ECE 2508

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

TOPIC-1
GROUND IMPROVEMENT AND
MODIFICATION
 Soil Improvement and Ground Modification
• The soils at a construction site  As suitable construction site become less available, the need
may not always be totally suitable to utilize unsuitable or less suitable site for construction
to support structures increases
 Engineer may face increasing problems such as
• Such as buildings, bridges and
(i) Bearing failure
dams (ii) Large total and differential settlement
• For example, in granular soils (iii) Instability/ slope failure
deposits the insitu soil may be (iv) Liquefaction
very loose and indicate large (v) Seepage problem
elastic settlement  Options available to deal with problematic geomaterials and
• In such cases of loose soils, soils geotechnical conditions are
needs to be densified to increase (a) Avoid the sites: Only if there is alternative land
(b) Design superstructure accordingly: Load transmitted below
its unit weight and shear strength
superstructure
• Sometimes the top layer of the (c) Remove and replace problematic geomaterials
soil are undesirable and must be (d) Improve geomaterials properties and geotechnical conditions
removed and replaced with better
There are five major categories of soil improvement
soil on which structural
methods
foundation can be built (1) Soil improvement without admixtures in coarse
• Soft saturated clays will grained soils
experience consolidation (2) Soil improvements without admixtures in fine
settlement. Special soil- grained soils
improvement techniques are (3) Soil improvement with replacement
required to minimize settlement (4) Soil improvement with grouting and admixtures
(5) Soil improvement with inclusions
 Soil
Improvement
and Ground
Modification
 Soil
Improvement
and Ground
Modification
1. SOIL IMPROVEMENT WITHOUT ADMIXTURES IN COARSE GRAINED SOILS

• Two major methods

(a) Compaction
(b) Dynamic compaction
(c) Virocomaction

Compaction
• In this instance refers to roller Dynamic compaction
compaction for shallow densification of • Because of limited depth of
soil deposits. conventional compaction techniques and
• Rollers uses are static rollers, sheep foot rollers the need to compact soils at large depths,
for fine grained soils or vibratory rollers for the idea of dropping a heavy wight from
coarse grained soils. a heigh onto the soil surface can be used
• The depth of compaction is at most 1 m • Typical combination would be 50-30kN
and its higher near the surface weight dropping from a height of 30 m.
• Compaction is used to prepare pavement • This technique is suitable for compacting
layers, retaining wall backfills, embankment coarse grained soils..
fills.
 (a) Compaction
• Starts from the lab to • Starts from the lab
establish the (a) Define the maximum dry
characteristics of the density, optimum moisture
soil to be compacted content.
(a) Standard compaction (b) Define degree of
(b) Modified compaction compaction in the field

Field Tests
• Specification indicate that the compacted soil must reach a dry
density equal to a percentage of the maximum dry density in
the field (typical 90% to 100%) within the range of water
content around the optimum water content.
• The specification may also indicate the compacted soil must
reach maximum soil modulus measured in the lab (typically
75% or so)
• Filed tests are divided into classic tests and new tests. Classic
tests have been used for a long time and relatively slow (15 to
30 minutes per test). Included sand cone method, rubber balloon and
nuclear method for dry density test.
• Nerw mwthids takes a few minutes to perform. The include
light weight deflectometer, BCD and field oven.
(a) Compaction-Field control methods
 Field Density Determination

EXAMPLE:
Afield sand cone test is performed on a layer of
compacted fill. The results of the cone test are shown
below. A laboratory proctor test determine that the fill
has a maximum dry density of 18.9 kN/m3.
Determine the relative compaction of the fill. Calculate the volume of the soil excavated from the hole
Unit weight of sand γsand=14.9k kN/m3 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜−𝑊𝑊𝑓𝑓 −𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 0.074−0.047 −0.005 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Wt of sand to fill cone, Wcone=0.5kg=0.005kN Vhole = = =
γ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 14.9𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
Wt of jar+cone+sand (before test), 0.00148 𝑚𝑚3
Wo=7.5kg=0.074kN Calculate the dry unit weight of the soil excavated from the hole
Wt of jar+cone+sand (after test), 𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0.029 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Wf=4.8kg=0.047kN γd= = (0.00148)(1+0.1) = 17.8𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/ 𝑚𝑚3
𝑉𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (1+𝑤𝑤)
Wt of moist soil excavated from hole,
W hole=3.0kg=0.029kN Calculate the relative density
Moisture content of the soil from hole (γ𝑑𝑑)𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 17.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
, w=10% RC = =
18.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚3
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 94%
(γ𝑑𝑑)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
(a) Compaction-FOT & LWD methods
• Used to determine the water content of the soil in the field
• Small piece of the soil is carved from the Surface.
• A load cell is placed between two heating pads gives the weight of
the sample. The two plates are closed, and the oven dries the
sample.
• After a few minutes, the soil is dry, and the heating plates are
opened. The load cell records the dry weight of the sample, and the
water content is displayed.

