Chapter 1 - Part 1

Motion in One Dimension

Types of Motion
Translational
 An example is a car traveling on a highway.
Rotational
 An example is the Earth’s spin on its axis.
Vibrational
 An example is the back-and-forth movement of a pendulum.

Particle Model
We will use the particle model.
 A particle is a point-like object; has mass but infinitesimal size

Introduction
Position

The object’s position is its location with

respect to a chosen reference point.
 Consider the point to be the origin
of a coordinate system.
Only interested in the car’s translational
motion, so model as a particle

Section 2.1
Position-Time Graph

The position-time graph shows the

motion of the particle (car).
The smooth curve is a guess as to what
happened between the data points.

Section 2.1
Data Table

The table gives the actual data

collected during the motion of the object
(car).
Positive is defined as being to the right.

Section 2.1
Representations of the Motion of Car
Various representations include:
 Pictorial
 Graphical
 Tablular
 Mathematical
 The goal in many problems is often a mathematical representation

Using alternative representations is often an excellent strategy for understanding

the situation of a given problem.
 For example, compare the different representations of the motion.

Section 2.1
Displacement
Displacement is defined as the change in position during some time interval.
 Represented as ∆x
∆x ≡ xf - xi
 SI units are meters (m)
 ∆x can be positive or negative
Different than distance

 Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle.

Section 2.1
Distance vs. Displacement – An Example
Assume a player moves from one end
of the court to the other and back.
Distance is twice the length of the court
 Distance is always positive
Displacement is zero

 Δx = xf – xi = 0 since xf = xi

Section 2.1
Vectors and Scalars
Vector quantities need both magnitude (size or numerical value) and direction to
completely describe them.
 Will use + and – signs to indicate vector directions in this chapter
Scalar quantities are completely described by magnitude only.

Section 2.1
Average Velocity
The average velocity is rate at which the displacement occurs.

∆x xf − xi
v x, avg ≡ =
∆t ∆t
 The x indicates motion along the x-axis.
The dimensions are length / time [L/T]
The SI units are m/s
Is also the slope of the line in the position – time graph

Section 2.1
Average Speed
Speed is a scalar quantity.
 Has the same units as velocity
d
 Defined as total distance / total time: v avg ≡
t
The speed has no direction and is always expressed as a positive number.
Neither average velocity nor average speed gives details about the trip
described.

Section 2.1
Average Speed and Average Velocity
The average speed is not the magnitude of the average velocity.
 For example, a runner ends at her starting point.
 Her displacement is zero.
 Therefore, her velocity is zero.
 However, the distance traveled is not zero, so the speed is not zero.

Section 2.1
Instantaneous Velocity
The limit of the average velocity as the time interval becomes infinitesimally
short, or as the time interval approaches zero.
The instantaneous velocity indicates what is happening at every point of time.

Instantaneous Velocity, graph

The instantaneous velocity is the slope

of the line tangent to the x vs. t curve.
 This would be the green line.
The light blue lines show that as ∆t gets
smaller, they approach the green line.

Section 2.2
Instantaneous Velocity, equations
The general equation for instantaneous velocity is:
∆x dx
v x = lim =
∆t →0 ∆t dt

The instantaneous velocity can be positive, negative, or zero.

Instantaneous Speed
The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity.
The instantaneous speed has no direction associated with it.

Vocabulary Note
“Velocity” and “speed” will indicate instantaneous values.
Average will be used when the average velocity or average speed is indicated.

Section 2.2
Model: A Particle Under Constant Velocity

Constant velocity indicates the instantaneous velocity at any instant during a

time interval is the same as the average velocity during that time interval.

 vx = vx, avg
 The mathematical representation of this situation is the equation.
∆x xf − xi
vx = = or xf = xi + v x ∆t
∆t ∆t
 Common practice is to let ti = 0 and the equation becomes: xf = xi + vx t
(for constant vx)

Section 2.3
Particle Under Constant Velocity, Graph
The graph represents the motion of a
particle under constant velocity.
The slope of the graph is the value of
the constant velocity.
The y-intercept is xi.

Section 2.3
Model: A Particle Under Constant Speed
A particle under constant velocity moves with a constant speed along a straight
line.
A particle can also move with a constant speed along a curved path.
This can be represented with a model of a particle under constant speed.
The primary equation is the same as for average speed, with the average speed
replaced by the constant speed.

v= d
∆t

Section 2.3
Average Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity.
∆v x = v xf − v xi
ax,avg ≡
∆t tf − t i
Dimensions are L/T2
SI units are m/s²
In one dimension, positive and negative can be used to indicate direction.

Section 2.4
Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the average acceleration as ∆t
approaches 0.
∆v x dv x d 2 x
ax = ∆lim
t →0 ∆t
= = 2
dt dt

The term acceleration will mean instantaneous acceleration.

 If average acceleration is wanted, the word average will be included.

Section 2.4
Instantaneous Acceleration – graph
The slope of the velocity-time graph is
the acceleration.
The green line represents the
instantaneous acceleration.
The blue line is the average
acceleration.

Section 2.4
Graphical Comparison
Given the displacement-time graph (a)
The velocity-time graph is found by
measuring the slope of the position-
time graph at every instant.
The acceleration-time graph is found by
measuring the slope of the velocity-time
graph at every instant.

Section 2.4
Acceleration and Velocity, Directions
When an object’s velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the object is
speeding up.
When an object’s velocity and acceleration are in the opposite direction, the
object is slowing down.

Section 2.4
Acceleration and Force
The acceleration of an object is related to the total force exerted on the object.
 The force is proportional to the acceleration, Fx ∝ ax .
 Assume the velocity and acceleration are in the same direction.
 The force is in the same direction as the velocity and the object speeds
up.
 Assume the velocity and acceleration are in opposite directions.
 The force is in the opposite direction as the velocity and the object slows
down.

Section 2.4
Notes About Acceleration
Negative acceleration does not necessarily mean the object is slowing down.
 If the acceleration and velocity are both negative, the object is speeding up.
The word deceleration has the connotation of slowing down.
 This word will not be used in the text.

𝑎𝑎. 𝑉𝑉 > 0 → 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢

𝑎𝑎. 𝑉𝑉 < 0 → 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Section 2.4
Motion Diagrams
A motion diagram can be formed by imagining the stroboscope photograph of
a moving object.
Red arrows represent velocity. Purple
arrows represent acceleration.

Section 2.5
Constant Velocity

Images are equally spaced.

The car is moving with constant positive velocity (shown by red arrows
maintaining the same size).
Acceleration equals zero.

Section 2.5
Acceleration and Velocity, 3

Images become farther apart as time increases.

Velocity and acceleration are in the same direction.
Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same length).
Velocity is increasing (red arrows are getting longer).
This shows positive acceleration and positive velocity.

Section 2.5
Acceleration and Velocity, 4

Images become closer together as time increases.

Acceleration and velocity are in opposite directions.
Acceleration is uniform (violet arrows maintain the same length).
Velocity is decreasing (red arrows are getting shorter).
Positive velocity and negative acceleration.

Section 2.5
Acceleration and Velocity, final
In all the previous cases, the acceleration was constant.
 Shown by the violet arrows all maintaining the same length
The diagrams represent motion of a particle under constant acceleration.
A particle under constant acceleration is another useful analysis model.

Section 2.5
Kinematic Equations
The kinematic equations can be used with any particle under uniform
acceleration.
The kinematic equations may be used to solve any problem involving one-
dimensional motion with a constant acceleration.
You may need to use two of the equations to solve one problem.
Many times there is more than one way to solve a problem.

Section 2.6
Kinematic Equations, 1
For constant ax,
v xf = v xi + ax t
Can determine an object’s velocity at any time t when we know its initial
velocity and its acceleration
 Assumes ti = 0 and tf = t
Does not give any information about displacement
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 → 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → � 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 =0
→ 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 −𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 →

𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

� 𝑑𝑑𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = 0, 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ∶ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

→ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡 = 0: 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 → 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

Section 2.6
Kinematic Equations, 2

For constant acceleration,

=
v xi + v xf
v x,avg
2

The average velocity can be expressed as the arithmetic mean of the initial and
final velocities.
 This applies only in situations where the acceleration is constant.

Section 2.6
Kinematic Equations, 3

For constant acceleration,

1 (v
xf = xi + x,avg
v t = x i + xi + V fx )t
2
This gives you the position of the particle in terms of time and velocities.
Doesn’t give you the acceleration 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = → 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 =0

𝑡𝑡 2
→ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
2

1
→ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
2
Section 2.6
Kinematic Equations, 4
For constant acceleration,

1
xf = xi + v xi t + axt 2
2
Gives final position in terms of velocity and acceleration
Doesn’t tell you about final velocity

Section 2.6
Kinematic Equations, 5
For constant a,
vxf2 = v 2 + 2a (x − x )
xi x f i

Gives final velocity in terms of acceleration and displacement

Does not give any information about the time 1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
2
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 1 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 − 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
2
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 − 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
→ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 −𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
→ 𝑡𝑡 = 1 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 − 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 2 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 − 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
→ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
2 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥2 − 2𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2 + 2𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2
→ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 =
2𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2 = 2𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥2
→ 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 =
2𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥

Section 2.6
When a = 0
When the acceleration is zero,
 vxf = vxi = vx
 xf = xi + vx t
The constant acceleration model reduces to the constant velocity model.

𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 → 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 → 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 → 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
2
→ 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Section 2.6
Kinematic Equations – summary

Section 2.6
Graphical Look at Motion: Displacement – Time curve
The slope of the curve is the velocity.
The curved line indicates the velocity is
changing.
 Therefore, there is an acceleration.

1
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖
2

Section 2.6
Graphical Look at Motion: Velocity – Time curve
The slope gives the acceleration.
The straight line indicates a constant
acceleration.

𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

Section 2.6
Graphical Look at Motion: Acceleration – Time curve
The zero slope indicates a constant
acceleration.

𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Section 2.6
Chapter 2
Rotation of a Rigid Object
about a Fixed Axis
Rigid Object

Analysis models introduced so far cannot be used to analyze all motion.

We can model the motion of an extended object by modeling it as a system of
many particles.
 The analysis is simplified if the object is assumed to be a rigid object.
A rigid object is one that is non-deformable.
 The relative locations of all particles making up the object remain constant.
 All real objects are deformable to some extent, but the rigid object model is
very useful in many situations where the deformation is negligible.
In this chapter another class of analysis models based on the rigid-object model
are developed.

Introduction
Angular Position

Axis of rotation is the center of the disc

Choose a fixed reference line.
Point P is at a fixed distance r from the
origin.
 A small element of the disc can be
modeled as a particle at P.
Polar coordinates are convenient to use
to represent the position of P (or any
other point).
P is located at (r, θ) where r is the
distance from the origin to P and θ is
the measured counterclockwise from
the reference line.

Section 10.1
Angular Position, cont.

As the particle moves, the only

coordinate that changes is θ.
As the particle moves through θ, it
moves though an arc length s.
The arc length and r are related:
 s=θr

Section 10.1
Radian
This can also be expressed as:

s
θ=
r
θ is a pure number, but commonly is given the artificial unit, radian.
One radian is the angle subtended by an arc length equal to the radius of the arc.
Whenever using rotational equations, you must use angles expressed in radians.

Section 10.1
Conversions

Comparing degrees and radians

360°
=
1 rad = 57.3°
2π
Converting from degrees to radians
π
θ ( rad ) = θ ( degrees )
180°

Section 10.1
Angular Position, final
We can associate the angle θ with the entire rigid object as well as with an
individual particle.
 Remember every particle on the object rotates through the same angle.
The angular position of the rigid object is the angle θ between the reference line
on the object and the fixed reference line in space.
 The fixed reference line in space is often the x-axis.
The angle θ plays the same role in rotational motion that the position x does in
translational motion.

Section 10.1
Angular Displacement

The angular displacement is defined as

the angle the object rotates through
during some time interval.
∆θ = θ f − θ i
This is the angle that the reference line
of length r sweeps out.

Section 10.1
Average Angular Speed

The average angular speed, ωavg, of a rotating rigid object is the ratio of the
angular displacement to the time interval.

θf − θ i ∆θ
ωavg
= =
tf − t i ∆t

Section 10.1
Angular Speed

The instantaneous angular speed is defined as the limit of the average speed as
the time interval approaches zero.

∆θ dθ
ω≡ lim
∆t →0 =
∆t dt
This is analogous to translational speed.
Units of angular speed are radians/sec.
 rad/s or s-1 since radians have no dimensions.
Angular speed will be positive if θ is increasing (counterclockwise)
Angular speed will be negative if θ is decreasing (clockwise)

Section 10.1
Angular Acceleration

The average angular acceleration, α avg, of an object is defined as the ratio of the
change in the angular speed to the time it takes for the object to undergo the
change.
ωf − ωi ∆ω
α avg
= =
tf − t i ∆t
The instantaneous angular acceleration is defined as the limit of the average
angular acceleration as the time goes to 0.
∆ω dω
α≡ lim
∆t →0 =
∆t dt

Section 10.1
Angular Acceleration, cont.

Analogous to translational acceleration

Units of angular acceleration are rad/s² or s-2 since radians have no dimensions.
Angular acceleration will be positive if an object rotating counterclockwise is
speeding up.
Angular acceleration will also be positive if an object rotating clockwise is slowing
down.

Section 10.1
Angular Motion, General Notes

When a rigid object rotates about a fixed axis in a given time interval, every
portion on the object rotates through the same angle in a given time interval and
has the same angular speed and the same angular acceleration.
 So θ, ω, α all characterize the motion of the entire rigid object as well as the
individual particles in the object.

Section 10.1
Directions, details

Strictly speaking, the speed and

acceleration (ω, α) are the magnitudes
of the velocity and acceleration vectors.
The directions are actually given by the
right-hand rule.

