Structure of Metals
1
What are crystalline substances
As we have seen from previous lectures
metals are crystalline substances. This
happens by the following sequence:
• When the metal starts to solidify crystals
start to grow at a number of points within
the liquid, If the conditions are suitable for
only one crystal to grow (single crystal).
• Each crystal is prevented from being
completed to a geometrically regular
shape by neighboring crystals growing. 2
polycrystalline substances
• The result is the formation of a number of
crystals (polycrystalline material), the term
grain is used to describe each regions in
the metal for which there are orderly
arrangement of particles. All these grains
follow the crystalline form specific for that
metal (FCC, BCC, or HCP). These grains
can be made visible and they form the
microstructure of that metal.
3
Polycrystals Anisotropic
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.
Adapted from Fig. K,
color inset pages of
Callister 5e.
(Fig. K is courtesy of
Paul E. Danielson,
Teledyne Wah Chang
Albany)
1 mm
Isotropic
• certain plate with an electron beam weld.
• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If grains are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
• Grain sizes typ. range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
4
Single crystalline substance
• The periodic and repeated arrangement of
atoms is perfect without interruption
• All unit cells interlock in the same way and
have the same orientation.
• Single crystals exist in nature, but they
may also be produced artificially.
• Some engineering applications require single crystals:
--diamond single --turbine blades
crystals for abrasives Fig. 8.33(c), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 8.33(c) courtesy
(Courtesy Martin Deakins, of Pratt and Whitney).
GE Superabrasives,
Worthington, OH. Used with
permission.)
6
Properties of crystalline material
• Properties of crystalline materials often related to crystal structure, they are grouped
into:
1-Isotropic properties
Properties don’t vary with direction and are obtained:
- polycrystalline materials & - If grains are oriented randomly oriented
2- anisotropic properties
Properties vary with direction and are obtained:
- Single crystal or - If grains are textured
Single vs Polycrystals
• Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.3,
-Properties vary with Callister 7e.
(Source of data is R.W.
direction: anisotropic. Hertzberg, Deformation
and Fracture Mechanics
-Example: the modulus of Engineering
Materials, 3rd ed., John
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron: Wiley and Sons, 1989.)
E (edge) = 125 GPa
• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not 200 µm Adapted from Fig.
4.14(b), Callister 7e.
vary with direction. (Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C.
-If grains are randomly Brady, the National
Bureau of Standards,
oriented: isotropic. Washington, DC [now
the National Institute of
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa) Standards and
Technology,
-If grains are textured, Gaithersburg, MD].)
anisotropic.
8
Solidification
• Solidification- result of casting of molten material
– 2 steps
• Nuclei form
• Nuclei grow to form crystals – grain structure
• Start with a molten material – all liquid
nuclei crystals growing grain structure
liquid Adapted from Fig.4.14 (b), Callister 7e.
• Crystals grow until they meet each other
9
Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm
heat
flow
Shell of
Columnar in equiaxed grains
area with less due to rapid
undercooling cooling (greater
∆T) near wall
Adapted from Fig. 4.12, Callister 7e.
Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.
10
Polycrystalline Materials
Grain Boundaries
• regions between crystals
• transition from lattice of
one region to that of the
other
• slightly disordered
• low density in grain
boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity
Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 7e.
11
Imperfections in Solids
There is no such thing as a perfect crystal.
• What are these imperfections?
• Why are they important?
Many of the important properties of
materials are due to the presence of
imperfections.
12
Types of Imperfections
• Vacancy atoms
• Interstitial atoms Point defects
• Substitutional atoms
• Dislocations Line defects
• Grain Boundaries Area defects
13
• Vacancies: Point Defects
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.
Vacancy
distortion
of planes
• Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.
self-
interstitial
distortion
of planes
14
Point Defects in
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):
Alloys
• Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)
OR
Substitutional solid soln. Interstitial solid soln.
(e.g., Cu in Ni) (e.g., C in Fe)
• Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new
phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.
Ex: intermetallic compounds
15
Imperfections in Solids
Conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.)
• W. Hume – Rothery rule
– 1. ∆r (atomic radius) < 15%
– 2. Proximity in periodic table
• i.e., similar electronegativities
– 3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
– 4. Valency
• All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency
to dissolve a metal of higher valency than one of lower
valency
16
Imperfections in Solids
Application of Hume–Rothery rules – Solid
Solutions Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence
Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
1. Would you predict Cu 0.1278 FCC 1.9 +2
C 0.071
more Al or Ag H 0.046
O 0.060
to dissolve in Zn? Ag 0.1445 FCC 1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
2. More Zn or Al Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
in Cu? Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2
Table on p. 106, Callister 7e.
17
Line Defects
Dislocations:
• are line defects,
• slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move,
• produce permanent (plastic) deformation.
Schematic of Zinc (HCP):
• before deformation • after tensile elongation
slip steps
Adapted from Fig. 7.8, Callister 7e.
18
Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs
Adapted from Fig. 4.6, Callister 7e.
19
Deformation of Grains
• The grains that form originally by
solidification will change their shape when
exposed to stresses. The deformation of
these grains happens by a process called
slip along slip planes.
• Slip planes: a slip plane is that in which
the atoms are closest packed.
• Slip direction: is the direction in which slip
occurs.
20
Deformation of Grains
• Permanent deformations happen with
much less stress due to the presence of
defects.
• It is the final size, shape, and orientation of
these grains which is called the
microstructure that determines the
mechanical behavior, and sometimes
other properties for metals and alloys.
21
1- Plastic deformation by slip
• a) Old theory of slip
• b) dislocation theory of slip
• b) Dislocation theory of slip
2- Plastic deformation by twining
• Application of stress to the perfect crystal as in fig (a) may cause a
special displacement of the atoms as in fig (b) causing the
deformation of twin and corresponding plastic deformation
• Ex: memory alloys work on twining mechanism that can controlled
by changes in temperature
Anisotropy in σy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal
- before rolling - after rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.11 is from
W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure
and Properties of Materials,
Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John
Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)
rolling direction
235 µm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.
25
Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• Yield strength (σy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,
Callister 7e.
26
Remember:
The methods of strengthening metals are:
• Adding alloying elements the materials
(adding C to Fe to form steel or cast Iron)
• Cold working of metals which raise their
Yield strength
• Heat treatments of metals