• Light weight deflectometer (LWD) consists of

dropping a wight guided along a rod from a chosen
heigh onto a plate resting on the ground surface
• Typical value for LWD are a weight of 100N
dropping a height of 0.5 m and plate diameter of
0.2m.
• Load cell is located above the plate to measure force
verses the time signal and geophone attached to the
plate to measure the deflection of the plate during
impact.
• The modulus is back calculated from the knowledge
of peak force F and the peak deflection ∆,
• The soil modulus, E is calculated as
 (a) Compaction-LDW

• E is the soil modulus; f is a plate rigidity factor (1 for flexible plates and
0.79 for rigid plates); v is the possons ration (ranges from 0.3 to
0.45)depending on the type of soil and F is the maximum force on
the force verses time plot, D is the plate diamater and ∆ is the
maximum displacement on the displacement verses time plot.
 (a) Compaction-BCD test
• Modulus E can be obtained with a device
called CBD.
• It consists of a 150 mm diameter, 2 mm thick
flexible steel plate at the bottom of the rod
with handles.
• Strain gauges are mounted on the back of the
plate to record bending the bending that takes
place during the loading test
• If the soil is soft (low modulus) the plate bend
a lot and if the soil is hard (high modulus) the
plate does not bend much.
• The amount of bending is recorded by the
strain gages and is correlated to the modulus
of soil.
• BCD test can be also be performed in the
laboratory on top of compacted modulus of
obtain modulus verses water connect curve in
parallel with dry density verses water content
curve.
 Compaction and soil type
• Different soils react differently to different soil compaction equipment.
• Coarse grained soils are most effectively compacted through vibration combined
with pressure
• Pressure alone increases the effective stress and therefore the friction between
particles thereby preventing the sliding into a more compact
• Fine grained soils are most effectively compacted through kneading and
pressure. Vibration may increase the water pressure if the soil is saturated.
 Intelligence Roller compaction
• Continuous control compaction (CCC)
refers to compaction rollers that are
instrumented , make measurement on the
fly and give an image of the completed
compacted area with values of soil
parameters measured.
• Intelligence compaction (IC) refers to CCC
with added features that the roller is able to
change its setting nearly instantaneously
when it comes to a soft spot to optimize the
compaction process while keeping tack of
the global position through GPS.
• In CCC and IC the soil parameter most
often measured is the soil modulus E.
 Impact of roller compaction

• Traditionally rollers have been cylindrical and have used

static weights, kneading action, or vibratory force to
achieve specific soil stiffness and strength.
• Tradition rollers may have an energy capacity that is too
low compared to the need. This might be the case of
breaking interparticle bonds. Impact compaction rollers
were developed to alleviate this kid of problems. The y
have a noncircular drum that rotates and fall to impact the
ground
• Such rollers tend to provide deeper compaction because of
the impact generates a wave that propagates into at a depth.
• The influence ids defined as the depth at which the stress
becomes equal to one-tenth of the stress under the roller at
the ground surface. In that sense impact rollers are more
are more efficient; however the big drawback is that they do
not provide evenly compacted surface (Fig. 20.16)
 Impact of roller compaction

• Simulation Fig 20.18 shows to generates impact of cylindrical rollers

and triangular rollers with depth ( Kim 2010)
• The following summarizes the situation with cylindrical and impact
hammers
(1) The width of the contact area between the drum and the soil contact
controls the depth of compaction. The softer the soil is, the deeper
the roller sinks in the soil, the wider the contact area is and the deeper
the compaction.
(2) The surface pressure controls the degree of compaction. This pressure
is higher for impact rollers than impact rollers that cylindrical rollers
due to dynamic effect.
(3) The depth of compaction is larger for impact rollers because they
impact higher stresses that increase the penetration of the roller drum
into the soil, thereby increasing both the width and depth of
penetration.
 (b) Dynamic or Drop-Weight Compaction