Section 10.1
Hints for Problem-Solving
Similar to the techniques used in linear motion problems.
 With constant angular acceleration, the techniques are much like those with
constant linear acceleration.
There are some differences to keep in mind.
 For rotational motion, define a rotational axis.
 The choice is arbitrary.
 Once you make the choice, it must be maintained.
 In some problems, the physical situation may suggest a natural axis.
 The object keeps returning to its original orientation, so you can find the
number of revolutions made by the body.

Section 10.2
Rotational Kinematics

Under constant angular acceleration, we can describe the motion of the rigid
object using a set of kinematic equations.
 These are similar to the kinematic equations for linear motion.
 The rotational equations have the same mathematical form as the linear
equations.
The new model is a rigid object under constant angular acceleration.
 Analogous to the particle under constant acceleration model.

Section 10.2
Rotational Kinematic Equations

The kinematic expression for the rigid

object under constant angular
acceleration are of the same
ω=
f ωi + α t
mathematical form as those for a 1
particle under constant acceleration. θf =θ i + ωi t + α t 2
2
Substitutions from translational to
ωi2 + 2α (θf − θ i )
ωf2 =
rotational are
1
 x→θ θf =+θi (ωi + ωf ) t
 v→ω
2
all with consant α
 a→α

Section 10.2
Comparison Between Rotational and Linear Equations

Section 10.2
Section 10.2
Relationship Between Angular and Linear Quantities

Every point on the rotating object has the same angular motion.
Every point on the rotating object does not have the same linear motion.
Displacements
 s=θr
Speeds
 v=ωr
Accelerations
 a=αr

Section 10.3
Speed Comparison – Details

The linear velocity is always tangent to

the circular path.
 Called the tangential velocity
The magnitude is defined by the
tangential speed.

ds dθ
=
v = r = rω
dt dt
Since r is not the same for all points on
the object, the tangential speed of
every point is not the same.
The tangential speed increases as one
moves outward from the center of
rotation.

Section 10.3
Acceleration Comparison – Details

The tangential acceleration is the

derivative of the tangential velocity.
dv dω
=
at = r = rα
dt dt

Section 10.3
Speed and Acceleration Note

All points on the rigid object will have the same angular speed, but not the same
tangential speed.
All points on the rigid object will have the same angular acceleration, but not the
same tangential acceleration.
The tangential quantities depend on r, and r is not the same for all points on the
object.

Section 10.3
Centripetal Acceleration

An object traveling in a circle, even though it moves with a constant speed, will
have an acceleration.
 Therefore, each point on a rotating rigid object will experience a centripetal
acceleration.
v2
a=
C = r ω 2

Section 10.3
Resultant Acceleration

The tangential component of the acceleration is due to changing speed.

The centripetal component of the acceleration is due to changing direction.
Total acceleration can be found from these components:

a= at2 + ar2 = r 2α 2 + r 2ω 4 = r α 2 + ω 4

Section 10.3
Section 10.2
Section 10.2
Uniform circular Motion:
A particles is in uniform circular motion it moves on a
circular path of radius r with constant speed v . Even
though the speed is constant, the velocity is not. The
reason is that the direction of the velocity vector changes
from point to point along the path. The fact that the
velocity changes means that the acceleration is not zero.
The acceleration in uniform circular motion has the
following characteristics:
1. Its vector points towards the center C of the circular
v2
path, thus the name “centripetal”
a=
2. Its magnitude a is given by the equation: r
Q The time T it takes to complete a full
r
revolution is known as the “period”. It
C r is given by the equation:
P
r
2π r
R T=
v
 y x
v= ( −v sin θ ) iˆ + ( v cos θ ) ˆj
vx iˆ + v y ˆj = sin θ =P cosθ =P
r r
Here xP and yP are the coordinates of the rotating particle

  y P  ˆ  xP  ˆ  dv  v dyP  ˆ  v dxP ˆ
v=  −v  i +  v  j Acceleration a = = − i +  j
 r   r  dt  r dt   r dt 
dyP dxP
We note that: = v y = v cos θ and = vx = −v sin θ
dt dt
  v2  ˆ  v2 ˆ v2 v2
a =  − cos θ  i +  − sin θ  j a = ax + a y = ( cos θ ) + ( sin θ ) =
2 2 2 2

 r   r  r r
a y − ( v / r ) sin θ
2

tan φ = = = tan θ → φ = θ → a points towards C
ax − ( v / r ) cos θ
2

vx = −v sin θ P
v y = v cos θ
C A C

( cos θ ) + ( sin θ ) =
2 2
1
Circular Motion: Position, Velocity and Acceleration in polar coordinates
Circular Motion: Position, Velocity and Acceleration in polar coordinates

𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 =
𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 =
𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁: = 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
̇ 𝜃𝜃
= 𝜃𝜃𝑢𝑢
Circular Motion: Position, Velocity and Acceleration in polar coordinates

= 𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃̇
Circular Motion: Tangential and Radial Acceleration
Circular Motion: Tangential and Radial Acceleration
Circular Motion: Tangential and Radial Acceleration

= 𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃̈
Circular Motion: Tangential and Radial Acceleration

= −𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃̇ 2

𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃̇ → 𝜃𝜃̇ =
𝑟𝑟
𝑣𝑣 2
→ 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 = −
𝑟𝑟

𝑎𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢𝜃𝜃 = −𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃̇ 2 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝑢𝑢

̈ 𝜃𝜃
𝑣𝑣 2
= − 𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟𝜃𝜃𝑢𝑢 ̈ 𝜃𝜃
𝑟𝑟
Rotational Kinetic Energy
An object rotating about some axis with an angular speed, ω, has rotational
kinetic energy even though it may not have any translational kinetic energy.
Each particle has a kinetic energy of
 Ki = ½ mivi2
Since the tangential velocity depends on the distance, r, from the axis of rotation,
we can substitute vi = ωi r.

Section 10.4
Rotational Kinetic Energy, cont
The total rotational kinetic energy of the rigid object is the sum of the energies of
all its particles.
1
=
KR ∑
=
i
Ki ∑i 2 mi ri 2ω 2
1 2 2 1 2
KR = ∑ i i 
2  i
m r ω
2
Iω

I is called the moment of inertia.

Section 10.4
Rotational Kinetic Energy, final

There is an analogy between the kinetic energies associated with linear motion (K
= ½ mv 2) and the kinetic energy associated with rotational motion (KR= ½ Iω2).
Rotational kinetic energy is not a new type of energy, the form is different because
it is applied to a rotating object.
The units of rotational kinetic energy are Joules (J).

Section 10.4
Moment of Inertia

The definition of moment of inertia is

I = ∑ ri 2mi
i

The dimensions of moment of inertia are ML2 and its SI units are kg.m2.
We can calculate the moment of inertia of an object more easily by assuming it is
divided into many small volume elements, each of mass ∆mi.
Mass is an inherent property of an object, but the moment of inertia depends on
the choice of rotational axis.
Moment of inertia is a measure of the resistance of an object to changes in its
rotational motion, similar to mass being a measure of an object’s resistance to
changes in its translational motion.
 The moment of inertia depends on the mass and how the mass is distributed
around the rotational axis.

Section 10.5
Moment of Inertia, cont
The moment of inertia of a system of discrete particles can be calculated by
applying the definition for I.
For a continuous rigid object, imagine the object to be divided into many small
elements, each having a mass of Δmi.
We can rewrite the expression for I in terms of ∆m.
=I lim
∆mi →0 ∑r =
i
∆m ∫ r
i
2
i
2
dm
With the small volume segment assumption,
I = ∫ ρ r 2dV
If ρ is constant, the integral can be evaluated with known geometry, otherwise its
variation with position must be known.

Section 10.5
Notes on Various Densities
Volumetric Mass Density → mass per unit volume: ρ = m / V
Surface Mass Density → mass per unit thickness of a sheet of uniform thickness,
t:σ=ρt
Linear Mass Density → mass per unit length of a rod of uniform cross-sectional
area: λ = m / L = ρ Α

Section 10.5
Section 10.2
Section 10.2
Moments of Inertia of Various Rigid Objects

Section 10.5
Moment of Inertia of a Uniform Rigid Rod

The shaded area has a mass

 dm = λ dx’
Then the moment of inertia is
L /2 M
=Iy ∫=
r 2dm ∫
− L /2
x '2
L
dx '

1
I= ML2
12

Section 10.5
Section 10.2
Section 10.2
Parallel-Axis Theorem
In the previous examples, the axis of rotation coincided with the axis of symmetry
of the object.
For an arbitrary axis, the parallel-axis theorem often simplifies calculations.
The theorem states I = ICM + MD 2
 I is about any axis parallel to the axis through the center of mass of the
object.
 ICM is about the axis through the center of mass.
 D is the distance from the center of mass axis to the arbitrary axis.

Section 10.5
Section 10.2
Torque

Torque, τ, is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about some axis.

 Torque is a vector, but we will deal with its magnitude here:
 τ = r F sin φ = F d
 F is the force
 φ is the angle the force makes with the horizontal
 d is the moment arm (or lever arm) of the force

 There is no unique value of the torque on an object.

 Its value depends on the choice of a rotational axis.

Section 10.6
Torque, cont

The moment arm, d, is the perpendicular

distance from the axis of rotation to a line
drawn along the direction of the force.
 d = r sin Φ
The horizontal component of the force (F
cos φ) has no tendency to produce a
rotation.
Torque will have direction.
 If the turning tendency of the force is
counterclockwise, the torque will be
positive.
 If the turning tendency is clockwise,
the torque will be negative.

Section 10.6
Net Torque

The force F1will tend to cause a
counterclockwise rotation about O.

The force F2 will tend to cause a
clockwise rotation about O.
Στ = τ1 + τ2 = F1d1 – F2d2

Section 10.6
Torque vs. Force

Forces can cause a change in translational motion.

 Described by Newton’s Second Law
Torques can cause a change in rotational motion.
 The effectiveness of this change depends on the force and the moment arm.
 The change in rotational motion depends on the torque.

Section 10.6
Torque Units

The SI units of torque are N.m.

 Although torque is a force multiplied by a distance, it is very different from
work and energy.
 The units for torque are reported in N.m and not changed to Joules.

Section 10.6
Section 10.2
Torque and Angular Acceleration

Consider a particle of mass m rotating

in a circle of radius r under the
influence of tangential force .
The tangential force provides a
tangential acceleration:
 Ft = mat
The radial force causes the particle to
move in a circular path.

Section 10.7
Torque and Angular Acceleration, Particle cont.

The magnitude of the torque produced by ∑ Ft on a particle about an axis
through the center of the circle is
 Στ = ΣFt r = (mat) r
The tangential acceleration is related to the angular acceleration.
 Στ = (mat) r = (mrα) r = (mr 2) α
Since mr 2 is the moment of inertia of the particle,
 Στ = Iα
 The torque is directly proportional to the angular acceleration and the
constant of proportionality is the moment of inertia.

Section 10.7
Torque and Angular Acceleration, Extended
Consider the object consists of an
infinite number of mass elements dm of
infinitesimal size.
Each mass element rotates in a circle
about the origin, O.
Each mass element has a tangential
acceleration.
From Newton’s Second Law
 dFt = (dm) at
The torque associated with the force
and using the angular acceleration
gives
 dτ ext = r dFt = atr dm = αr 2 dm

Section 10.7
Torque and Angular Acceleration, Extended cont.
Finding the net torque
∑τ ext
= ∫=
α r dm
2
α ∫ r 2dm
 This becomes Στ = Ια
This is the same relationship that applied to a particle.
This is the mathematic representation of the analysis model of a rigid body
under a net torque.
The result also applies when the forces have radial components.
 The line of action of the radial component must pass through the axis of
rotation.
 These components will produce zero torque about the axis.

Section 10.7
Falling Smokestack Example

When a tall smokestack falls over, it

often breaks somewhere along its
length before it hits the ground.
Each higher portion of the smokestack
has a larger tangential acceleration
than the points below it.
The shear force due to the tangential
acceleration is greater than the
smokestack can withstand.
The smokestack breaks.

Section 10.7
Section 10.2
Torque and Angular Acceleration, Wheel Example
Two analysis models need to be
applied.
 The object is modeled as a particle
under a net force.
 The wheel is modeled as a rigid
object under a net torque .
The wheel is rotating and so we apply
Στ = Ια.
 The tension supplies the tangential
force.
The mass is moving in a straight line,
so apply Newton’s Second Law.
 ΣFy = may = mg - T

Section 10.7
Section 10.2
Section 10.2
Work in Rotational Motion

Find the work done by F on the object
as it rotates through an infinitesimal
distance ds = r dθ.
 
dW = F ds
= ( F sin φ ) r dθ
The radial component of the force does
no work because it is perpendicular to
the displacement.

Section 10.8
Power in Rotational Motion

The rate at which work is being done in a time interval dt is

dW dθ
Power= P= = τ = τω
dt dt
This is analogous to P = Fv in a linear system.

Section 10.8
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem in Rotational Motion

The work-kinetic energy theorem for rotational motion states that the net work
done by external forces in rotating a symmetrical rigid object about a fixed axis
equals the change in the object’s rotational kinetic energy.
ωf 1 2 1 2
∑
= W ∫ωi
Iω=
dω
2
Iωf − Iωi
2

Section 10.8
Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem, General

The rotational form can be combined with the linear form which indicates the net
work done by external forces on an object is the change in its total kinetic
energy, which is the sum of the translational and rotational kinetic energies.

Section 10.8
Summary of Useful Equations

Section 10.8
Section 10.2
Section 10.2
Energy in an Atwood Machine, Example
The system containing the two blocks,
the pulley, and the Earth is an isolated
system in terms of energy with no non-
conservative forces acting.
The mechanical energy of the system is
conserved.
The blocks undergo changes in
translational kinetic energy and
gravitational potential energy.
The pulley undergoes a change in
rotational kinetic energy.

