee morale. All of these benefits are likely to
contribute directly to a small business's fundamental financial health and vitality

Effective training and development begins with the overall strategy and objectives of the small
business. The entire training process should be planned in advance with specific company goals in
mind. In developing a training strategy, it may be helpful to assess the company's customers and
competitors, strengths and weaknesses, and any relevant industry or societal trends. The next step is
to use this information to identify where training is needed by the organization as a whole or by
individual employees. It may also be helpful to conduct an internal audit to find general areas that
might benefit from training, or to complete a skills inventory to determine the types of skills
employees possess and the types they may need in the future. Each different job within the company
should be broken down on a task-by-task basis in order to help determine the content of the training
program.

The training program should relate not only to the specific needs identified through the company and
individual assessments, but also to the overall goals of the company. The objectives of the training
should be clearly outlined, specifying what behaviors or skills will be affected and how they relate to
the strategic mission of the company. In addition, the objectives should include several intermediate
steps or milestones in order to motivate the trainees and allow the company to evaluate their
progress. Since training employees is expensive, a small business needs to give careful consideration
to the question of which employees to train. This decision should be based on the ability of the
employee to learn the material and the likelihood that they will be motivated by the training
experience. If the chosen employees fail to benefit from the training program or leave the company
soon after receiving training, the small business has wasted its limited training funds.

The design of training programs is the core activity of the training and development function. In
recent years, the development of training programs has evolved into a profession that utilizes
systematic models, methods, and processes of instructional systems design (ISD). ISD describes the
systematic design and development of instructional methods and materials to facilitate the process
of training and development and ensure that training programs are necessary, valid, and effective.
The instructional design process includes the collection of data on the tasks or skills to be learned or
improved, the analysis of these skills and tasks, the development of methods and materials, delivery
of the program, and finally the evaluation of the training's effectiveness.

Small businesses tend to use two general types of training methods, on-the-job techniques and off-
the-job techniques. On-the-job training describes a variety of methods that are applied while
employees are actually performing their jobs. These methods might include orientations, coaching,
apprenticeships, internships, job instruction training, and job rotation. The main advantages of on-
the-job techniques is that they are highly practical, and employees do not lose working time while
they are learning. Off-the-job training, on the other hand, describes a number of training methods
that are delivered to employees outside of the regular work environment, though often during
working hours. These techniques might include lectures, conferences, case studies, role playing,
simulations, film or television presentations, programmed instruction, or special study.

On-the-job training tends to be the responsibility of supervisors, human resources professionals, or

more experienced co-workers. Consequently, it is important for small businesses to educate their
seasoned employees in training techniques. In contrast, off-the-job tends to be handled by outside
instructors or sources, such as consultants, chambers of commerce, technical and vocational schools,
or continuing education programs. Although outside sources are usually better informed as to
effective training techniques than company supervisors, they may have a limited knowledge of the
company's products and competitive situation. Another drawback to off-the-job training programs is
their cost. These programs can run into the multi thousand dollar per participant level, a cost that
may make them prohibitive for many small businesses.

Actual administration of the training program involves choosing an appropriate location, providing
necessary equipment, and arranging a convenient time. Such operational details, while seemingly
minor components of an overall training effort, can have a significant effect on the success of a
program. In addition, the training program should be evaluated at regular intervals while it is going
on. Employees' skills should be compared to the predetermined goals or milestones of the training
program, and any necessary adjustments should be made immediately. This ongoing evaluation
process will help ensure that the training program successfully meets its expectations.

COMMON TRAINING METHODS

While new techniques are under continuous development, several common training methods have
proven highly effective. Good continuous learning and development initiatives often feature a
combination of several different methods that, blended together, produce one effective training
program.

Orientations

Orientation training is vital in ensuring the success of new employees. Whether the training is
conducted through an employee handbook, a lecture, or a one-on-one meeting with a supervisor,
newcomers should receive information on the company's history and strategic position, the key
people in authority at the company, the structure of their department and how it contributes to the
mission of the company, and the company's employment policies, rules, and regulations.