• Dynamic compaction consists of lifting heavy weight of mass, M and dropping it from a height, H so that
it pounds the soil and compacts it in the process.
• The pounding is repeated at the same spot for a number of drops (say 6 times) and this creates a crater.
The crane moves to another location and repeat the process in grid pattern.
• The spacing between the impact point is about 2 times the diameter of the tamper.
• The crater should not be 1.5 to 2 times the height of the tamper, to avoid collapse of walls of the crater and
associated difficulties in pulling out the tamper.
• The craters are normally backfilled with coarse-rained soils.
• After completion of the grid, the crane does a second pass by dropping the weight on the intermediate
spots to complete surface treatment.
• The drop weight are commonly 50 to 300 kN and the drop height up to 30 m.
• During the final pass called ironing, a flatter weight is dropped to smooth out the bumps.
• Upon each drop, the energy generated by the impact propagates deeper layers by compression and shear
wave propagation, therefore the effectiveness of this compaction method depends on the dynamic response
characteristics of the soil being compacted.
• This method works best for unsaturated-coarse grained soils.
 (b) Dynamic or Drop-Weight Compaction

• Maximum depth that can , D • n is site factor less than 1, M

that can be compacted by is the mass of the the tamper
dynamic compaction is in tonnes (1000 kg) and H is
influenced by, soil properties , the drop height.
ground water level, number of
drops at each location, amount of
time elapse between grids.
 (b) Dynamic or Drop-Weight Compaction
For applied energy of 1 to 3
MJ/m2 and for tamper drop
height using single cable with
steel spool drum the depth od
influence, D is
C is an equipment factor, and d is a soil
factor equal to 0.9 for metastable soils
(collapsible soils), young fills, or very
recent hydraulic fills and equals to 0.4 to
0.6 for sands.

W is the weight of the tamper

The energy, E input in the soil for
in kN, H is the height of drop
each drop by dynamic compaction
in meters, N is the number of
can be presented per unit surface
drops, P is the number of
area compacted (E2 in KJ/m2) or
passes, s is the grid spacing in
per unit of soil volume compacted
meters for pounding pattern, D
(E3 in KJ/m2). The energy per unit
is the depth of soil compacted
surface area E2 is
 (b) Dynamic or Drop-Weight Compaction

• Typical energies for different soil types (Table 20.5).

• The degree of compaction is measured in terms of
compaction results of the soil measured before and
after the tests.
• The preferred test is the presuremeter test, but also
cone penetrometer can be used
• The depth of compaction is defined as the depth to
which the soil strength has been increased.
 (b) Dynamic or Drop-Weight Compaction
• Dynamic compaction induces soil • Gives upper bound for
vibrations. The vibrations are measured PPV generated by
in terms of peak velocity of the soil dynamic compaction
particles or PPV. impact according to
• PPV depends on a number of factors, Fig. 2021
primary energy of the impact and distance of • PPV is the peak particle
the impact. velocity in mm/s, M is the
mass of the tamper in
tonnes, H is the drop height
in meters and d is the
distance from impact location
in meters.

• The PPV can be measured with what is

tolerable.
• Typical values of PPV for damage
threshold varies from 1 to 3 mm/s for very
old and fragile buildings to 20 to 50 mm/s
for modern buildings.
 (c) Vibrocompaction
• Consists of lowering a cylindrical
vibrator from crane into the soil to
densify the soil to densify the soil
• A grid of 3 to 4 m center to center is
common.
• The vibration is 2 to 5 m long and 0.3
to 0.5 m in diameter and weights 40kN.
• The frequency of vibration is in the
range of 25 to 35 Hz with amplitudes
between 10 to 30 mm.
• Vibration typically reaches 20 to 30 m
with 60 m being rare.
• Soils best suited for this type of
techniques are clean sand. If the fine
contents becomes higher than 10 to
15% the vibrocompaction process
becomes much less efficient.
• CPT based charts shows which soils
are suitable for vibrocompaction.
 (c) Vibrocompaction
 The entire compaction process can be divided
into four steps
 Step 1: The jet at the bottom of the vibroflot
is turned on, and the vibroflot is lowered into
the ground
 The water et creates a quick condition in the
soil which allows the vobroflot to sink
 Granular material is poured into the top of the
hole. The water from the lower jet is
transferred to the jet at the top of the vibrating
unit. This water carried the granular down the
hole
 Step 4: The vibrating unit is gradually raised in
about 0.3 m and is left to vibrate for 30 secs at
a time. This process compacts the soil to the Vibroflotation unit
desired unit weight.
 Typically, the cylindrical zone of compaction
has a radius of 2 m to 3 m depending on the
power of the vibroflot
The success of densification of insitu soil depends
on
 Grain size distribution of the soil
 nature of backfill used in the hole during
withdrawal period of the vibroflot
 Vibroflotation
• The range of particle size distribution of the
insitu soil marked Zone 1 are the most suitable for
compaction by vibroflotation
• Soils that’s contain excessive amounts of fine
sands, and silt particles are difficult to compact .
Such soils , considerable effort is needed to reach
proper relative density compaction
• Zone 2 is the approximate lower limit of grain
size distribution for compaction by vibroflotation.
• Soils deposits whose grain size fall in Zone 3
contains appreciable amounts of gravel, for those
Compaction by vibroflotation depends involves
soils the rate of probe penetration may be slow.
various probe spacing, depend on the zone of
Vibroflotation compaction is uneconomical.
compaction.
Cylindrical zone of compaction will have radius of
2m for 30 HP unit and 3 m for a 100HP unit
 (c) Vibrocompaction
The grain size distribution of the backfill Material is the factor than control densification. The quantity
called suitability rating is used to rate backfill material.

