Cellular/Molecular Neuroscience
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What are neurons? Main brain cells discovered by Golgi and Cajal; four parts: dendrites, cell body, axon,
and terminal
Describe/summarize the electrical signaling in the brain. Signals travel up to 268 miles an hour; the axon
is stimulated (through senses), there is a chemical change, action potential is started, sodium and
potassium move in or out of the neuron, the signal is delivered; sodium on outside, potassium on inside;
when sodium comes in, the neuron is highly positively charged; when the potassium goes out, the
neuron becomes negatively charged, sometimes causing hyperpolarization; diffusion occurs to bring the
charge back to its resting state; sodium-potassium pumps diffuse the chemicals to repolarize back to the
resting state; charge goes from -70 millivolts to -55mV (to kickstart the depolarization after a stimulus is
applied) to +40mV when too much sodium is inside the neuron to -90mV (hyperpolarization) to -70
when balanced out by diffusion; all or nothing response (if stimulus is too small, not enough ions can
enter the neuron to trigger the reaction)
What does myelin do? The fat that surrounds the neurons, speeding up the reaction; similar to an
electrical wire; keeps the ions in the axon except in the small gaps called nodes of Ranvier where ions
can be diffused out if they are too crowded
What is saltatory conduction? The propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one
node of Ranvier to another, which speeds up the action potentials; caused by myelin-insulated axons,
which can have speeds of 150 m/s instead of unmyelin-insulated axon which can have speeds of .5-10
m/s
What happens at the presynaptic terminal? The reaction causes voltage-sensitive calcium gates to open
and calcium floods in, creating a shell around neurotransmitters to transfer to the postsynaptic terminal;
SNARE protein complex is triggered (synaptotagmin (calcium sensor), synaptobrevin, syntaxin, SNAP25)
and fuses the neurotransmitters to the neuron’s membrane, which opens up to release the transmitters
into the synaptic cleft
What is a neurotransmitter? Molecules released from one neuron that stimulates the next neuron;
epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin
What happens at the postsynaptic terminal? The neurotransmitters attach to channels on the
postsynaptic cell in order to open the channels and allow ions to flood in and start a new reaction
What is an ionotropic channel/receptor? Ligand (neurotransmitter) gated iron channels through which
ions pass in response to a neurotransmitter (fast); AMPA: once a cellular signaling molecule like
glutamate binds to the channel, sodium is allowed to pass through in order to depolarize the cell;
NMDA: once AMPA opens, releasing a magnesium block, NMDA channels allow calcium to pass through,
starting 2nd messenger cascades
What is a metabotropic channel/receptor? Require G proteins and 2nd messengers (slow); GPCR:
glutamate binds, the receptor goes through a physical change, then the Galpha unit of the G protein is
activated, the Galpha exchanges GDP with GTP, energizing itself, resulting in the splitting of the Galpha
subunit from the other two subunits, which then inhibits or induces cellular responses;
What are the 3 fates of a neurotransmitter?
1. Diffuse (fade away)
2. Reputable (reabsorbed and reused by the presynaptic neuron) (whole molecule)
3. Degradation (broken down in the synapse so it can’t be used anymore) (parts of molecule)
Excitatory neurotransmitters: excite the neuron and causes it to “fire off the message”-sends the
message to the next neuron; most neurons are excitatory
Inhibitory neurotransmitters: block or prevent the message from being passed any further
Where do IPSPs and EPSPs happen? In the postsynaptic cell
What is an IPSP? Makes the postsynaptic neuron less likely to generate an action potential
What is an EPSP? Makes the postsynaptic more likely to generate an action potential
What is an aplysia? A sea slug with a reflex that has been studied widely
What is synaptic plasticity? The idea that synapses can change their strength over time in response to
increase or decrease in activity; long term plasticity is how we create and remember new memories;
what changes is the amount of neurotransmitters released, the number of postsynaptic receptors
available, or the amount of electrical current that flows through the ion channels
What is long term potentiation (LTP)? Requires high frequency stimulation that ends up strengthening
the synapse; early phase: adds more AMPA receptors, which lets more calcium enter the cell); late
phase: causes increase in transcription factors, which results in gene expression and new protein
synthesis, as well as creates new spines on dendrites- relies on the CREB gene
What is long term depression (LTD)? Requires repetitive low frequency stimulation that causes
weakening of the synapse and loss of dendritic spines; removes extra AMPA receptors from the
membrane
What are glial cells? Are not neurons, more of helper cells- don’t transmit signals, but they help carry
them (Oligodendrocytes (make myelin), Astrocytes (from blood-brain barrier), Microglia (brain’s
immune system), Ependymal cells (make up a thin membrane inside ventricles), Radial gill (stem cells),
Schwann cells (similar to oligodendrocytes), Satellite cells (like astrocytes, regulate the neuron’s
environment))
Fill in this table plz!
Neurotransmi Excitatory or Commonly Function? Diseases/
tter inhibitory or found in what disorders/
modulatory? brain regions? conditions
associated with it?
Dopamine Excitatory hypothalamus feelings of pleasure, Parkinson’s,
motivation restless legs
syndrome
Epinephrine Excitatory adrenal glands fight-or-flight Headaches,
sleeping problems
Norepinephri Modulatory adrenal glands regulation of arousal, ADHD, memory
ne attention, and stress problems, low
reactions blood pressure
GABA Inhibitory hippocampus reduce excitability Anxiety, autism,
schizophrenia
Acetylcholine Excitatory basal forebrain regulates cardiac Alzheimer’s,
contractions myasthenia gravis
Endorphins Inhibitory pituitary gland alleviate pain, lower stress, Depression,
improve mood fibromyalgia
Serotonin Inhibitory raphe nuclei mood, sleep, nausea, Depression,
wound clotting, digestion anxiety, insomnia
Histamine Excitatory posterior tells stomach cells to make Celiac, colon
hypothalamus stomach acid polyps, allergies
Glutamate Excitatory cortex memory, cognition, and Low concentration,
mood regulation mental exhaustion