Lectures

A verbal method of presenting information, lectures are particularly useful in situations when the
goal is to impart the same information to a large number of people at one time. Since they eliminate
the need for individual training, lectures are among the most cost-effective training methods. But the
lecture method does have some drawbacks. Since lectures primarily involve one-way
communication, they may not provide the most interesting or effective training. In addition, it may
be difficult for the trainer to gauge the level of understanding of the material within a large group.
Case Study

The case method is a non-directed method of study whereby students are provided with practical
case reports to analyze. The case report includes a thorough description of a simulated or real-life
situation. By analyzing the problems presented in the case report and developing possible solutions,
students can be encouraged to think independently as opposed to relying upon the direction of an
instructor. Independent case analysis can be supplemented with open discussion with a group. The
main benefit of the case method is its use of real-life situations. The multiplicity of problems and
possible solutions provide the student with a practical learning experience rather than a collection of
abstract knowledge and theories that may be difficult to apply to practical situations.

Role Playing

In role playing, students assume a role outside of themselves and play out that role within a group. A
facilitator creates a scenario that is to be acted out by the participants under the guidance of the
facilitator. While the situation might be contrived, the interpersonal relations are genuine.
Furthermore, participants receive immediate feedback from the facilitator and the scenario itself,
allowing better understanding of their own behavior. This training method is cost effective and is
often applied to marketing and management training.

Simulations

Games and simulations are structured competitions and operational models that emulate real-life
scenarios. The benefits of games and simulations include the improvement of problem-solving and
decision-making sskills, a greater understanding of the organizational whole, the ability to study
actual problems, and the power to capture the student's interest.

Computer-Based Training

Computer-based training (CBT) involves the use of computers and computer-based instructional
materials as the primary medium of instruction. Computer-based training programs are designed to
structure and present instructional materials and to facilitate the learning process for the student. A
main benefit of CBT is that it allows employees to learn at their own pace, during convenient times.
Primary uses of CBT include instruction in computer hardware, software, and operational equipment.
The last is of particular importance because CBT can provide the student with a simulated experience
of operating a particular piece of equipment or machinery while eliminating the risk of damage to
costly equipment by a trainee or even a novice user. At the same time, the actual equipment's
operational use is maximized because it need not be utilized as a training tool. The use of computer-
based training enables a small business to reduce training costs while improving the effectiveness of
the training. Costs are reduced through a reduction in travel, training time, downtime for operational
hardware, equipment damage, and instructors. Effectiveness is improved through standardization
and individualization.
Web-based training (WBT) is an increasingly popular form of CBT. The greatly expanding number of
organizations with Internet access through high-speed connections has made this form of CBT
possible. By providing the training material on a Web page that is accessible through any Internet
browser, CBT is within reach of any company with access to the Web. The terms "online courses" and
"web-based instruction" are sometimes used interchangeably with WBT.

Self-Instruction

Self-instruction describes a training method in which the students assume primary responsibility for
their own learning. Unlike instructor- or facilitator-led instruction, students retain a greater degree of
control regarding topics, the sequence of learning, and the pace of learning. Depending on the
structure of the instructional materials, students can achieve a higher degree of customized learning.
Forms of self-instruction include programmed learning, individualized instruction, personalized
systems of instruction, learner-controlled instruction, and correspondence study. Benefits include a
strong support system, immediate feedback, and systematization.

Audiovisual Training

Audiovisual training methods include television, films, and videotapes. Like case studies, role playing,
and simulations, they can be used to expose employees to "real world" situations in a time-and cost-
effective manner. The main drawback of audiovisual training methods is that they cannot be
customized for a particular audience, and they do not allow participants to ask questions or interact
during the presentation of material.

Team-Building Exercises

Team building is the active creation and maintenance of effective work groups with similar goals and
objectives. Not to be confused with the informal, ad-hoc formation and use of teams in the
workplace, team building is a formal process of building work teams and formulating their objectives
and goals, usually facilitated by a third-party consultant. Team building is commonly initiated to
combat poor group dynamics, labor-management relations, quality, or productivity. By recognizing
the problems and difficulties associated with the creation and development of work teams, team
building provides a structured, guided process whose benefits include a greater ability to manage
complex projects and processes, flexibility to respond to changing situations, and greater motivation
among team members. Team building may include a broad range of different training methods, from
outdoor immersion exercises to brainstorming sessions. The main drawback to formal team building
is the cost of using outside experts and taking a group of people away from their work during the
training program.
Apprenticeships and Internships

Apprenticeships are a form of on-the-job training in which the trainee works with a more
experienced employee for a period of time, learning a group of related skills that will eventually
qualify the trainee to perform a new job or function. Apprenticeships are often used in production-
oriented positions. Internships are a form of apprenticeship that combines on-the-job training under
a more experienced employee with classroom learning.