.
(2) SOIL IMPROVEMENT WITHOUT ADMIXTURES IN FINE GRAINED SOILS

Improvement without admixture in fine

grained
(1) Overexcavation replacement method.
(2) Preloading using fill
(3) Sand drains
(4) Prefabricated vertical drains
(5) Preloading using vacuum
(6) Electro-osmosis.
 OVEREXCAVATIONS AND REPLACEMENT OF SOIL
• Over excavation and replacement is one of the traditional but
still commonly used method in practice
• It involves removal of problematic geomaterial and replacing it
with non problematic fill
• Replacing fills are often rock, gravel and sand
• Depending on geotechnical condition and depth of excavation,
the excavation may be vertical or incline
Application: This method can be used to
Suitability: For improving shallow
(i) Increase the bearing capacity: Replaced soil has higher friction
problematic soils such as loose sands and
silts, soft soils, expansive soils, collapsible angle. Bearing capacity factors are a function of φ
soils, liquefiable soils (ii) Reduce settlement: Soils with better compressibility properties
• It's used in the following conditions (iii) Eliminate expansion and shrinkage of soils
(a) Are of excavation is limited
(b) Depth of excavation is less than 3m
(c) No or limited temporary shoring or
dewatering is required Fill soils have a
(d) No existing structures is close to the higher young
overexcavated area modulus, Es hence
(e) Removal of soil is easily deposed or low settlement
reused
(f) Fill materials is readily available Replaced soils have higher friction
angle hence higher bearing capacity
 Over excavation and Replacement
Advantages EXAMPLE
• Cost effective Soil lithology at a construction site reveals 3 m thick loose silt stratum overlying 8 m thick
• Simple and reliable dense Sandy Gravel with Silt layer. The soil properties are as shown in Figure 1.
• Does not require Foundation column is to be founded at a depth of 0.5 m below the ground on the sand layer.
special contractor If the column transmits 100kN Load determine if soil replacement of the loose will be
except excavation and required if safe/ not safe against bearing capacity failure and the settlement of the
rollers foundation is limited to 20 mm.
Disadvantages: This P=100 kN
method may be
limited by
• Deep excavation Df=0.5 m
required
• High ground water B=1.0 m
Loose low plastic Silt
table
3m

Unit weight, γ=14 kN/m3

2.5 m

• Onsite or nearby Water content, w=15%

φ=17°
existing structures Es=1500kN/m2
• Limited space /
access for excavating
Very dense Sandy Gravel
equipment with Silt
Unit weight, γ=18 kN/m3
8m

Water content, w=12%

φ=39°
Es=25000kN/m2
 Bearing capacity Calculation
For conservative design ignore the shape, depth and inclination factors. Bearing capacity
failure if any will occur in the upper layer

qult= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 0.5γ𝑁𝑁γ

Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil

For φ=17°, Nc =77.50 , Nq =5.45, Nγ =2.18
qult= (0 ∗ 14.60) + (0.5 ∗ 14 ∗
5.45) + (0.5 ∗ 14 ∗ 1 ∗ 2.18)

qult= 45.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2

Allowable bearing capacity of the soil

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 53.5
qall= = = 17.9 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 3

Foundation Pressure
𝑃𝑃 100𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
qmax= = = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐴 1.0𝑥𝑥𝑥.0

qall < q max hence foundation fails against bearing capacity

check
 Stress distribution and settlement
Calculated elastic settlement using Christian and Carrie
method (1979).