Section 10.8
Section 10.2
Chapter 3
Oscillatory motion – Part 1
Part 1 – Oscillations

Periodic motion is the repeating motion of an object in which it continues to return

to a given position after a fixed time interval.
The repetitive movements are called oscillations.
A special case of periodic motion called simple harmonic motion will be the focus.
 Simple harmonic motion also forms the basis for understanding mechanical
waves.
Oscillations and waves also explain many other phenomena quantity.
 Oscillations of bridges and skyscrapers
 Radio and television
 Understanding atomic theory

Section Introduction
Periodic Motion
Periodic motion is motion of an object that regularly returns to a given position
after a fixed time interval.
A special kind of periodic motion occurs in mechanical systems when the force
acting on the object is proportional to the position of the object relative to some
equilibrium position.

 If the force is always directed toward the equilibrium position, the

motion is called simple harmonic motion.

Introduction
Motion of a Spring-Mass System

A block of mass m is attached to a

spring, the block is free to move on a
frictionless horizontal surface.
When the spring is neither stretched
nor compressed, the block is at the
equilibrium position.
 x=0
Such a system will oscillate back and
forth if disturbed from its equilibrium
position.

Section 15.1
Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s Law states Fs = - kx

 Fs is the restoring force.
 It is always directed toward the equilibrium position.
 Therefore, it is always opposite the displacement from equilibrium.

 k is the force (spring) constant in (N/m)

 x is the displacement in (m).

Section 15.1
Restoring Force and the Spring Mass System

In a, the block is displaced to the right

of x = 0.
 The position is positive.
 The restoring force is directed to
the left.
In b, the block is at the equilibrium
position.
 x=0
 The spring is neither stretched nor
compressed.
 The force is 0.

Section 15.1
Restoring Force, cont.

The block is displaced to the left of x =

0.
 The position is negative.
 The restoring force is directed to
the right.

Section 15.1
Acceleration 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑁𝑁 + 𝐹𝐹⃗𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎⃗ → 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥

When the block is displaced from the equilibrium point and released, it is a
particle under a net force and therefore has an acceleration.
The force described by Hooke’s Law is the net force in Newton’s Second Law.

−kx =
max
k
ax = − x
m

The acceleration is proportional to the displacement of the block.

The direction of the acceleration is opposite the direction of the displacement
from equilibrium.
An object moves with simple harmonic motion whenever its acceleration is
proportional to its position and is oppositely directed to the displacement from
equilibrium.

Section 15.1
Acceleration, cont.
The acceleration is not constant.
 Therefore, the kinematic equations cannot be applied.
 If the block is released from some position x = A, then the initial acceleration
is –kA/m.
 When the block passes through the equilibrium position, a = 0.
 The block continues to x = -A where its acceleration is +kA/m.

Section 15.1
Motion of the Block

The block continues to oscillate between –A and +A.

 These are turning points of the motion.
The force is conservative.
In the absence of friction, the motion will continue forever.
 Real systems are generally subject to friction, so they do not actually
oscillate forever.

Section 15.1
Analysis Model: A Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion

Model the block as a particle.

 The representation will be particle in simple harmonic motion model.
Choose x as the axis along which the oscillation occurs.
Acceleration

d 2x k 𝑘𝑘
a= = − x → 𝑥𝑥 ′′ + 𝑥𝑥 = 0
dt 2
m 𝑚𝑚
We let
k
ω =
2

m
Then a = -ω2x

Section 15.2
A Particle in Simple Harmonic Motion, 2

A function that satisfies the equation is needed.

 Need a function x(t) whose second derivative is the same as the original
function with a negative sign and multiplied by ω2.
 The sine and cosine functions meet these requirements.

Section 15.2
Simple Harmonic Motion – Graphical Representation

A solution is x(t) = A cos (ω t + φ)

A, ω, φ are all constants
A cosine curve can be used to give
physical significance to these
constants.

Section 15.2
Simple Harmonic Motion – Definitions

A is the amplitude of the motion.

 This is the maximum position of the particle in either the positive or negative
x direction.
ω is called the angular frequency.
 Units are rad/s
k
 ω=
m
φ is the phase constant or the initial phase angle.

Section 15.2
Simple Harmonic Motion, cont.

A and φ are determined uniquely by the position and velocity of the particle at t =
0.
 If the particle is at x = A at t = 0, then φ = 0
The phase of the motion is the quantity (ωt + φ).
x (t) is periodic and its value is the same each time ωt increases by 2π radians.

Section 15.2
Period
The period , T, of the motion is the time interval required for the particle to go
through one full cycle of its motion.
 The values of x and v for the particle at time t equal the values of x and v at t
+ T.
2π
T =
ω
Proof: 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇
𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚 cos 𝜔𝜔 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇 + 𝜙𝜙
= 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)
The cosine function is periodic of period 2π
→ 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 + 2𝜋𝜋 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙
2𝜋𝜋
→ 𝜔𝜔𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋 → 𝜔𝜔 =
𝑇𝑇
Section 15.2
Frequency
The inverse of the period is called the frequency.
The frequency represents the number of oscillations that the particle undergoes
per unit time interval.
1 ω
=
ƒ =
T 2π
Units are cycles per second = hertz (Hz).

Section 15.2
Summary Equations – Period and Frequency

The frequency and period equations can be rewritten to solve for ω.

2π
ω 2=
= πƒ
T
The period and frequency can also be expressed as:
m 1 k
T π
2= ƒ
k 2π m

The frequency and the period depend only on the mass of the particle and the
force constant of the spring.
They do not depend on the parameters of motion.
The frequency is larger for a stiffer spring (large values of k) and decreases with
increasing mass of the particle.

Section 15.2
 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
Motion Equations for Simple Harmonic Motion

x (t ) A cos (ωt + φ )
dx
v= −ω A sin(ω t + φ )
=
dt
d 2x
a= 2
=−ω 2
A cos(ω t + φ ) = −𝜔𝜔2 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡)
dt

Simple harmonic motion is one-dimensional and so directions can be denoted by

+ or - sign.
Remember, simple harmonic motion is not uniformly accelerated motion.
Section 15.2
Maximum Values of v and a

Because the sine and cosine functions oscillate between ±1, we can easily find
the maximum values of velocity and acceleration for an object in SHM.
k
= ω=
v max A A
m
k
a=
max ω=2
A A
m

Section 15.2
 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙
Graphs

The graphs show:

 (a) displacement as a function
of time
 (b) velocity as a function of
time
 (c ) acceleration as a function
of time
The velocity is 90o out of phase with
the displacement and the
acceleration is 180o out of phase
with the displacement.

Section 15.2
 SHM Example 1

Initial conditions at t = 0 are

 x (0)= A
 v (0) = 0
→ 𝑥𝑥 0 = 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜙𝜙
→ 𝑣𝑣 0 = 0 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔(𝜙𝜙)
→ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 1 & 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 0

→ This means φ = 0
The acceleration reaches extremes of
± ω2A at ±A.
The velocity reaches extremes of ± ωA
at x = 0.

Section 15.2
SHM Example 2

Initial conditions at t = 0 are

 x (0)=0
 v (0) = vi

→ 𝑥𝑥 0 = 0 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝜙𝜙
→ 𝑣𝑣 0 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝜙𝜙
𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖
→ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = −
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
→ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 0 → 𝜙𝜙 = ±π/2
& 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖>0 → φ = − π / 2
→ 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The graph is shifted one-quarter cycle
to the right compared to the graph of x
(0) = A.

Section 15.2
Energy of the SHM Oscillator

Mechanical energy is associated with a system in which a particle undergoes

simple harmonic motion.
 For a spring-mass characterized by (k,m) system is moving on a frictionless
surface. Because the surface is frictionless, the system is isolated.
→ This tells us the total energy is constant.
 The kinetic energy: K = ½ mv 2 = ½ mω2 A2 sin2 (ωt + φ)
 The elastic potential energy: U = ½ kx 2 = ½ kA2 cos2 (ωt + φ)
 The total energy is 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑈𝑈 = ½ mω2 A2 sin2 (ωt + φ) + ½ kA2 cos2 (ωt + φ)
𝑘𝑘 1
 But 𝜔𝜔2 = → 𝑚𝑚𝜔𝜔2 = 𝑘𝑘 → 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 (𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)
𝑚𝑚 2

 The total energy is: E = K + U = ½ kA 2 = constant

Section 15.3
Energy of the SHM Oscillator, cont.
In the diagram, Φ = 0
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
The total mechanical energy is constant.
 At all times, the total energy is
½ k A2
The total mechanical energy is
proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
Energy is continuously being transferred
between potential energy stored in the
spring and the kinetic energy of the
block.

1
𝑇𝑇𝐸𝐸 = 𝑇𝑇
2 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

.
Section 15.3
 Energy of the SHM Oscillator, final
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝐾𝐾 + 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

1 1
→ 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2 + 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2 = cst
2 2

𝑑𝑑(𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀)
→ =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
→ 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 ′ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 ′ = 0

𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑣𝑣 & 𝑣𝑣 ′ = 𝑥𝑥 ′′ = 𝑎𝑎
Variations of K and U can also be
→ 𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥 ′′ + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 0 ∀ 𝑥𝑥 ′ observed with respect to position.

𝑘𝑘 The energy is continually being

𝑘𝑘
→ 𝑥𝑥 ′′ + 𝑥𝑥 = 0 With 𝜔𝜔2 = transformed between potential energy
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 stored in the spring and the kinetic
energy of the block.
Solution of the diff. eq. of 2nd order
The total energy remains the same
=x(t ) xm cos (ωt + φ )
Section 15.3
Energy in SHM, summary

Section 15.3
Velocity at a Given Position

Energy can be used to find the velocity:

1 1 1
E = K +U = mv 2 + kx 2 = kA2
2 2 2

v=
±
k
m
(
A2 − x 2 )
±ω 2 A2 − x 2
=

Section 15.3
Importance of Simple Harmonic Oscillators

Simple harmonic oscillators are good

models of a wide variety of physical
phenomena.
Molecular example
 If the atoms in the molecule do not
move too far, the forces between
them can be modeled as if there
were springs between the atoms.
 The potential energy acts similar to
that of the SHM oscillator.

Section 15.3
Chapter 3
Oscillatory motion – Part 2
SHM and Circular Motion

This is an overhead view of an

experimental arrangement that shows
the relationship between SHM and
circular motion.
As the turntable rotates with constant
angular speed, the ball’s shadow
moves back and forth in simple
harmonic motion.

Section 15.4
SHM and Circular Motion, 2

The circle is called a reference circle.

 For comparing simple harmonic
motion and uniform circular motion.
Take P at t = 0 as the reference
position.
Line OP makes an angle φ with the x
axis at t = 0.

Section 15.4
SHM and Circular Motion, 3
The particle moves along the circle of
radius A with constant angular velocity
ω.
OP makes an angle θ with the x axis.
At some time, the angle between OP
and the x axis will be θ = ωt + φ.
The points P and Q always have the
same x coordinate.
x (t) = A cos (θ) =A cos (ωt + φ)
This shows that point Q moves with
simple harmonic motion along the x
axis.
Q is the projection of P on the diameter
of the circle
Section 15.4
SHM and Circular Motion, 4

The angular speed of P is the same as the

angular frequency of simple harmonic motion
along the x axis.
The speed of P is tangent to the circle
And given by: 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 ′ = 𝐴𝐴𝜔𝜔 θ

Point Q has the same velocity as the x

component of point P → 𝑣𝑣𝑄𝑄 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥,𝑃𝑃 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
θ
The x-component of the velocity is
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = −𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝜃𝜃 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)
v = -ω A sin (ω t + φ)

Section 15.4
SHM and Circular Motion, 5
The acceleration of point P on the
reference circle is directed radially
inward.
P ’s acceleration is a = Rθ ′ 2 = ω2A
The x component of the acceleration is
ax = -a cos(θ) = –ω2 A cos (ωt + φ)
This is also the acceleration of point Q
along the x axis. θ

Section 15.4
Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum also exhibits periodic motion.

It consists of a particle-like bob of mass m suspended by a light string of length L.
The motion occurs in the vertical plane and is driven by gravitational force.
The motion is very close to that of the SHM oscillator.
 If the angle is <10o

Section 15.5
Simple Pendulum, 2

The forces acting on the bob are the

tension and the weight.

 T is the force exerted on the bob by
the string.

 mg is the gravitational force.
The tangential component of the
gravitational force is a restoring force.

Section 15.5
Simple Pendulum, 3

In the tangential direction,

Where the arc S is equal to Lθ
d 2s 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃
= θ m 2
Ft mat → −mg sin= → 2 = 𝐿𝐿 2 = 𝐿𝐿𝜃𝜃 ′′
dt 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The length, L, of the pendulum is constant, and for small values of θ → 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≅ 𝜃𝜃.
d 2θ g g 𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃 𝑔𝑔
2
=
− sin θ =
− θ → 2 + 𝜃𝜃 = 0 → 𝜃𝜃 ′′ + 𝜔𝜔2 𝜃𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐿𝐿
dt L L
This confirms the mathematical form of the motion is the same as for SHM.

Section 15.5
Simple Pendulum, 4

The function θ can be written as θ = θmax cos (ωt + φ).

The angular frequency is
g
ω=
L
The period is

2π L
=
T = 2π
ω g

Section 15.5
In the small angle approximation we assumed that θ << < and used the
approximation: sinθ ≅ θ We are now going to decide what is a “small”
angle i.e. up to what angle θ is the approximation reasonably
accurate?

θ (degrees) θ(radians) sinθ

5 0.087 0.087
10 0.174 0.174
15 0.262 0.259 (1% off)
20 0.349 0.342 (2% off)

Conclusion: If we keep θ < 10 ° we make less that 1 % error

11
 Simple pendulum - continue

The rotational inertia I of a simple pendulum

About the pivot point is equal to mL 2

Thus :

L
T = 2π
g

12
Simple Pendulum, Summary
The period and frequency of a simple pendulum depend only on the length of the
string and the acceleration due to gravity.
The period is independent of the mass.
All simple pendula that are of equal length and are at the same location oscillate
with the same period.