Job Rotation

Another type of experience-based training is job rotation, in which employees move through a series
of jobs in order to gain a broad understanding of the requirements of each. Job rotation may be
particularly useful in small businesses, which may feature less role specialization than is typically seen
in larger organizations.

APPLICATIONS OF TRAINING PROGRAMS

While the applications of training and development are as various as the functions and skills required
by an organization, several common training applications can be distinguished, including technical
training, sales training, clerical training, computer training, communications training, organizational
development, career development, supervisory development, and management development.

Technical training describes a broad range of training programs varying greatly in application and
difficulty. Technical training utilizes common training methods for instruction of technical concepts,
factual information, and procedures, as well as technical processes and principles.

Sales training concentrates on the education and training of individuals to communicate with
customers in a persuasive manner. Sales training can enhance the employee's knowledge of the
organization's products, improve his or her selling skills, instill positive attitudes, and increase the
employee's self-confidence. Employees are taught to distinguish the needs and wants of the
customer, and to persuasively communicate the message that the company's products or services
can effectively satisfy them.

Clerical training concentrates on the training of clerical and administrative support staffs, which have
taken on an expanded role in recent years. With the increasing reliance on computers and computer
applications, clerical training must be careful to distinguish basic skills from the ever-changing
computer applications used to support these skills. Clerical training increasingly must instill improved
decision-making skills in these employees as they take on expanded roles and responsibilities.
Computer training teaches the effective use of the computer and its software applications, and often
must address the basic fear of technology that most employees face and identify and minimize any
resistance to change that might emerge. Furthermore, computer training must anticipate and
overcome the long and steep learning curves that many employees will experience. To do so, such
training is usually offered in longer, uninterrupted modules to allow for greater concentration, and
structured training is supplemented by hands-on practice. This area of training is commonly cited as
vital to the fortunes of most companies, large and small, operating in today's technologically
advanced economy.

Communications training concentrates on the improvement of interpersonal communication skills,

including writing, oral presentation, listening, and reading. In order to be successful, any form of
communications training should be focused on the basic improvement of skills and not just on
stylistic considerations. Furthermore, the training should serve to build on present skills rather than
rebuilding from the ground up. Communications training can be taught separately or can be
effectively integrated into other types of training, since it is fundamentally related to other
disciplines.

Organizational development (OD) refers to the use of knowledge and techniques from the behavioral
sciences to analyze an existing organizational structure and implement changes in order to improve
organizational effectiveness. OD is useful in such varied areas as the alignment of employee goals
with those of the organization, communications, team functioning, and decision making. In short, it is
a development process with an organizational focus to achieve the same goals as other training and
development activities aimed at individuals. OD practitioners commonly practice what has been
termed "action research" to effect an orderly change which has been carefully planned to minimize
the occurrence of unpredicted or unforeseen events. Action research refers to a systematic analysis
of an organization to acquire a better understanding of the nature of problems and forces within it.

Career development refers to the formal progression of an employee's position within an

organization by providing a long-term development strategy and designing training programs to
achieve this strategy as well as individual goals. Career development represents a growing concern
for employee welfare and their long-term needs. For the individual, it involves the description of
career goals, the assessment of necessary action, and the choice and implementation of necessary
steps. For the organization, career development represents the systematic development and
improvement of employees. To remain effective, career development programs must allow
individuals to articulate their desires. At the same time, the organization strives to meet those stated
needs as much as possible by consistently following through on commitments and meeting the
employee expectations raised by the program.

Management and supervisory development involves the training of managers and supervisors in
basic leadership skills, enabling them to effectively function in their positions. For managers, training
initiatives are focused on providing them with the tools to balance the effective management of their
employee resources with the strategies and goals of the organization. Managers learn to develop
their employees effectively by helping employees learn and change, as well as by identifying and
preparing them for future responsibilities. Management development may also include programs for
developing decision-making skills, creating and managing successful work teams, allocating resources
effectively, budgeting, business planning, and goal setting.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jacob, Ronal L. Structured On-The-Job Training. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, March 2003.

Kim, Nancy J. "Continuing Education is No Longer an Option." Puget Sound Business Journal. 15
August 1997.

Solomon, Charlene Marmer. "Continual Learning: Racing Just to Keep Up." Workforce. April 1999.

U.S. Small Business Administration. Roberts, Gary, Gary Seldon, and Carlotta Roberts. Human
Resources Management. n.d.