Depth below Height of the ES ∆σ= q o

B (m) D f (m) D f /B H /B A1 A2 S e (mm)
foundation (m) layer, H (m) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
0 to 2.5 2.5 1 0.5 0.5 2.5 0.95 0.5 1500 100.0 31.67

Calculated elastic settlement greater than the tolerable.

 Settlement
Dividing the soils into many layers gives more accurate
prediction of settlement. Assuming 2H: 1V triangular
distribution
𝑃𝑃
qo=
𝐵𝐵+𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥(𝐿𝐿+𝑍𝑍)

Depth below Height of the ES ∆σ= q o

Depth, Z (m) B (m) D f (m) D f /B H /B A1 A2 S e (mm)
foundation (m) layer, H (m) (kN/m ) (kN/m2)
2

0 to 0.5 0.5 0 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 100.0 15.83
0.5 to 1 0.5 0.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 44.4 7.04
1 to 1.5 0.5 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 25.0 3.96
1.5 to 2 0.5 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 32.0 5.07
2 to 2.5 0.5 2 1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.95 0.25 1500 11.1 1.76
Total 33.65
 Bearing capacity: Over excavating and replacing
EXAMPLE
The Silt layer is excavated to 3 m below the ground and replaced with Sand with clay of unit weight of 17kN/ m2
compacted to 90% of the maximum dry density. If the friction angle φ=36 and Es=18000kN/m2, calculated
the bearing capacity and settlement resulting from the foundation load.
P=100 kN
For φ=36°, Nc =63.53 , Nq =47.16, Nγ =54.63
Ultimate bearing capacity of the soil
Df=0.5 m qult= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞 + 0.5𝐵𝐵γ𝑁𝑁γ

B=1.0 m qult= (0 ∗ 63.53) + (0.5 ∗ 17 ∗ 47.16) +

Dense SAND with clay
3m

(0.5 ∗ 17 ∗ 1 ∗ 54.63)
2.5 m

Unit weight, γ=17 kN/m3

Water content, w=10%
φ=36° qult= 865.2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
Es=1800kN/m2

Allowable bearing capacity of the soil

𝑞𝑞𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 865.2
Very dense Sandy Gravel
qall= = = 288.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 3
with Silt
Unit weight, γ=18 kN/m3
8m

Water content, w=12% Foundation Pressure

φ=39°
Es=25000kN/m2 𝑃𝑃 100𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
qmax= = = 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐴 1.0𝑥𝑥𝑥.0

qall > q max hence foundation safe against bearing failure

 Settlement :Over excavating and replacing

𝑃𝑃
qo=
𝐵𝐵+𝑍𝑍 𝑥𝑥(𝐿𝐿+𝑍𝑍)

Depth below Height of the ES ∆σ= q o

B (m) D f (m) D f /B H /B A1 A2 S e (mm)
foundation (m) layer, H (m) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
0 to 2.5 2.5 1 0.5 0.5 2.5 0.95 0.5 18000 100.0 2.64
 PRECOMPRESSION
 When highly compressible material, normally
consolidated clay layer lie at a limited depth and large
consolidation settlement is expected, as a result of
large loads from structures, precompression may be
used to minimize post construction settlement
 The proposed load is ∆σ’(p) and the thickness of the
clay layer is H and σ’o is the initial overburden pressure
 The maximum primary consolidation settlement
caused by the load is

 If surcharge ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) of is placed on the ground, • Under surcharge of, ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) of the
the primary consolidation settlement will be degree of consolidation at a time t2 after
application of load is

 The total settlement Sc(p) would occur at time t2 which

is much shorter than t1. • Combining equation (16.19 through 16.21)
 If temporary total surcharge of ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) is yields
applied on the ground surface for t2 the settlement will
be equal to scp.
 At that time when the surchange is removed and a
structure with a permanent load ∆σ’(p) is built, no
appreciable settlement will occur.
 Preloading using fill
 Technique of using fill consists of loading the (1) Calculate the maximum settlement of the
soil surface with a fill, an in the case of embankment smax(emb). For normally consolidated clay, the
embankment and a surcharge fill. following equations can be used.
 It has been used to shorten the time required
to reached, the surcharge is withdrawn, and the
construction can be done.
 Its important to note that the time tU needed to Where ho is the height of soft clay layer Cc is the
reach U percent of consolidation of compression index, eo is the initial void ration of the soft
consolidation depends not on the height of fill clay, σ’vo is the initial effective stress in the middle of the
but the drainage length, H and the soil soft clay layer and ∆σ’ is the increase in stress in the
coefficient of consolidation cv. middle of soft clay layer..
 To find out what height hs must be added to a (2) Choose the time tt to reach smax(emb). .
surcharge on top on top of he high (3) Knowing the target time tt and the coefficient of
embankment to reach, say 90% of the consolidation Cv of the soft clay layer, calculate the time
settlement of the embankment with time tt, use factor Tv corresponding to t using equation
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣
the following steps 𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 = 2
ℎd
hd is the drainage length equal to thickness of clay for
single drainage and half the length for double drainage.
(4) Find the average degree of consolidation U
corresponding to the time factor Tv.