Section 15.5
Physical Pendulum, 1

If a hanging object oscillates about a

fixed axis that does not pass through
the center of mass and the object
cannot be approximated as a point
mass, the system is called a physical
pendulum.
 It cannot be treated as a simple
pendulum.
The gravitational force provides a
torque about an axis through O.
The magnitude of the torque is
m g d sin θ

Section 15.5
Physical Pendulum, 2

I is the moment of inertia about the axis through O.

From Newton’s Second Law,
d 2θ
−mgd sinθ =
I 2
dt
The gravitational force produces a restoring force.
Assuming θ is small, this becomes
d 2θ  mgd 
=
−   θ =
−ω 2
θ
 I 
2
dt

Note: 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼/𝑂𝑂 = 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐.𝑜𝑜.𝑚𝑚 + 𝑚𝑚𝑑𝑑 2

Section 15.5
Physical Pendulum, 3

This equation is of the same mathematical form as an object in simple harmonic

motion.
The solution is that of the simple harmonic oscillator.
The angular frequency is

mgd
ω=
I
The period is
2π I
=
T = 2π
ω mgd

Section 15.5
Physical Pendulum, 4
A physical pendulum can be used to measure the moment of inertia of a flat rigid
object.
 If you know d, you can find I by measuring the period.
If I = m d2 then the physical pendulum is the same as a simple pendulum.
 The mass is all concentrated at the center of mass.

Section 15.5
Physical Pendulum, 5

= constant
Physical Pendulum, 6
Torsional Pendulum

Assume a rigid object is suspended from a wire attached at its top to a fixed
support.
The twisted wire exerts a restoring torque on the object that is proportional to its
angular position.

Section 15.5
 Torsional Pendulum

Assume a rigid object is suspended from a

wire attached at its top to a fixed support.
The twisted wire exerts a restoring torque
on the object that is proportional to its
angular position.
The restoring torque is τ = −κ θ.= −𝐶𝐶𝜃𝜃
 κ is the torsion constant of the support
wire.
Newton’s Second Law gives

d 2θ
τ= Iα → −κθ= I 2
dt
d 2θ κ 𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃 𝜅𝜅
= − θ → + 𝜃𝜃 = 0
dt 2
I 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝐼𝐼 Section 15.5
Torsional Pendulum
Torsional Period, cont.
The torque equation produces a motion equation for simple harmonic motion.
The angular frequency is
κ
ω=
I
The period is
I
T = 2π
κ
 No small-angle restriction is necessary.
 Assumes the elastic limit of the wire is not exceeded.

Section 15.5
Damped Oscillations

In many real systems, non-conservative forces are present.

 This is no longer an ideal system (the type we have dealt with so far).
 Friction and air resistance are common non-conservative forces.
In this case, the mechanical energy of the system diminishes in time, the motion
is said to be damped.

Section 15.6
Damped Oscillation, Example
One example of damped motion occurs
when an object is attached to a spring
and submerged in a viscous liquid.
The retarding force can be expressed
as
 
R = − bv = 𝑓𝑓⃗
 b is a constant
 b is called the damping 𝑓𝑓⃗ 𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠
coefficient
𝑁𝑁
𝑊𝑊

𝑓𝑓⃗

𝑊𝑊
Section 15.6
Damped Oscillations, Equations
From Newton’s Second Law
𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑘𝑘
ΣFx = -k x – bvx = max → 𝑥𝑥 ′′ + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 =0
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
When the friction force is small compared to the maximum restoring force we
can determine the expression for x.
 This occurs when b is small.
The position can be described by
x Ae
(
− b
2m )t cos(ωt + φ )
The angular frequency will be
2
k  b 
ω
= −
m  2m 

Section 15.6
Damped Oscillations, Graph

A graph for a damped oscillation.

The amplitude decreases with time.
The blue dashed lines represent the
envelope of the motion.

The restoring force is – kx.

The friction force given by 𝑓𝑓⃗ = −𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣⃗

Section 15.6
Damped Oscillations, Equations (2)
Damped Oscillations, Natural Frequency
When the retarding force is small, the oscillatory character of the motion is
preserved, but the amplitude decreases exponentially with time.
The motion ultimately ceases.
Another form for the angular frequency:
2
 b 
ω
= ω02 −  
 2m 
 where ω0 is the angular frequency in the absence of the retarding force and
is called the natural frequency of the system.

 𝜔𝜔0 = 𝐾𝐾⁄
𝑚𝑚

Section 15.6
Types of Damping

If the restoring force is such that b/2m < ωo, the system is said to be
underdamped.
When b reaches a critical value bc such that bc / 2 m = ω0 , the system will not
oscillate.
 The system is said to be critically damped.
If the restoring force is such that b/2m > ωo, the system is said to be
overdamped.

Section 15.6
 Types of Damping, cont

Graphs of position versus time for

 An underdamped oscillator – blue
 A critically damped oscillator – red
 An overdamped oscillator – black
For critically damped and overdamped
there is no angular frequency.

Section 15.6
 Newton's second law for the damped harmonic oscillator:
d 2x dx
m 2 + b + kx =
0 The solution has the form:
dt dt
=x(t ) xm e − bt / 2 m
cos (ω ′t + φ )

In the picture above we plot x(t ) versus t. We can regard the above solution
as a cosine function with a time-dependent amplitude xm e − bt / 2 m . The angular
frequency ω ′ of the damped harmonic oscillator is given by the equation:
k b2 1 2
ω ′= − 2
For an undamped harmonic oscillator the energy E = kxm
m 4m 2
If the oscillator is damped its energy is not constant but decreases with time.
If the damping is small we can replace xm with xm e − bt / 2 m By doing so we find that:
1 2 − bt / m
E32(t ) ≈ kxm e The mechanical energy decreases exponentially with time
2
Forced Oscillations

It is possible to compensate for the loss of energy in a damped system by

applying a periodic external force.
The amplitude of the motion remains constant if the energy input per cycle
exactly equals the decrease in mechanical energy in each cycle that results from
resistive forces.
After a driving force on an initially stationary object begins to act, the amplitude of
the oscillation will increase.
After a sufficiently long period of time, Edriving = Elost to internal
 Then a steady-state condition is reached.
 The oscillations will proceed with constant amplitude.

Section 15.7
Forced Oscillations, cont.
The equation of the forced oscillation of spring mass-system is given by:
𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑘𝑘 𝐹𝐹
𝑥𝑥 ′′ + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
The amplitude of a driven oscillation is
F0
A= m
 bω 
2

(ω )
2
2
− ω02 + 
m 

 ω0 is the natural frequency of the undamped oscillator.

Section 15.7
Resonance

When the frequency of the driving force is near the natural frequency (ω ≈ ω0) an
increase in amplitude occurs.
This dramatic increase in the amplitude is called resonance.
The natural frequency ω0 is also called the resonance frequency of the system.
At resonance, the applied force is in phase with the velocity and the power
transferred to the oscillator is a maximum.
 The applied force and v are both proportional to sin (ωt + φ).
⃗ 𝑣𝑣⃗
 The power delivered is 𝐹𝐹.
 This is a maximum when the force and velocity are in phase.
 The power transferred to the oscillator is a maximum.

Section 15.7
Resonance, cont.
Resonance (maximum peak) occurs
when driving frequency equals the
natural frequency.
The amplitude increases with
decreased damping.
The curve broadens as the damping
increases.
The shape of the resonance curve
depends on b.

Section 15.7
Chapter 4
Static Equilibrium and Elasticity

Part A
Static Equilibrium
Equilibrium implies that the object moves with both constant velocity and
constant angular velocity relative to an observer in an inertial reference frame.
Will deal now with the special case in which both of these velocities are equal to
zero
 This is called static equilibrium.
Static equilibrium is a common situation in engineering.
The principles involved are of particular interest to civil engineers, architects, and
mechanical engineers.

Introduction
Conditions for Equilibrium
The net external force on the object must equal zero.

 ∑ Fext = 0
 If the object is modeled as a particle, then this is the only condition that must
be satisfied .
The net external torque on the object about any axis must be zero.

 ∑ τ ext = 0
 This is needed if the object cannot be modeled as a particle.
These conditions describe the rigid object in equilibrium analysis model.

Section 12.1
Equilibrium Notes
Translational Equilibrium
 The first condition of equilibrium is a statement of translational equilibrium.
 It states that the translational acceleration of the object’s center of mass
must be zero.
 This applies when viewed from an inertial reference frame.
Rotational Equilibrium
 The second condition of equilibrium is a statement of rotational equilibrium.
 It states the angular acceleration of the object to be zero.
 This must be true for any axis of rotation.

Section 12.1
Static vs. Dynamic Equilibrium

In this chapter, we will concentrate on static equilibrium.

 The object will not be moving.
 vCM = 0 and ω = 0
Zero net torque does not mean an absence of rotational motion.
Dynamic equilibrium is also possible.
 The object would be rotating with a constant angular velocity.
 The object would be moving with a constant vCM.

Section 12.1
Elasticity

So far we have assumed that objects remain rigid when external forces act on
them.
 Except springs
Actually, all objects are deformable to some extent.
 It is possible to change the size and/or shape of the object by applying
external forces.
Internal forces resist the deformation.

Section 12.4
Definitions Associated With Deformation

Stress
 Is proportional to the force causing the deformation
 It is the external force acting on the object per unit cross-sectional area.
Strain
 Is the result of a stress
 Is a measure of the degree of deformation

Section 12.4
Elastic Modulus

The elastic modulus is the constant of proportionality between the stress and the
strain.
 For sufficiently small stresses, the stress is directly proportional to the stress.
 It depends on the material being deformed.
 It also depends on the nature of the deformation.
The elastic modulus, in general, relates what is done to a solid object to how that
object responds.
stress
elastic mod ulus ≡
strain

Various types of deformation have unique elastic moduli.

Section 12.4
Three Types of Moduli

Young’s Modulus
 Measures the resistance of a solid to a change in its length
Shear Modulus
 Measures the resistance of motion of the planes within a solid parallel to
each other
Bulk Modulus
 Measures the resistance of solids or liquids to changes in their volume

Section 12.4
Young’s Modulus

The bar is stretched by an amount ∆L

under the action of the force F.
The tensile stress is the ratio of the
magnitude of the external force to the
cross-sectional area A.
The tension strain is the ratio of the
change in length to the original length.
Young’s modulus, Y, is the ratio of
those two ratios:
F
tensile stress A
Y≡ =
tensile strain ∆L
Li

Units are N / m2

Section 12.4
 Stress vs. Strain Curve

Experiments show that for certain

stresses, the stress is directly
proportional to the strain.
This is the elastic behavior part of the
curve.
The elastic limit is the maximum stress
that can be applied to the substance
before it becomes permanently
deformed.

When the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the substance will be permanently deformed.
 The curve is no longer a straight line.
With additional stress, the material ultimately breaks.

Section 12.4
Shear Modulus
Another type of deformation occurs when
a force acts parallel to one of its faces
while the opposite face is held fixed by
another force.
This is called a shear stress.
For small deformations, no change in
volume occurs with this deformation.
 A good first approximation

Section 12.4
Shear Modulus, cont.
The shear strain is ∆x / h.
 ∆x is the horizontal distance the sheared face moves.
 h is the height of the object.
The shear stress is F / A.
 F is the tangential force.
 A is the area of the face being sheared.
The shear modulus is the ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain.
F
shear stress
S= = A
shear strain ∆x
h
Units are N / m2

Section 12.4
 Bulk Modulus
Type your text here

Another type of deformation occurs

when a force of uniform magnitude is
applied perpendicularly over the entire
surface of the object.
The object will undergo a change in
volume, but not in shape.
The volume stress is defined as the
ratio of the magnitude of the total force,
F, exerted on the surface to the area, A,
of the surface.
 This is also called the pressure.
The volume strain is the ratio of the
change in volume to the original
volume.
Section 12.4
Bulk Modulus, cont.
The bulk modulus is the ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain.
∆F
B=
volume stress
=− A = − ∆P
volume strain ∆V ∆V
Vi Vi
The negative indicates that an increase in pressure will result in a decrease in
volume.

Compressibility

The compressibility is the inverse of the bulk modulus.

It may be used instead of the bulk modulus.

Section 12.4
Moduli and Types of Materials

Both solids and liquids have a bulk modulus.

Liquids cannot sustain a shearing stress or a tensile stress.
 If a shearing force or a tensile force is applied to a liquid, the liquid will flow
in response.

Section 12.4
Moduli Values

Section 12.4
Prestressed Concrete

If the stress on a solid object exceeds a certain value, the object fractures.
Concrete is normally very brittle when it is cast in thin sections.
 The slab tends to sag and crack at unsupported areas.
The slab can be strengthened by the use of steel rods to reinforce the concrete.
The concrete is stronger under compression than under tension.

Section 12.4
Pre-stressed Concrete, cont.
A significant increase in shear strength is achieved if the reinforced concrete is
pre-stressed.
As the concrete is being poured, the steel rods are held under tension by external
forces.
These external forces are released after the concrete cures.
This results in a permanent tension in the steel and hence a compressive stress
on the concrete.
This permits the concrete to support a much heavier load.

Section 12.4
Summary
Problems
Problems
Problems
Problems
Chapter 4
Static Equilibrium
and Elasticity

Part B
 • The axial (longitudinal) strain is:
Poisson's ratio, ν ∆L
ε=
F L
∆L • The lateral strain is:
2 ∆x ∆y
εL= =
x y
L εL εL
ν=−
ε

∆L
ε
2
metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
F ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
polymers: ν ~ 0.40
Generator Torsion
• A torque τ should be transmitted between the
turbine and the generator through the shaft.
• The shaft undergoes a torsional deformation.

