1

Land climate and environment of Pakistan

4.1.1 locate Pakistan with reference to latitudes 24°N-37°N and longitudes 61°E-78°E.

Pakistan is located at latitude 30°N and longitude 69°E. It is part of Asia and the northern
hemisphere. Pakistan is located in South Asia, bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan and
Iran to the west, China to the north, and the Arabian Sea to the south.

4.1.2 locate the neighboring countries of Pakistan on the world map i.e. Afghanistan, india,
china and iran;

AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan is located at latitude 34 and longitude 68 (absolute location).

North west to Pakistan(relative location).
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INDIA India is located at latitude 21 and longitude 79. East to pakistan

CHINA China is located at latitude 36 and longitude 104. North east to pakistan
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IRAN Iran is located at latitude 32 and longitude 54. It is part of Asia and the northern
hemisphere. southWest to pakistan

4.2.1 locate the following landform features on the map of Pakistan;

● Plains: upper Indus, lower Indus

● Desert: thar, thal, kharan
● Mountain ranges: hindu kush, karakoram, Himalayan range, sulaiman range, safed koh,
kirthar, Waziristan, salt range
● Plateau: potwar and balochistan
● Coastal areas: Karachi, makran coast (balochistan)
● Rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, ravi, Sutlej, Kabul, hab, dasht;

● northern mountain ranges: hindukush, karakoram, himalayan range,

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The mountain valleys:

Importance of the northern mountains:

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western mountains
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rivers

balochistan plateau
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potwar plateau, salt range

plains
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deserts
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A. Highland climate
B. Lowland climate
C. Coastal climate
D. Arid climate

E.
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Here's a list of the mentioned landform features and their locations on the map of Pakistan:

Plains:

1. Upper Indus: located in northern Pakistan, stretching from the north-eastern border of
Pakistan to the north-west.
2. Lower Indus: located in southern Pakistan, mainly in the province of Sindh.

Desert:

1. Thar: located in the southeastern part of Pakistan, mainly in the province of Sindh.
2. Thal: located in the northwestern part of Pakistan, between the Indus and Jhelum
rivers.
3. Kharan: located in the southwestern part of Pakistan, mainly in the province of
Balochistan.

Mountain Ranges:

1. Hindu Kush: located in the northern part of Pakistan, stretching from the
northeastern border of Pakistan to the north-west.
2. Karakoram: located in the northern part of Pakistan, near the border with China.
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3. Himalayan Range: located in the northern part of Pakistan, near the border with
India.
4. Sulaiman Range: located in the western part of Pakistan, mainly in the province of
Balochistan.
5. Safed Koh: located in the northern part of Pakistan, stretching from the east to the
west.
6. Kirthar: located in the southern part of Pakistan, mainly in the province of Sindh.
7. Waziristan: located in the northwestern part of Pakistan, near the border with
Afghanistan.
8. Salt Range: located in the northern part of Pakistan, between the Indus and Jhelum
rivers.

Plateau:

1. Potwar: located in the northern part of Pakistan, mainly in the province of Punjab.
2. Balochistan: located in the southwestern part of Pakistan.

Coastal areas:

1. Karachi: located in the southern part of Pakistan, on the Arabian Sea coast.
2. Makran Coast (Balochistan): located in the southwestern part of Pakistan, along the
Arabian Sea coast.

Rivers:

1. Indus: flows from the northern part of Pakistan to the southern part, into the Arabian
Sea.
2. Jhelum: flows from the northeastern part of Pakistan to the southwest, into the
Chenab river.
3. Chenab: formed by the combination of two rivers, Jhelum and another river named
Chenab, and flows through central Pakistan.
4. Ravi: flows from the northwestern part of India to the western part of Pakistan, and
then into the Chenab river.
5. Sutlej: flows from the northwestern part of India to the southeastern part of
Pakistan, and then into the Chenab river.
6. Kabul: flows from Afghanistan to the northwestern part of Pakistan, and then into the
Indus river.
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7. Hab: located in the southwestern part of Pakistan, mainly in the province of

Balochistan.
8. Dasht: located in the southwestern part of Pakistan, mainly in the province of
Balochistan.

4.2.2 explain the importance of rivers for Pakistan;

4.3.1 discuss the factors that influence the climate of Pakistan (precipitation, western
depressions, monsoon, topographic relief, latitude);

1. Precipitation: Pakistan is a relatively arid country, with most of the country receiving less
than 500mm of rainfall annually. However, certain regions of the country, such as the
coastal areas of Sindh and Balochistan, receive more rainfall due to their proximity to the
Arabian Sea. The amount of precipitation also varies seasonally, with most of the
country receiving the bulk of its rainfall during the monsoon season.

2. Western Depressions: Western depressions are low-pressure systems that move across
the eastern Mediterranean and bring rain and snow to Pakistan during the winter
months. These systems can also bring strong winds and dust storms to the country.

3. Monsoon: The monsoon is the most significant weather phenomenon in Pakistan, and it
heavily influences the country's climate. The monsoon season typically begins in late
June and lasts until September, bringing much-needed rain to the country. The monsoon
winds blow from the Arabian Sea, and their intensity and duration vary from year to
year.
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4. Topographic Relief: Pakistan's topography plays a significant role in its climate. The
country's northern regions are mountainous, and the Himalayas and Karakoram ranges
create a barrier that prevents moisture from reaching the central and southern regions.
This results in a stark contrast between the arid southern regions and the wetter
northern regions.