s(t) settlement after time t and smax is the final settlement

 Preloading using fill
 Technique of using fill consists of loading the (1) Calculate the maximum settlement of the
soil surface with a fill, an in the case of embankment smax(emb). For normally consolidated clay, the
embankment and a surcharge fill. following equations can be used.
 It has been used to shorten the time required
to reached, the surcharge is withdrawn, and the
construction can be done.
 Its important to note that the time tU needed to Where ho is the height of soft clay layer Cc is the
reach U percent of consolidation of compression index, eo is the initial void ration of the soft
consolidation depends not on the height of fill clay, σ’vo is the initial effective stress in the middle of the
but the drainage length, H and the soil soft clay layer and ∆σ’ is the increase in stress in the
coefficient of consolidation cv. middle of soft clay layer..
 To find out what height hs must be added to a (2) Choose the time tt to reach smax(emb). .
surcharge on top on top of he high (3) Knowing the target time tt and the coefficient of
embankment to reach, say 90% of the consolidation Cv of the soft clay layer, calculate the time
settlement of the embankment with time tt, use factor Tv corresponding to t using equation
the following steps 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣
𝑇𝑇𝑣𝑣 = 2
ℎd
hd is the drainage length equal to thickness of clay for
single drainage and half the length for double drainage.
(4) Find the average degree of consolidation U
corresponding to the time factor Tv.

s(t) settlement after time t and smax is the final settlement

Preloading using fill
 Preloading using fill
(5) Knowing U, the maximum settlement, smax(emb+surch). under embankment plus surcharge can be calculated. U
is known for s(t) is equal to the settlement under the embankment plus surcharge after time equal to target
times s(tt). By design, this settlement is equal to the maximum settlement under the embankment only smax(emb)..

(6) Once the maximum settlement under embankment and surcharge, smax(emb+surch) is known, ∆σ’ induced
surcharge can be calculated as

(7) Finally, the height of surcharge hs is the height that generates and increase in effective stress, ∆σ’ in the
soft clay layer equal to, ∆σ’ . Often if the soft clay is not very thick compared to the width f embankment, the
increase in stress equal to the pressure generated by surcharge at the ground surface and the height of
surcharge is

(8) Note that if the surcharge is too high slope stability or bearing capacity problem arises for the side of the
embankment. In that regard, the height of the surcharge hsmax that would generate a bearing capacity failure in
a clay of undrained shear strength su can be estimated as
Preloading using fill- Example
Preloading using fill
 SAND DRAINS

• The use of sand drains is another way to

accelerate the consolidation settlement of soft
normally consolidated clay layers and achieve
preconsolidation before the construction of the
desired foundation
• Sand drains are constructed by drilling holes
through the clay in regular intervals
• The holes are the backfilled with sand
• The drilling and backfilling can be achieved
though
(a) Rotary drilling the backfilling
(b) Drilling through continuous flight auger with hollow stem
and backfilling
(c) Driving hollow steel pipes
• After backfilling drilling hole with sand, the
surcharge load is applied at the ground surface
• The surcharge will increase the pore water
pressure. The excess pore water pressure in the
clay will dissipate by drainage both vertically and • The radius of the sand drain is rw
radially to the sand drains thereby accelerating the • The effective zone from which the radial
settlement. drainage will be directed towards the sand
drain is approximately cylindrical, with a
diameter, de
 PRECOMPRESSION
 When highly compressible material, normally
consolidated clay layer lie at a limited depth and large
consolidation settlement is expected, as a result of
large loads from structures, precompression may be
used to minimize post construction settlement
 The proposed load is ∆σ’(p) and the thickness of the
clay layer is H and σ’o is the initial overburden pressure
 The maximum primary consolidation settlement
caused by the load is

• Under surcharge of, ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) of the

 If surcharge ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) of is placed on the ground, degree of consolidation at a time t2 after
the primary consolidation settlement will be application of load is