τ
simple
torsion

Torsional pendulum
τ
Ski lift
 • Simple torsion:
τ = torque
θ = angle of twist

Lo

2ro

2τL o
θ=
π r o4 S

• The angle of twist of the shaft θ is proportional to the torque τ and

the length of the shaft.
• It also depends on the Shear modulus S and the radius of the shaft r.
Torsional pendulum
Torque Period
 Relations among elastic moduli
For isotropic materials

Y
S=
2( 1+ υ)
Y
B= Poisson's Ratio, ν
3( 1− 2υ)
1 1 1
= +
Y 3S 9B
 Problems
1. A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod that
has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load required to
produce a 2.5x𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 mm change in diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic.
ν =0.34, Y=97 Gpa
2. A cylindrical specimen of aluminum having a diameter of 20 mm and length
of 210 mm is deformed elastically in tension with a force of 48,800 N.
Knowing that Y=69 GPa and ν=0.33, determine:
(a) The amount by which this specimen will elongate in the direction of the
applied stress.
(b) The change in diameter of the specimen. Will the diameter increase or
decrease?
3. A cylindrical specimen of a hypothetical metal alloy is stressed in compression. If
its original and final diameters are 20.000 and 20.025 mm, respectively, and its
final length is 74.96 mm, compute its original length if the deformation is totally
elastic. The elastic and shear moduli for this alloy are 105 GPa and 39.7 GPa,
respectively.
4. Find the value of Poisson’s ratio for a wire if its volume remains constant after
applying a force.
5. Two wires of the same material and the same volume, are fixed from one end. A mass
2 kg is hanged to the first wire and a mass (𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 ) is hanged to the other wire. If the radius
of the first wire is half the radius of the second wire and the elongation of the two wires
are the same, find (𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 ).
6. A copper wire of length 1.08 m and cross-section of 3m𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 is welded with another
iron wire of length 1 m and cross section 2 m𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 and hanged from one end. A mass of
12 kg is hanged in the free end. Find the increase in length if 𝒀𝒀𝒄𝒄 =1.2x𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 N/ 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 and
𝒀𝒀𝟏𝟏 =2x𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 N/ 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 .
7. The modulus of rigidity and Poisson`s ratio of a wire are 2.87x𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 N/ 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 and 0.379
respectively. Find the value of Young`s modulus of the wire.
8. A wire of length 1m and diameter 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟑𝟑 m is stretched by 6x𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏−𝟒𝟒 m by a tensile
load of 10 kg. The wire is twisted by 700 by a tangential force of 2 kg applied to one of
its ends while the other end is fixed.
Calculate Y, S, and Poisson’s ratio ν.
 2τL o
θ=
4
πr o S
 CHAPTER 4
TEMPERATURE AND EXPANSIONS
 Objectives: After finishing this
unit, you should be able to:
• Work with Celsius, Kelvin, and
Fahrenheit temperature scales for
both specific temperatures and
temperature intervals.
• Write and apply
formulas for linear,
area, and volume
expansion.
 Thermal Energy
Thermal energy is the total internal energy of an object: the sum of its molecular
kinetic and potential energies.

Thermal energy = U + K

Internal energy -- spring analogies are helpful:

U = ½kx2
K = ½mv2
 Temperature
Temperature is related to the kinetic activity of
the molecules, whereas expansion and phase
changes of substances are more related to
potential energy.

Although not true in all cases, a good beginning

is to define temperature as the average kinetic
energy per molecule.

T=
 ½mv 2

N
Temperature vs. Internal Energy

The large pitcher and

the small one have
the same temperature,
but they do not have
the same thermal
energy. A larger
quantity of hot water
melts more of the ice.
 Temperature Equilibrium
Heat is defined as the
Thermal Equilibrium transfer of thermal energy
Hot Coals
that is due to a difference
Insulated in temperature.
Container

Two objects are in

thermal equilibrium if
and only if they have the
same temperature.
Cool Water Same Temperature
 Thermometer
A thermometer is any
device which, through
marked scales, can give an
indication of its own
temperature.

T = kX

X is thermometric property: Expansion, electric

resistance, light wavelength, etc.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: If two objects A and B

are separately in equilibrium with a third object C, then
objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Thermal Equilibrium
Object C
A
A B

Object C
B Same Temperature
 Temperature Scales
1000C 2120F
The lower fixed point is the
ice point, the temperature at
which ice and water coexist
00C 320F
at 1 atm of pressure:

00C or 320F

The upper fixed point is the

steam point, the temperature
at which steam and water
1000C or 2120F
coexist at 1 atm of pressure:
Comparison of Temperature Intervals

Temperature Intervals:
100 C0 = 180 F0
1000C 2120F
5 C0 = 9 F0
100 C0 180 F0

If the temperature tC tF
changes from 790F to 00C 320F
700F, it means a
decrease of 5 C0.
 Temperature Labels
If an object has a specific temperature, we place the degree symbol 0 before
the scale (0C or 0F).

t = 600C

We say: “The temperature is sixty degrees Celsius.”

 Temperature Labels (Cont.)
If an object undergoes a change of temperature, we place the degree symbol 0
after the scale (C0 or F0) to indicate the interval of temperature.

ti = 600C

tf = 200C

Dt = 600C – 200C Dt = 40 C0

We say: “The temperature decreases by forty Celsius degrees.”

 Specific Temperatures
Same temperatures
have different 1000C 2120F
numbers: 0C 0F
100 C0 180 F0
tC − 00 t F − 320 tC tF
=
100 div 180 div 00C 320F
9
t = t F − 32
5 C
0

tF = t + 32
9
5 C
0
tC = 5
9 (t F − 32 0
)
Example 1: A plate of food cools from 1600F to 650F. What
was the initial temperature in degrees Celsius? What is the
change in temperature in Celsius degrees?

Convert 1600F to 0C tC = 5
9 (t F − 32 0
)
from formula:
0
5 5(128 )
tC = (160 − 32 ) =
0 0 tC = 71.10C
9 9

Dt = 1600 F − 650 F = 95 F0 9 F0 = 5 C0

 5 C 0

Dt = 95 F 
0
0 
Dt = 52.8 C0
9F 
 Limitations of Relative Scales
The most serious problem with the Celsius
and Fahrenheit scales is the existence of
negative temperatures.
Clearly, the average kinetic -250C ?
energy per molecule is NOT
zero at either 00C or 00F!

T = kX = 0 ?
Constant Volume Thermometer
Absolute A search for a true zero
pressure of temperature can be
Valve done with a constant-
volume thermometer.
Constant
volume of a For constant
gas. (Air, for volume:
example)
T = kP

The pressure varies with temperature.

Absolute Zero of Temperature

P1 P2 Absolute P
Zero
T1 T2 T
-2730C 00C 1000C

Plot points (P1, 00C) and

00C 1000C (P2, 1000C); then
extrapolate to zero.

Absolute Zero = -2730C

 Comparison of Four Scales

1 C0 = 1 K
1000C 373 K 2120F 672 R
steam
5 C0 = 9 F
00C 273 K 320F 460 R
ice
tF = t + 32
Celsius K Fahrenheit R 9 0
C Kelvin F Rankine 5 C
Absolute

-2730C
zero
0 K -4600F 0R
tC = 5
9 ( t F − 320 )
TK = tC + 2730
 Linear Expansion

DL =  L0 Dt Lo DL
to
L
DL t
=
L0 Dt
Copper:  = 1.7 x 10-5/C0 Concrete:  = 0.9 x 10-5/C0

Iron:  = 1.2 x 10-5/C0 Aluminum:  = 2.4 x 10-5/C0

Example 2: A copper pipe is 90 m long at 200C. What is its
new length when steam passes through the pipe at 1000C?

Lo = 90 m, t0= 200C
Dt = 1000C - 200C = 80 C0

DL = LoDt = (1.7 x 10-5/C0)(90 m)(80 C0)

DL = 0.122 m L = Lo + DL

L = 90 m + 0.122 m

L = 90.12 m
 Area Expansion
Expansion on
heating.

A0 A

Area expansion is analogous to

the enlargement of a photograph.

Example shows heated nut that shrinks

to a tight fit after cooling down.
 Calculating Area Expansion
A0 = L0W0
A = LW DW
L = L0 + L0 Dt W
Wo DL
W = W0 + W0 Dt
Lo
L = L0(1 + Dt )
W = W0(1 + Dt L

A = LW = L0W0(1 + Dt)2 A = A0(1 + 2 Dt)

Area Expansion: DA = 2A0 Dt

 Volume Expansion
Expansion is the same
in all directions (L,
W, and H), thus:

DV = bV0 Dt b = 3

The constant b is the coefficient

DV
b=
of volume expansion. V0 Dt
 Example 3. A 200-cm3 Pyrex beaker is filled to the
top with glycerine. The system is then heated from
200C to 800C. How much glycerine overflows the
container?

Glycerine: b = 5.1 x 10-4/C0 Vovr= ?

200C
Pyrex: b = 3 800C
b = 3(0.3 x 10-5/C0)
b = 0.9 x 10-5/C0 V0 V

Vover = DVG - DVP 200 cm3

Vovr = bGV0 Dt - bPV0 Dt = (bG - bP )V0 Dt

Vovr = (5.1 x 10-4/C0- 0.9 x 10-5/C0)(200 cm3)(800C - 200C)

 Example 3. (CONTINUED)

Glycerine: b = 5.1 x 10-4/C0 Vovr= ?

200C
Pyrex: b = 3 800C
b = 3(0.3 x 10-5/C0)
b = 0.9 x 10-5/C0 V0 V

Vover = DVG - DVP 200 cm3

Vovr = bGV0 Dt - bPV0 Dt = (bG - bP )V0 Dt

Vovr = (5.1 x 10-4/C0- 0.9 x 10-5/C0)(200 cm3)(800C - 200C)

Volume Overflow = 6.01 cm3

 Summary
Thermal energy is the total internal energy of an object: the sum of its molecular
kinetic and potential energies.

Thermal energy = U + K

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: If two objects A and B

are separately in equilibrium with a third object C, then
objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

A Thermal Equilibrium
Object C

B A B
 Summary of Temperature Scales

1 C0 = 1 K
1000C 373 K 2120F 672 R
steam
5 C0 = 9 F
00C 273 K 320F 460 R
ice
tF = t + 32
Celsius K Fahrenheit R 9 0
C Kelvin F Rankine 5 C
Absolute

-2730C
zero
0 K -4600F 0R
tC = 5
9 ( t F − 320 )
TK = tC + 2730
 Summary: Expansion
Linear Expansion:

DL =  L0 Dt Lo DL
to
L
DL t
=
L0 Dt

Expansion Area Expansion:

DA = 2A0 Dt
A0 A
 Volume Expansion
Expansion is the same
in all directions (L,
W, and H), thus:

DV = bV0 Dt b = 3

The constant b is the coefficient

DV
b=
of volume expansion. V0 Dt
 CHAPTER 5
QUANTITY OF HEAT
Objectives: After finishing this unit, you
should be able to:
• Define the quantity of heat in terms of the calorie,
the kilocalorie, the joule, and the Btu.

• Write and apply formulas for specific

heat capacity and solve for gains and
losses of heat.

• Write and apply formulas for

calculating the latent heats of fusion
and vaporization of various materials.
 Heat Defined as Energy

Heat is not something an object has, but rather energy that it absorbs or
gives up. The heat lost by the hot coals is equal to that gained by the water.

Cool Thermal Equilibrium

water

Hot coals
 Units of Heat

One calorie (1 cal) is the quantity of heat required

to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C0.

Example

10 calories of heat will

raise the temperature of
10 g of water by 10 C0.
 Units of Heat (Cont.)
One kilocalorie (1 kcal) is the quantity
of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 kg of water by 1 C0.

Example

10 kilocalories of heat will

raise the temperature of 10
kg of water by 10 C0.
 Units of Heat (Cont.)
One British Thermal Unit (1 Btu) is the
quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water by 1 F0.

Example

10 Btu of heat will raise

the temperature of 10 lb of
water by 10 F0.
The Btu is an Outdated Unit
The British Thermal Unit (1 Btu) is discouraged, but
unfortunately remains in wide-spread use today. If it
is to be used, we must recognize that the pound unit
is actually a unit of mass, not weight.

When working with the Btu, we

must recall that the pound-mass is
not a variable quantity that
depends on gravity --
1 lb
one reason that the use of
the Btu is discouraged!
1 lb (1/32) slug
 The SI Unit of Heat

Since heat is energy, the joule is the preferred unit. Then, mechanical
energy and heat are measured in the same fundamental unit.

Comparisons of Heat Units:

1 cal = 4.186 J 1 Btu = 778 ft lb

1 kcal = 4186 J 1 Btu = 252 cal

1 Btu = 1055 J
 Temperature and Quantity of Heat

The effect of heat on temp- 200C 220C

erature depends on the
quantity of matter heated.

The same quantity of heat

is applied to each mass of 600 g
water in the figure.
200C 300C
The larger mass
experiences a smaller
increase in temperature.
200 g
 Heat Capacity
The heat capacity of a substance is the heat
required to raise the temperature a unit degree.

Lead Glass Al Copper Iron

1000C 1000C 1000C 1000C 1000C

37 s 52 s 60 s 83 s 90 s

Heat capacities based on time to heat from zero

to 1000C. Which has the greatest heat capacity?
Heat Capacity (Continued)
All at 1000C placed on Paraffin Slab

Lead Glass Al Copper Iron

Iron and copper balls melt all the way through;

others have lesser heat capacities.
 Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a material is the quantity of heat needed

to raise the temperature of a unit mass through a unit degree.

Q
c= ; Q = mct
mt
Water: c = 1.0 cal/g C0 or 1 Btu/lb F0 or 4186 J/kg K

Copper: c = 0.094 cal/g C0 or 390 J/kg K

Comparison of Heat Units: How much heat is
needed to raise 1-kg of water from 00 to 1000C?