 The total settlement Sc(p) would occur at time t2 which • Combining equation (16.19 through 16.21)
is much shorter than t1. yields
 If temporary total surcharge of ∆σ’(p) + ∆σ’(f) is
applied on the ground surface for t2 the settlement will
be equal to scp.
 At that time when the surchange is removed and a
structure with a permanent load ∆σ’(p) is built, no
appreciable settlement will occur.
 SAND DRAINS
• The surcharge that is needed to be applied at the ground
surface and the length of time that it has to be maintained
can be calculated as

• Uv,r is the average degree of consolidation

• Both radial and vertical drainage contribute ton the
average degree of consolidation
• Uv,r can be determined for any time t2, the total surcharge
is ∆σ’(f) + ∆σ’(p) may be obtained from Figure 16.17.
• For a given surcharge and duration, the average degree of
consolidation due to drainage in drainage in vertical and
radial direction is
 Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only

• rw is the radius of sand drain and is the re =

de /2 is the radius of the effective zone of
drainage
• During installation of the sand drain a
certain zone of clay surrounding them is
smeared (disturbed), thereby changing the
hydraulic conductivity of the clay
• rs is the radial distance from the center of
the sand drain to the farthest point of the
smear zone
• The average degree of consolidation is
determined from theory of equal strain
• Surcharge can be applied as (a) continuously
(b) applied in the form of ramp
Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only ( Instatenious surcharge)

• When the entire surcharge is

applied instantaneously the
average degree of consolidation
Ur is
 Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only

Values of Ur
for various
value of Tr
and n
Average degree of consolidation to radially drainage only ( Ramp surcharge)

If surcharge is applied in form of a ramp and then there is no smear. then

Average degree of consolidation to vertical drainage only (Instantaneous Surcharge)
For instantaneous application of surcharge, the average degree of consolidation due to
vertical drain can be determined as
 Average degree of consolidation to vertical drainage only (Ramp Surcharge)
For ramp application of surcharge, the variation of Uv and Tv can be expressed as
Example
Example
 Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD)

• PVD also know as wick or strip drain have

been used to substitute the sand drains
• They are normally manufactured with a
corrugated or channeled synthetic core
enclosed with geosynthetics filter
• Installtion rate reported in literature is in
the order of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s
• PVD have been used to expedite
consolidation of low permeability soil
under surface surcharge
 Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD)
• PVD are always laid in square-grid pattern
• The equivalent diameter of the patter is
• PVD also know as wick or strip drain have
been used to substitute the sand drains
• They are normally manufactured with a
corrugated or channeled synthetic core
enclosed with geosynthetics filter
• Installation rate reported in literature is
in the order of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s
• PVD have been used to expedite
consolidation of low permeability soil
under surface surcharge
PVD
 Procedure for the design of PVD
The following is a step-by-step procedure for design of PVD
Step 1: Determine the time t2 available for consolidation process and the Uv,r required (Eq.16.24)

Step 2: Determine Ur at t2 due to vertical draianage from Eqn 16.25

Step 3 : Calculated dw from eqn 16.40

Step 4 : Determine (T r’)1 from Eqn 16.45 and 16.46

Step 5 : Determine (T r’) from Eqn 16.42

Step 6 : Determine (T r’) from Eqn 16.42

 Procedure for the design of PVD
The following is a step-by-step procedure for design of PVD
Step 7: Using Figure 16.28 and α’ determine n

Step 8: From equation 16.44

Step 9: Choose the drain spacing

 (3) Soil Improvement with Replacement

(1) Stone column without geosynthetic sock

(2) Stone column with Geosynthetic encasement
(3) Dynamic Replacement
 Stone Column without Geosynthetic Sock
• Stone column also called aggregate columns are
constructed by opening holes in the soil to be
improvement down to a chosen depth.
• Opening of the hole for the stones to be places is
done by vibration or jetting.
• In the vibration technique, a vibrating cylinder is
used. In jetting technique, the holes is created by a
probe inserted to a chosen depth and rotated out
of the hole while jetting horizontally to enlarge the • Value of p’L can be obtained obtained by
hole before the stones are placed. performing drained pressuremeter test and
• The third technique, rammed aggregate pier method, assuming the water pressure, uw is equal to the
consists of opening the hole with an auger and hydrostatic pressure.
compacting the stone in the hole in 0.3 m lifts.
• The column can be considered as large sample of
gravel loaded in a manner similar to triaxial test. • Therefore, the drained ultimate load on the stone
Therefore, at failure of the column, the ratio column is.
between the vertical effective stress , σ’3 and
effective horizontal stress is given by;
• Qu is the ultimate load on the stone column and
pL is the limiting pressure from a drained
• KP is the coefficient of passive earth pressure. pressuremeter test and uw is the hydrostatic
• In large scale triaxial tests, σ’3 is limited by pressure at pressuremeter test depth and A is the
maximum horizontal pressure that the soil can cross-sectional area of the stone column.
resist. This is given by the effective stress limiting • Ofcourse there is beneficial effect that increases
value p’L of the pressuremeter test. when the spacing between stone column decrease
 Stone Column without Geosynthetic Sock
• The settlement can be estimated using
pressuremeter data
• The horizontal relative expansion of the column is
considered to be equal to be relative expansion of
the pressuremeter for the same horizontal
pressure.