The mass of one kg of water is:

1 kg = 1000 g = 0.454 lbm
Q = mct 1 lbm = 454 g
1 kg
For water: c = 1.0 cal/g C0
or 1 Btu/lb F0 or 4186 J/kg K

The heat required to do this job is:

10,000 cal 10 kcal

39.7 Btu 41, 860 J
Example 1: A 500-g copper coffee mug is
filled with 200-g of coffee. How much heat was
required to heat cup and coffee from 20 to
960C?
1. Draw sketch of problem.
2. List given information.

Mug mass mm = 0.500 kg

Coffee mass mc = 0.200 kg

Initial temperature of coffee and mug: t0 = 200C

Final temperature of coffee and mug: tf = 960C

3. List what is to be found: Total heat to raise temp-

erature of coffee (water) and mug to 960C.
Example 1(Cont.): How much heat needed to heat cup and
coffee from 20 to 960C? mm = 0.2 kg; mw = 0.5 kg.

4. Recall applicable formula or law:

Heat Gain or Loss: Q = mc t

5. Decide that TOTAL heat is that required to raise
temperature of mug and water (coffee). Write
equation.

QT = mmcm t + mwcw t

6. Look up specific heats in Copper: cm = 390 J/kg C0

tables:
Coffee (water): cw = 4186 J/kg C0
 Example 1(Cont.): How much heat needed to heat
cup and coffee from 20 to 960C? mc = 0.2
kg; mw = 0.5 kg.
7. Substitute info and solve problem:

Copper: cm = 390 J/kg C0

Coffee (water): cw = 4186 J/kg C0

QT = mmcm t + mwcw t

Water: (0.20 kg)(4186 J/kgC0)(76 C0)

t = 960C - 200C = 76 C0
Cup: (0.50 kg)(390 J/kgC0)(76 C0)

QT = 63,600 J + 14,800 J QT = 78.4 kJ

 A Word About Units
The substituted units must be consistent with those of the chosen value of specific
heat capacity.

For example: Water cw = 4186 J/kg C0 or 1 cal/g C0

Q = mwcw t

If you
Theuse
units
4186
1 cal/g
for Q,
J/kg
Cm,
0 for
Candc,t
0 forthen
c,must
then
Q must
be
Q must
be in
beconsistent
calories,
in joules,
andand
with
m must
mthose
must
be based
in
begrams.
in kilograms.
on the value
of the constant c.
 Conservation of Energy
Whenever there is a transfer of heat within a
system, the heat lost by the warmer bodies must
equal the heat gained by the cooler bodies:

 (Heat Losses) =  (Heat Gained)

Cool Thermal Equilibrium

water
Hot
iron
 100
water
Example 2: A handful of copper shot is
heated to 900C and then dropped into 80 900 shot
g of water in an insulated cup at 100C. If
the equilibrium temperature is 180C, Insulator
what was the mass of the copper?
cw = 4186 J/kg C 0; cs = 390 J/kg C0 te= 180C

mw = 80 g; tw= 100C; ts = 900C

Heat lost by shot = heat gained by water
mscs(900C - 180C) = mwcw(180C - 100C)

Note: Temperature differences are [High - Low] to

insure absolute values (+) lost and gained.
 Example 2: (Cont.)
ms = ? 100 180C
water
900 shot
Insulator 80 g of Water
Heat lost by shot = heat gained by water
mscs(900C - 180C) = mwcw(180C - 100C)
ms(390 J/kgC0)(72 C0) = (0.080 kg)(4186 J/kgC0)(8 C0)
2679 J
ms = = 0.0954 kg ms = 95.4 g
28,080 J/kg
 Change of Phase

When a change of phase occurs, there is only a change in potential

energy of the molecules. The temperature is constant during the
change.

Solid Liquid Vaporization

Gas
fusion

Q = mLf Q = mLv

Terms: Fusion, vaporization, condensation, latent heats, evaporation, freezing

point, melting point.
 Change of Phase

The latent heat of fusion (Lf) of a substance is

the heat per unit mass required to change the Q
Lf =
substance from the solid to the liquid phase of m
its melting temperature.
For Water: Lf = 80 cal/g = 333,000 J/kg

The latent heat of vaporization (Lv) of a

substance is the heat per unit mass required Q
Lv =
to change the substance from a liquid to a m
vapor at its boiling temperature.

For Water: Lv = 540 cal/g = 2,256,000

J/kg
 Melting a Cube of Copper

The heat Q required to melt a substance at its melting

temperature can be found if the mass and latent heat
What Q
of fusion are known. 2 kg to melt
copper?
Q = mLf
Lf = 134 kJ/kg
Example: To completely melt 2 kg of copper at
10400C, we need:

Q = mLf = (2 kg)(134,000 J/kg) Q = 268 kJ

Example 3: How much heat is needed to convert
10 g of ice at -200C to steam at 1000C?

First, let’s review the process graphically as shown:

temperature
t
ice steam 540 cal/g
100 C
0

1 cal/gC0 steam
steam only
80 cal/g and
00C water water
ice
ciceand
= 0.5 cal/gC 0
-20 C ice water
0 only
Q
Example 3 (Cont.): Step one is Q1 to convert 10 g
of ice at -200C to ice at 00C (no water yet).

Q1 to raise ice to 00C: Q1 = mct

-200C 00C

t
1000C Q1 = (10 g)(0.5 cal/gC0)[0 - (-200C)]
Q1 = (10 g)(0.5 cal/gC0)(20 C0)

Q1 = 100 cal

00C
cice= 0.5 cal/gC0
-200C ice Q
Example 3 (Cont.): Step two is Q2 to convert 10 g
of ice at 00C to water at 00C.

Q2 to melt 10 g of ice at 00C: Q2 = mLf

Melting
t
1000C
Q2 = (10 g)(80 cal/g) = 800 cal

Q2 = 800 cal

80 cal/g Add this to Q1 = 100 cal:

00C 900 cal used to this point.
ice and
-200C water Q
Example 3 (Cont.): Step three is Q3 to change 10
g of water at 00C to water at 1000C.

Q3 to raise water at 00C to 1000C.

00C to 1000C Q3 = mct ; cw= 1 cal/gC0
t Q3 = (10 g)(1 cal/gC0)(1000C - 00C)
1000C
Q3 = 1000 cal
1 cal/gC0
Total = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
00C = 100 +900 + 1000
water
= 1900 cal
-200C
only
Q
Example 3 (Cont.): Step four is Q4 to convert 10 g
of water to steam at 1000C? (Q4 = mLv)

Q4 to convert all water at 1000C

vaporization to steam at 1000C. (Q = mLv)

Q4 = (10 g)(540 cal/g) = 5400 cal

1000C

800 cal 5400 cal Total Heat:

1000
100 cal steam
7300 cal
cal
00C
ice and water and
-200C ice water only water Q
Example 4: How many grams of ice at 00C must be mixed with
four grams of steam in order to produce water at 600C?
mi = ?
Ice must melt and then rise to 600C. Steam must condense ice
and drop to 600C.
steam
Total Heat Gained = Total Heat Lost 4g
miLf + micwt = msLv + mscwt te = 600C

Note: All losses and gains are absolute values (positive).

Total
Total Gained:
Gained: m
mi(80
(80 cal/g)
cal/g) +
+ m
m (1
(1 cal/gC
cal/gC 00)(60
)(60 C
C 00)- 00C )
i ii

Lost: Lost:
Total (4 g)(540
(4 g)(540
cal/g)cal/g)
+ (4 g)(1
+ (4cal/gC 0)(1000)(40
g)(1 cal/gC C0 - C
600)0C )
 Example 4 (Continued)
Total Gained: mi(80 cal/g) + mi(1 cal/gC0)(60 C0)

Total Lost: (4 g)(540 cal/g) + (4 g)(1 cal/gC0)(40 C0)

mi = ?
Total Heat Gained = Total Heat Lost
80mi + 60mi = 2160 g +160 g 4g

2320 g te = 600C
mi = mi = 16.6 g
140
 Example 5: Fifty grams of ice ice water
are mixed with 200 g of water
initially at 700C. Find the
equilibrium temperature of the 00C 700C
mixture. 50 g 200 g

Ice melts and rises to te te = ?

Water drops from 70 to te.

Heat Gained: miLf + micwt ; t = te - 00C

Gain = (50 g)(80 cal/g) + (50 g)(1 cal/gC0)(te - 00C )

Gain = 4000 cal + (50 cal/g)te

 Example 5 (Cont.):

Gain = 4000 cal + (50 cal/g)te

00C 700C
50 g 200 g
Heat Lost = mwcwt
t = 700C - te [high - low] te = ?

Lost = (200 g)(1 cal/gC0)(700C- te )

Lost = 14,000 cal - (200 cal/C0) te

Heat Gained Must Equal the Heat Lost:

4000 cal + (50 cal/g)te = 14,000 cal - (200 cal/C0) te
 Example 5 (Cont.):
Heat Gained Must Equal the Heat Lost:
4000 cal + (50 cal/g)te = 14,000 cal - (200 cal/C0) te

Simplifying, we have: (250 cal/C0) te = 10,000 cal

10,000 cal
te = 0
= 40 0
C 00C 700C
250 cal/C 50 g 200 g

te = 400C te = ?
 Summary of Heat Units
One calorie (1 cal) is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 g of
water by 1 C0.
One kilocalorie (1 kcal) is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water by 1 C0.

One British thermal unit (Btu) is the quantity

of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
lb of water by 1 F0.
 Summary: Change of Phase

The latent heat of fusion (Lf) of a substance is

the heat per unit mass required to change the Q
Lf =
substance from the solid to the liquid phase of m
its melting temperature.
For Water: Lf = 80 cal/g = 333,000 J/kg

The latent heat of vaporization (Lv) of a

substance is the heat per unit mass required Q
Lv =
to change the substance from a liquid to a m
vapor at its boiling temperature.

For Water: Lv = 540 cal/g = 2,256,000

J/kg
Summary: Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a material is the quantity of

heat to raise the temperature of a unit mass through a
unit degree.

Q
c= ; Q = mct
mt
Summary: Conservation of Energy

Whenever there is a transfer of heat

within a system, the heat lost by the
warmer bodies must equal the heat
gained by the cooler bodies:

 (Heat Losses) =  (Heat Gained)

Summary of Formulas:
Q
c= ; Q = mct
mt
 (Heat Losses) =  (Heat Gained)

Q
Lf = ; Q = mL f
m
Q
Lv = ; Q = mLv
m
CHAPTER 6
HEAT TRANSFER
 Objectives: After finishing this unit,
you should be able to:
• Demonstrate your understanding of
conduction, convection, and radiation,
and give examples.

• Solve thermal conductivity problems

based on quantity of heat, length of
path, temperature, area, and time.

• Solve problems involving the rate of

radiation and emissivity of surfaces.
 Heat Transfer by Conduction
Conduction is the process by which heat energy is
transferred by adjacent molecular collisions inside
a material. The medium itself does not move.

Conduction Direction

From
hot to
cold.
 Heat Transfer by Convection

Convection is the process by which

heat energy is transferred by the
actual mass motion of a heated fluid.

Heated fluid rises and is then Convection

replaced by cooler fluid, producing
convection currents.

Convection is significantly affected

by geometry of heated surfaces.
(wall, ceiling, floor)
 Heat Transfer by Radiation

Radiation is the process by

which heat energy is transferred
by electromagnetic waves.

Radiation

Atomic Sun
No medium is required !
 Kinds of Heat Transfer
Consider the operation of a typical coffee maker:

Think about how heat is transferred by:

Conduction?

Convection?

Radiation?
 Heat Current
The heat current H is defined as the quantity of heat Q transferred per
unit of time  in the direction from high temperature to low temperature.

Steam Ice

Q
H= ( J / s)

Typical units are: J/s, cal/s, and Btu/h
 Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity k of a material is a t1 t2

measure of its ability to conduct heat.

H = Heat current (J/s)

A = Surface area (m2)
Dt = Temperature difference Dt = t2 - t1

L = Thickness of material

kADt
Q QL J
H= = k= Units =
 L A Dt s  m  C0
 The SI Units for Conductivity
Hot Cold QL
k=
A Dt
For Copper: k = 385 J/s m C0

Taken literally, this means that for a 1-m length of copper whose cross
section is 1 m2 and whose end points differ in temperature by 1 C0, heat
will be conducted at the rate of 1 J/s.

In SI units, typically small measures for length L and area A must be

converted to meters and square meters, respectively, before substitution
into formulas.
 Older Units for Conductivity
Dt = 1 F0 Older units, still active, use common
measurements for area in ft2 time in
hours, length in seconds, and quantity of
=1h
heat in Btu’s.
A=1 ft2

Q=1 Btu

L = 1 in. Glass k = 5.6 Btu in./ft2h F0

Taken literally, this means that for a 1-in. thick plate of glass whose area is
1 ft2 and whose sides differ in temperature by 1 F0, heat will be conducted
at the rate of 5.6 Btu/h.
 Thermal Conductivities
Examples of the two systems of units used for thermal conductivities of
materials are given below:

Material J/s  m  C o
Btu  in/ft 2  h  F0

Copper: 385 2660

Concrete or Glass: 0.800 5.6

0.040 0.30
Corkboard:
Examples of Thermal Conductivity
Comparison of Heat Currents for Similar Conditions: L = 1 cm (0.39 in.); A =
1 m2 (10.8 ft2); Dt = 100 C0

2050 kJ/s 4980 Btu/h

Aluminum:

3850 kJ/s 9360 Btu/h

Copper:

Concrete or Glass: 8.00 kJ/s 19.4 Btu/h

0.400 kJ/s 9.72 Btu/h

Corkboard:
 Example 1: A large glass window measures 2 m wide
and 6 m high. The inside surface is at 200C and the
outside surface is at 120C. How many joules of heat
pass through this window in one hour? Assume L =
1.5 cm and that k = 0.8 J/s m C0.
A = (2 m)(6 m) = 12 m2 200C 120C

kADt
Q kADt =1h
H= = ; Q= A
 L L Q=?

(0.8 J/m  s  C0 )(12 m 2 )(8 C0 )(3600 s)

Q= Dt = t2 - t1
0.0150 m
= 8 C0
0.015 m
Q = 18.4 MJ
 Example 2: The wall of a freezing plant is
composed of 8 cm of corkboard and 12 cm of solid
concrete. The inside surface is at -200C and the
outside surface is +250C. What is the interface
temperature ti?
ti
Note: H H
  =  -200C 250C
 A Cork  A Concrete
k1 ti − (−200 C)  k2  250 C - ti 
= HA
L1 L2
k1 (ti + 20 C) k2 (25 C - ti )
0 0 Steady
= Flow
L1 L2 8 cm 12 cm
Example 2 (Cont.): Finding the interface
temperature for a composite wall.
ti
k1 (ti + 20 C) k2 (25 C - ti )
0 0
-200C 250C
=
L1 L2
Rearranging factors gives: HA

k1L 2 Steady
(ti + 200 C) = (250 C - ti )
k2 L1 Flow
8 cm 12 cm

k1L2 (0.04 W/m  C0 )(0.12 m)

= = 0.075
k2 L1 (0.8 W/m  C )(0.08 m)
0
 Example 2 (Cont.): Simplifying, we obtain:

ti
(0.075)(ti + 20 C) = (25 C - ti )
0 0 -200C 250C

0.075ti + 1.50C = 250C - ti

HA
From which: ti = 21.90C

Steady
Knowing the interface temperature ti allows us to
determine the rate of heat flow per unit of area, H/A.
Flow
8 cm 12 cm

The quantity H/A is same for cork or concrete:

kADt H k Dt
Q
H= = ; =
 L A L
 Example 2 (Cont.): Constant steady state flow.

Over time H/A is constant so different k’s cause ti

-200C 250C
different Dt’s

Cork: Dt = 21.90C - (-200C) = 41.9 C0

HA
Concrete: Dt = 250C - 21.90C = 3.1 C0

kADt H k Dt
Q Steady
H= = ; = Flow
 L A L 8 cm 12 cm

Since H/A is the same, let’s just choose concrete alone:

H k Dt (0.8 W/mC0 )(3.1 C0 ) H

= = = 20.7 W/m2
A L 0.12 m A
 Example 2 (Cont.): Constant steady state flow.

ti
H
= 20.7 W/m 2 -200C 250C

A
Cork: Dt = 21.90C - (-200C) = 41.9 C0 HA

Concrete: Dt = 250C - 21.90C = 3.1 C0

Steady
Note that 20.7 Joules of heat per second pass Flow
through the composite wall. However, the 8 cm 12 cm
temperature interval between the faces of the cork is
13.5 times as large as for the concrete faces. If A = 10 m2, the heat flow
in 1 h would be ______?

745 kW
 Radiation
The rate of radiation R is the energy emitted per unit area per unit time
(power per unit area).

Q P P
Rate of Radiation (W/m2): R= = R = = es T 4
A A A

Emissivity, e : 0>e >1

Stefan-Boltzman Constant : s = 5.67 x 10-8

W/m·K4
 Example 3: A spherical surface 12 Find Power
cm in radius is heated to 6270C. The Radiated
emissivity is 0.12. What power is
radiated?
A = 4 R = 4 (0.12 m)
2 2
A

A = 0.181 m2
T = 627 + 273; T = 900 K
6270C

P = es AT 4

P = (0.12)(5.67 x 10 W/mK )(0.181 m )(900 K)

-8 4 2 4

Power Radiated from Surface: P = 808 W

 Summary: Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat energy is transferred by adjacent

molecular collisions inside a material. The medium
itself does not move.

Convection is the process by

which heat energy is
transferred by the actual
mass motion of a heated
fluid.

Radiation is the process by which

heat energy is transferred by
electromagnetic waves.
 Summary of Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity k of a material is a t1 t2

measure of its ability to conduct heat.

H = Heat current (J/s)

A = Surface area (m2)
Dt = Temperature difference Dt = t2 - t1

L = Thickness of material

kADt
Q QL J
H= = k= Units =
 L A Dt s  m  C0
 Summary of Radiation
The rate of radiation R is the energy emitted per unit area per unit time
(power per unit area).

Q P P
Rate of Radiation (W/m2): R= = R = = es T 4
R A A A
Emissivity, e : 0>e >1

Stefan-Boltzman Constant : s = 5.67 x 10-8

W/m·K4
 Summary of Formulas
Q kADt QL J
H= = k= Units =
 L A Dt s  m  C0

Q kADt H k Dt
H= = ; = P = es AT 4
 L A L

Q P P
R= = R = = es T 4
A A A
FLUIDS AT REST
 OBJECTIVES: AFTER COMPLETING THIS
MODULE, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
• DEFINE AND APPLY THE CONCEPTS OF DENSITY
AND FLUID PRESSURE TO SOLVE PHYSICAL
PROBLEMS.
• DEFINE AND APPLY CONCEPTS OF ABSOLUTE,
GAUGE, AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURES.
• STATE PASCAL’S LAW AND APPLY FOR INPUT AND
OUTPUT PRESSURES.
• STATE AND APPLY ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE TO
SOLVE PHYSICAL PROBLEMS.
 MASS DENSITY

mass m
Density = ; =
Wood volume V

Lead: 11,300 kg/m3

2 kg, 4000 cm3 Wood: 500 kg/m3

4000 cm3
177 cm3
Lead 45.2 kg Lead
2 kg

Same volume Same mass

EXAMPLE 1: THE DENSITY OF STEEL IS 7800 KG/M3.
WHAT IS THE VOLUME OF A 4-KG BLOCK OF STEEL?

m m
4 kg
= ; V= =
V  7800 kg/m3
4 kg
V = 5.13 x 10-4 m3

What is the mass if the volume is 0.046 m3?

m = V = (7800 kg/m3 )(0.046 m3 );
m = 359 kg
 RELATIVE DENSITY
The relative density r of a material is the ratio of
its density to the density of water (1000 kg/m3).
x
r =
1000 kg/m3

Examples:

Steel (7800 kg/m3) r = 7.80

Brass (8700 kg/m3) r = 8.70
Wood (500 kg/m3) r = 0.500
 PRESSURE
Pressure is the ratio of a force F to the area A
over which it is applied:

Force F
Pressure = ; P=
Area A
A = 2 cm2
F (1.5 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 )
P= =
1.5 kg
A 2 x 10-4 m 2

P = 73,500 N/m2
 THE UNIT OF PRESSURE (PASCAL):
A pressure of one pascal (1 Pa) is defined as a
force of one newton (1 N) applied to an area of
one square meter (1 m2).

Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

In the previous example the pressure was

73,500 N/m2. This should be expressed as:

P = 73,500 Pa
 FLUID PRESSURE
A liquid or gas cannot sustain a shearing stress - it is
only restrained by a boundary. Thus, it will exert a
force against and perpendicular to that boundary.

• The force F exerted by a

fluid on the walls of its
container always acts
perpendicular to the walls. Water flow
shows ⊥ F
 FLUID PRESSURE
Fluid exerts forces in many directions. Try to submerse
a rubber ball in water to see that an upward force acts
on the float.

• Fluids exert pressure in F

all directions.
 PRESSURE VS. DEPTH IN FLUID
Pressure = force/area
mg
P= ; m = V ; V = Ah h
A
Vg  Ahg
P= = Area mg
A A
• Pressure at any point in a Fluid Pressure:
fluid is directly proportional
to the density of the fluid
and to the depth in the fluid.
P = gh
INDEPENDENCE OF SHAPE AND AREA.

Water seeks its own level,

indicating that fluid pressure
is independent of area and
shape of its container.

• At any depth h below the surface of the water in any column, the
pressure P is the same. The shape and area are not factors.
 PROPERTIES OF FLUID PRESSURE
• THE FORCES EXERTED BY A FLUID ON THE WALLS
OF ITS CONTAINER ARE ALWAYS PERPENDICULAR.
• THE FLUID PRESSURE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL
TO THE DEPTH OF THE FLUID AND TO ITS DENSITY.
• AT ANY PARTICULAR DEPTH, THE FLUID PRESSURE
IS THE SAME IN ALL DIRECTIONS.
• FLUID PRESSURE IS INDEPENDENT OF THE SHAPE
OR AREA OF ITS CONTAINER.
EXAMPLE 2. A DIVER IS LOCATED 20 M BELOW THE
SURFACE OF A LAKE (R = 1000 KG/M3). WHAT IS
THE PRESSURE DUE TO THE WATER?

The difference in pressure

from the top of the lake to
 = 1000 kg/m3
the diver is: h
DP = gh
h = 20 m; g = 9.8 m/s2

DP = (1000 kg/m3 )(9.8 m/s 2 )(20 m)

DP = 196 kPa
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
One way to measure atmospheric P=0
pressure is to fill a test tube with
mercury, then invert it into a atm atm
h
bowl of mercury.
Mercury
Density of Hg = 13,600 kg/m3
Patm = gh h = 0.760 m

Patm = (13,600 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(0.760 m)

Patm = 101,300 Pa
 ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
1 atm = 101.3 kPa

Absolute Pressure: The sum of the pressure due to a

fluid and the pressure due to atmosphere.
DP = 196 kPa
Gauge Pressure: The difference between the absolute h
pressure and the pressure due to the atmosphere:

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + 1 atm

DP = 196 kPa Pabs = 196 kPa + 101.3 kPa

1 atm = 101.3 kPa Pabs = 297 kPa

 PASCAL’S LAW

Pascal’s Law: An external pressure applied

to an enclosed fluid is transmitted uniformly
throughout the volume of the liquid.

Pressure in = Pressure out

Fin Ain Fout Aout

Fin Fout
=
Ain Aout
 EXAMPLE 3. THE SMALLER AND LARGER PISTONS OF A
HYDRAULIC PRESS HAVE DIAMETERS OF 4 CM AND 12
CM. WHAT INPUT FORCE IS REQUIRED TO LIFT A 4000 N
WEIGHT WITH THE OUTPUT PISTON?
Fin Fout Fout Ain
= ; Fin = Fin A Fout Aout
Ain Aout Aout in
t
D
R= ; Area =  R 2
2
(4000 N)( )(2 cm)2
Fin =
 (6 cm)2
Rin= 2 cm; R = 6 cm

F = 444 N
 ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
• An object that is completely or partially submerged in
a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced.

2 lb
The buoyant force is due
2 lb to the displaced fluid.
The block material
doesn’t matter.
 CALCULATING BUOYANT FORCE
The buoyant force FB is due to
the difference of pressure DP
between the top and bottom Area FB h1
surfaces of the submerged block.
FB mg h2
DP = = P2 − P1 ; FB = A( P2 − P1 )
A
FB = A( P2 − P1 ) = A(  f gh2 −  f gh1 )
Buoyant Force:
FB = (  f g ) A(h2 − h1 ); V f = A(h2 − h1 )
FB = f gVf
Vf is volume of fluid displaced.
 EXAMPLE 4: A 2-KG BRASS BLOCK IS ATTACHED TO A
STRING AND SUBMERGED UNDERWATER. FIND THE
BUOYANT FORCE AND THE TENSION IN THE ROPE.

All forces are balanced:

FB + T = mg FB = wgVw
mb mb 2 kg
b = ; Vb = =
Vb b 8700 kg/m3

Vb = Vw = 2.30 x 10-4 m3
T
Fb = (1000 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(2.3 x 10-4 m3) FB = gV
Force
FB = 2.25 N diagram
mg
 EXAMPLE 4 (CONT.): A 2-KG BRASS BLOCK IS ATTACHED
TO A STRING AND SUBMERGED UNDERWATER. NOW FIND
THE THE TENSION IN THE ROPE.

FB = 2.25 N

FB + T = mg T = mg - FB
T = (2 kg)(9.8 m/s2) - 2.25 N

T = 19.6 N - 2.25 N
T
FB = gV
T = 17.3 N
Force
This force is sometimes referred to diagram
as the apparent weight. mg
 FLOATING OBJECTS:
When an object floats, partially submerged, the buoyant
force exactly balances the weight of the object.

FB FB = f gVf mx g = xVx g

f gVf = xVx g

mg Floating Objects: f Vf = xVx

If Vf is volume of displaced Relative Density:

water Vwd, the relative density  x Vwd
r = =
of an object x is given by:  w Vx
 EXAMPLE 5: A STUDENT FLOATS IN A SALT LAKE WITH
ONE-THIRD OF HIS BODY ABOVE THE SURFACE. IF THE
DENSITY OF HIS BODY IS 970 KG/M3, WHAT IS THE
DENSITY OF THE LAKE WATER?
Assume the student’s volume is 3 m3.
Vs = 3 m3; Vwd = 2 m3; s = 970 kg/m3

w Vwd = sVs
1/3

 s Vwd 2 m3 3 s
= = ; w = 2/3
 w Vs 3 m 3
2

3 s 3(970 kg/m3 )
w = = w = 1460 kg/m3
2 2
 PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY
1. Draw a figure. Identify givens and what is to be
found. Use consistent units for P, V, A, and .
2. Use absolute pressure Pabs unless problem
involves a difference of pressure DP.
3. The difference in pressure DP is determined by the
density and depth of the fluid:

m F
P2 − P1 =  gh;  = ; P =
V A
 PROBLEM STRATEGY (CONT.)
4. Archimedes’ Principle: A submerged or floating
object experiences an buoyant force equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid:

FB = m f g =  f gV f

5. Remember: m, r and V refer to the displaced

fluid. The buoyant force has nothing to do with
the mass or density of the object in the fluid. (If
the object is completely submerged, then its
volume is equal to that of the fluid displaced.)
 PROBLEM STRATEGY (CONT.)