• B and ∆B are the initial diameter and increase in

diameter of the stone column respectively and R
and ∆R are radius and increase in radius of the • The deformed volume V is also equal to.
pressuremeter probe at a pressure corresponding
pL divided by chosen factor of safety against
horizontal expansion failure. S is the settlement of the stone column.
• The volume involved in barrel like deformation • The settlement, s is given by is
extends to a depth equal to 2B of the stone
column.
• This, the initial volume involved in the
deformation is. • Settlement s corresponds to a top load Q equal to
.

• If during the deformation of the column under

load, the volume of stone experiences a volume • If ∆V is 0 then ∆R/R is small hence
change ∆V , then the volume V of the deformed
column under load will be.
 STONE COLUMNS ( AGGREGATE PIERS)

• A method used to increase bearing capacity

of shallow foundations on soft clay layers
• Generally consisted of wet jetting or
vibroflot into soft clay layer to make circular
hole that extend through clay to form clay
• Hole is then filled with imported gravel
• Gravel in the hole is gradually compacted as
vibrator is withdrawn
• The gravel used for the stone column has a
size range from 6 to 40 mm
• Stone columns have a diameter of 0.5 to
0.75 m and spaced at about 1.5 to 3 m • The are placement ratio of the stone Column may be
center to center expressed as
• After construction of stone column, fill
should be placed over the ground surface
and compacted before the foundation is
constructed
• Stone columns tend to reduce settlement of
foundation at allowable loads
 Area Placement Ratio of Stone Columns

• The are placement ratio of the stone Colum may be

expressed as
 Stress Concentration Factor of Stone Columns

• When the uniform is applied on the area with stone column to induce settlement, stress
concentration occur due to change in stiffness between column and surrounding soil
• Stress concentration factor n is defined as
 Improvement by Stone Columns

• The improvement of soil owing to the stone column is expressed by comparing settlement
with and without stone column
 Load bearing capacity of stone columns

• when the L’length of the stone column less than 3D, failure
occurs by plunging similar to shout piles in soft clays
• For longer columns sufficient to prevent plunging the load
capacity is governed by ultimate radial confining stress and
the shear strength of the surrounding matrix soil. The failure
at ultimate load occur by bulging.
• The Ultimate bearing capacity of stone column is given by

Foundation constructed
measuring BxL in plan
over a grou pf stone
columns, thew ultimate
bearing capacity, qu is
expressed as
 Load bearing capacity of stone columns in groups

Foundation constructed measuring BxL

in plan over a group of stone columns,
thew ultimate bearing capacity, qu is
expressed as
Example
 4. Soil Improvement with Grouting and Admixture

Grouting
• Cement: Made from calcium silicon
• Concrete: Combination of cement, water, sand, gravel and sometimes large aggregates.
• Mortar and grout : Combination of cement, water and fine sand.
• Different grouting techniques are used depending o n the type of soil to be improved.

Particulate Grouting
• Refers to grouting of coarse-grained soils by injecting the grout under gravity and under pressure. Into
the soil voids
• It refers top grouting of fissures in rocks and cavities such as sink hole
• It consists of opening hole down to desired depth, sealing it , and then injecting grout.
• The groutability of a soil is often evaluated through a ratio N of the soil size to grout size.

• D10(soil) is the grain size corresponding to 10% fines and D65(grout) and D90(grout) are grain size of size
corresponding to 65 and 90% fines.
• Grouting is feasible when N1> 24 and not feasible when N1< 24 (Mitchell and Katti, 1981)
• Grout is feasible if N2> 11 and not feasible if N2< 6. (Karol, 2003).
• Grouting also depends on how fluid and grout is when injection pressure is applied.