6. For a floating object, FB is FB

equal to the weight of that
object; i.e., the weight of the
object is equal to the weight of mg
the displaced fluid:

mx g = m f g or  xVx =  f V f
 SUMMARY
x
Density =
mass
; =
m r =
1000 kg/m3
volume V

Force F Fluid Pressure:

Pressure = ; P= P = gh
Area A

Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 SUMMARY (CONT.)
Pascal’s Law: Fin Fout
=
Ain Aout

Archimedes’ Principle: Buoyant Force:

FB = f gVf
FLUIDS IN MOTION
 OBJECTIVES: AFTER COMPLETING THIS
MODULE, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
• DEFINE THE RATE OF FLOW FOR A FLUID AND SOLVE PROBLEMS
USING VELOCITY AND CROSS-SECTION.
• WRITE AND APPLY BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FOR THE GENERAL CASE
AND APPLY FOR (A) A FLUID AT REST, (B) A FLUID AT CONSTANT
PRESSURE, AND (C) FLOW THROUGH A HORIZONTAL PIPE.
 FLUIDS IN MOTION
All fluids are assumed
in this treatment to
exhibit streamline flow.

• Streamline flow is the motion of a fluid in which every particle in the

fluid follows the same path past a particular point as that followed by
previous particles.
ASSUMPTIONS FOR FLUID FLOW:

• All fluids move with streamline flow.

• The fluids are incompressible.
• There is no internal friction.

Streamline flow Turbulent flow

 RATE OF FLOW
The rate of flow R is defined as the volume V of a fluid that passes a certain cross-
section A per unit of time t.

The volume V of fluid is given by the product of area A

and vt: V = Avt
A vt

Volume = A(vt)

Avt
R= = vA Rate of flow = velocity x area
t
 CONSTANT RATE OF FLOW
For an incompressible, frictionless fluid, the velocity increases when the cross-
section decreases:

R = v1 A1 = v2 A2 v d = v2 d
1 1
2 2
2

A1
R = A1v1 = A2v2
A2
v2
v1
v2
 EXAMPLE 1: WATER FLOWS THROUGH A RUBBER
HOSE 2 CM IN DIAMETER AT A VELOCITY OF 4 M/S.
WHAT MUST BE THE DIAMETER OF THE NOZZLE IN
ORDER THAT THE WATER EMERGE AT 16 M/S?
The area is proportional to
the square of diameter, so:
v1d12 = v2 d 22
2 2
vd (4 m/s)(2 cm)
d =
2
2 =
1 1
d2 = 0.894 cm
v2 (16 cm)
 EXAMPLE 1 (CONT.): WATER FLOWS THROUGH A
RUBBER HOSE 2 CM IN DIAMETER AT A VELOCITY OF 4
M/S. WHAT IS THE RATE OF FLOW IN M3/MIN?

R = v1 A1 = v2 A2

d2
R = v1 A1 ; A1 = 1
4
 d1 (4 m/s) (0.02 m)
2 2
R1 = v1 = R1 = 0.00126 m3/s
4 4
m3  1 min 
R1 = 0.00126   R1 = 0.0754 m3/min
min  60 s 
 PROBLEM STRATEGY FOR RATE OF
FLOW:
• READ, DRAW, AND LABEL GIVEN INFORMATION.
• THE RATE OF FLOW R IS VOLUME PER UNIT TIME.
• WHEN CROSS-SECTION CHANGES, R IS CONSTANT.

R = v1 A1 = v2 A2

• Be sure to use consistent units for area

and velocity.
 PROBLEM STRATEGY (CONTINUED):

• SINCE THE AREA A OF A PIPE IS PROPORTIONAL TO ITS

DIAMETER D, A MORE USEFUL EQUATION IS:

v d = v2 d
1 1
2 2
2

• The units of area, velocity, or diameter chosen for one section of pipe must
be consistent with those used for any other section of pipe.
 THE VENTURI METER

A C
B
The higher velocity in the constriction B causes a difference of pressure
between points A and B.

PA - PB = rgh
 DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE VENTURI
PRINCIPLE

Examples of the Venturi Effect

The increase in air velocity produces a difference

of pressure that exerts the forces shown.
WORK IN MOVING A A2 Note
VOLUME OF FLUID P2 differences in
pressure DP
A1 and area DA
F2
P1 P2 = ; F2 = P2 A2
A2
A2
Volume
F1 V P2 , F2
P1 = ; F1 = P1 A1
A1
A1 h
P1
F1
Fluid is raised
to a height h.
 WORK ON A FLUID (CONT.)
v2 F2 = P2A2

Net work done on fluid is sum of

v1 A2 work done by input force Fi less
F1 = P1A1 the work done by resisting force
A1 s2 h2 F2, as shown in figure.

h1 s1

Net Work = P1V - P2V = (P1 - P2) V

 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
v2 F2 = P2A2
Kinetic Energy K:
DK = ½ mv22 − ½ mv12 v1 A2
F1 = P1A1
Potential Energy U: A1 s2 h2
DU = mgh2 − mgh1 h1 s1

Net Work = DK + DU also Net Work = (P1 - P2)V

( P1 − P2 )V = (½ mv − ½ mv ) + (mgh2 − mgh1 )
2
2
2
1
 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
( P1 − P2 )V = (½ mv22 − ½ mv12 ) − (mgh2 − mgh1 )
Divide by V, recall that density r = m/V, then simplify:

P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v22

v2
Bernoulli’s Theorem: v1
P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v = Const
2
1
h2
h1
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM (HORIZONTAL PIPE):
P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v
2
1
2
2

Horizontal Pipe (h1 = h2) v1 h v2

r
P1 − P2 = ½ r v22 − ½ r v12
h1 = h 2

Now, since the difference in pressure DP = rgh,

Horizontal
DP = r gh = ½ r v22 − ½ r v12
Pipe
 EXAMPLE 3: WATER FLOWING AT 4 M/S PASSES THROUGH A
VENTURI TUBE AS SHOWN. IF H = 12 CM, WHAT IS THE
VELOCITY OF THE WATER IN THE CONSTRICTION?

Bernoulli’s Equation (h1 = h2) h v2

r
DP = r gh = ½ r v − ½ r v
2
2
2
1
v1 = 4 m/s h = 6 cm

Cancel r, then clear fractions: 2gh = v22 - v12

v2 = 2 gh + v12 = 2(9.8 m/s 2 )(0.12 m) + (4 m/s) 2

v2 = 4.28 m/s Note that density is not a factor.

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM FOR FLUIDS AT REST.
For many situations, the fluid remains at rest so that
v1 and v2 are zero. In such cases we have:
P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v22

P1 - P2 = rgh2 - rgh1 DP = rg(h2 - h1)

This is the same relation

r = 1000
seen earlier for finding the h kg/m3
pressure P at a given depth
h = (h2 - h1) in a fluid.
 TORRICELLI’S THEOREM
When there is no change of pressure, P1 = P2.

P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v
2
1
2
2

Consider right figure. If

surface v2  0 and P1= v2  0
P2 and v1 = v we have:
h2 h v = 2 gh
Torricelli’s theorem:
h1
v = 2 gh
INTERESTING EXAMPLE OF TORRICELLI’S
THEOREM:
Torricelli’s theorem:
v
v = 2 gh v
v
• Discharge velocity
increases with depth.
• Maximum range is in the middle.
• Holes equidistant above and below midpoint
will have same horizontal range.
 EXAMPLE 4: A DAM SPRINGS A LEAK
AT A POINT 20 M BELOW THE SURFACE.
WHAT IS THE EMERGENT VELOCITY?
Torricelli’s theorem:
v = 2 gh h
v = 2 gh
Given: h = 20 m
g = 9.8 m/s2

v = 2(9.8 m/s 2 )(20 m)

v = 19.8 m/s2
 STRATEGIES FOR BERNOULLI’S EQUATION:

• Read, draw, and label a rough sketch with givens.

• The height h of a fluid is from a common reference point to the center of mass of
the fluid.
• In Bernoulli’s equation, the density r is mass density and the appropriate units are
kg/m3.
• Write Bernoulli’s equation for the problem and simplify by eliminating those
factors that do not change.

P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v22

 STRATEGIES (CONTINUED)
P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v22

• For a stationary fluid, v1 = v2 and we have:

r = 1000
DP = rg(h2 - h1) h kg/m3

• For a horizontal pipe, h1 = h2 and we obtain:

P1 − P2 = ½ r v22 − ½ r v12
 STRATEGIES (CONTINUED)
P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v22

• For no change in pressure, P1 = P2 and we have:

Torricelli’s Theorem

v = 2 gh
GENERAL EXAMPLE: WATER FLOWS THROUGH THE PIPE AT
THE RATE OF 30 L/S. THE ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT POINT A IS
200 KPA, AND THE POINT B IS 8 M HIGHER THAN POINT A. THE
LOWER SECTION OF PIPE HAS A DIAMETER OF 16 CM AND THE
UPPER SECTION NARROWS TO A DIAMETER OF 10 CM. FIND
THE VELOCITIES OF THE STREAM AT POINTS A AND B.

R = 30 L/s = 0.030 m3/s B

R=30 L/s
D
A =R ; R =
2
8m
2
AA = (0.08 m)2 = 0.0201 m3 A
AB = (0.05 m)2 = 0.00785 m3

R 0.030 m 3 /s R 0.030 m 3 /s
vA = = 2
= 1.49 m/s; v2 = = 2
= 3.82 m/s
AA 0.0201 m A2 0.00785 m

vA = 1.49 m/s vB = 3.82 m/s

 GENERAL EXAMPLE (CONT.): NEXT FIND THE
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT POINT B.
B
Given: vA = 1.49 m/s R=30 L/s
vB = 3.82 m/s 8m
PA = 200 kPa
A
hB - hA = 8 m
Consider the height hA = 0 for reference purposes.
0
PA + rghA +½rvA2 = PB + rghB + ½rvB2
PB = PA + ½rvA2 - rghB - ½rvB2

PB = 200,000 Pa + 1113 Pa –78,400 Pa – 7296 Pa

PB = 200,000 Pa + ½(1000 kg/m3)(1.49 m/s)2
– (1000 kg/m3)(9.8 m/s2)(8 m) - ½(1000 kg/m3)(3.82 m/s)2
PB = 115 kPa
 SUMMARY
Streamline Fluid Flow in Pipe:
R = v1 A1 = v2 A2 v1d12 = v2 d 22

Fluid at Rest: Horizontal Pipe (h1 = h2)

PA - PB = rgh P1 − P2 = ½ r v22 − ½ r v12

Bernoulli’s Theorem: Torricelli’s theorem:

P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = Constant v = 2 gh
 SUMMARY: BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

• Read, draw, and label a rough sketch with givens.

• The height h of a fluid is from a common reference point to the center of mass of
the fluid.
• In Bernoulli’s equation, the density r is mass density and the appropriate units are
kg/m3.
• Write Bernoulli’s equation for the problem and simplify by eliminating those
factors that do not change.

P1 + r gh1 + ½ r v12 = P2 + r gh2 + ½ r v22

 SUMMARY
rx
Density =
mass
; r=
m rr =
1000 kg/m3
volume V

Force F Fluid Pressure:

Pressure = ; P= P = rgh
Area A

Pascal: 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
 SUMMARY (CONT.)
Pascal’s Law: Fin Fout
=
Ain Aout

Archimedes’ Principle: Buoyant Force:

FB = rf gVf
 Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow
Viscous Flow:

Real fluids are viscous, having internal attractive

forces between the molecules so that any relative
motion of molecules results in frictional or drag
forces.

Viscosity: the resistance of a liquid to the flowing

ability, it measures the internal friction of the fluid.

Quantitative Measurement of Viscosity:

Consider two parallel plates with a specific fluid between them.

The bottom plate is held fixed, while the top plate is moved to the right, dragging fluid
with it.

The layer (or lamina) of fluid in contact with

either plate does not move relative to the
plate, and so the top layer moves at v while
the bottom layer remains at rest.

Each successive layer from the top down

exerts a force on the one below it, trying to
drag it along, producing a continuous
variation in speed from v to 0 as shown.

A force F is required to keep the top plate

in motion at a constant velocity v, and
experiments have shown that this force
depends on four factors:

As the speed increases, a larger force is

needed

Second, F is proportional to the area A of the

plate. This relationship seems reasonable,
since A is directly proportional to the amount of fluid being moved.

Third, F is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates L.

Fourth, F is directly proportional to the coefficient of viscosity, η. The greater the

viscosity, the greater the force required.
 Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow
These dependencies are combined into the equation:

F = η vA/L ;

F in N, v in m/s, A in m2, L in m and η in N.s/m2= Pa.s;

Notes: The viscosities of gases are much less than those

of liquids, and these viscosities are often temperature
dependent ( As T decreases, η increases).

Poisseille’s law:

Consider a fluid with viscous resistance flowing in a pipe of

length l and radius R.

The fluid will gradually slow down and stop due to the
frictional force generated by the viscous forces.

In order to keep the fluid in motion, a pressure difference is

required at the ends of the pipe, so that, the excess pressure
pushes the fluid along and overcomes the frictional force. The
delivery rate Q in cm3/s:
 Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow
 where P1 − P2 is the difference between the fluid pressures at the two ends of the
2
cylinder and η is the coefficient of viscosity measured in units of dyn (sec/cm ), which
is called a poise.
 The viscosities of some fluids are listed below.

 In general, viscosity is a function of temperature and increases as the fluid becomes

colder.
Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow
Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow
 Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow

Prob.1
Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow
 Fluid Mechanics - Viscous Flow

Prob.2