5. Latitude: Pakistan is located in the subtropical region, which means that it experiences
hot summers and mild winters. However, the climate varies depending on the latitude.
The southern regions of the country are closer to the equator and experience higher
temperatures, while the northern regions are farther from the equator and have cooler
temperatures.

4.3.2 describe the major climatic regions of Pakistan i.e. arid, semiarid, coastal and highland;

A high land climate:

● This region includes northern, north-western and western highlands.

● Winters are long, cold and snowy, summers are short and mild.
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● Rainfall in the northern mountains is the highest in the highland zone; the western
mountains experience less rainfall.
● Summers are short, mild and wet in the northern mountains but dry and warm in the
western mountains.

Lowland climate:

● Includes all of the Indus plain except the coastal areas.

● It has an arid and extreme climate with hot summers, cool winters and summer
monsoon rainfall.
● The foothills of the northern mountains and potwar plateau are wetter than the Indus
plain, and also receive rainfall from western depression.
● Thunderstorms are common in the north and north-west of the Indus plain.
● The southern upper Indus plain and the whole of the lower Indus plain have much less
rainfall and very hot spells.

Coastal climate:

● This region includes the southern coastal strip comprising the Indus delta, Karachi and
the makran coast.
● The climate is dominated by sea breezes all year.
● In summer the land heats up, while the ocean remains comparatively cool.
● In winter the land looses heat quickly and becomes cold, while the ocean is much
warmer and keeps its warmth for a long time.
● The humidity level is moderately high, exceeding 50% from april to September.
● Mean monthly temperature is 32°C, and may, june and October are the hottest months.
● From Karachi to the rann of kutch, the coast experiences most of its rainfall during the
monsoon season, while on the makran coast, rain falls in winter.

Arid climate:

● South western balochistan and the south eastern desert have an arid climate: it is dry
and hot.
● Hot dusty winds prevail almost continuously from mid-may to mid-september.
● Most of the scanty rain in south-western balochistan falls in winter.
● In the south-eastern desert, summer monsoons bring little rain.
● Extreme heat and dryness and dust storms are the main features of this arid climate.
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4.3.3 analyse the effect of climate on the life of people with respect to climatic zones and
natural topography;

Highland zone:

● During winter farming is not possible. People are involved in indoor activities like
carpet-weaving, embroidery, pottery, etc.
● Transhumance is also practiced, i.e. moving flocks up to the cooler highlands in summer
and returning to the plains in winter.
● Most of pathan tribes still live as nomadic herders of goats and sheep. Due to extremely
low winter temperatures, they have to move to lowland areas with their animals. The
vale of Peshawar is the greenest part of this region.
● In the extreme north many areas are inaccessible due to landslides and heavy snowfall.
● Job opportunities are also limited in this region and economic activities are difficult to
carry out.
● The western highlands and barren mountains of balochistan are also sparsely populated.
Lack of water discourages human settlements.
● Crop cultivation is also difficult to carry out. However apples, mangoes, apricots and
grapes are grown in high valleys.

Arid zone:

● Low annual rainfall, cool mild minters, and hot summers. Summers are very hot during
day time.
● A region so deficient in moisture and so extreme in its temperature cannot be ideal for
habitation or cultivation.
● Most people are nomads and belong to such groups as the brahuis, balochis and
pathans. They move with their animals in search of food and water.
● Due to scanty rain and excessive evapo-transpiration, a unique system of underground
irrigation – ‘karez’ – is practiced. Karez is a narrow subterranean canal (existing, occurring, or
done under the earth's surface) which starts from the base of the hills and mountains where

subsoil water is present. On reaching the surface, it irrigates the orchards and fields,
many of which are sheltered by date palms. This method prevents water from being
evaporated by the heat of the sun or absorbed by the thirsty land.
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●
● The high land areas of balochistan with its cold and dry climate and winter rains are
suitable for growing fruits (grapes, apples, peaches and melons). Other crops include
millet, wheat and barley.
● Desert covers almost all of sindh and southern Punjab. The area receives only 100mm of
annual rainfall and the average monthly temperature in summer is over 38°C. such
extreme weather makes crop cultivation very difficult.
● However, large areas have been reclaimed for farming by constructing perennial canals
to irrigate the western part of southern Punjab and a wide strip either side of the Indus
in sindh. In those areas rice, wheat, cotton and oilseeds are cultivated.
● The rest of the thar desert is barren desert. The people wear thick clothes to protect
themselves from hot winds, and also wear turbans. They move from place to place in
search of water for themselves and their cattle.

Lowland zone – semi-arid to arid:

● The fertile Punjab plain, drained by the Indus and its four tributaries, has a continental
or extreme type of climate because of its northerly position.
● In daytime summers are extremely hot, while winters are cool to mild.
● Economically, the Punjab plain is the most productive agricultural region of Pakistan.
● In view of the varied and irregular rainfall; there is a well-developed canal irrigation
system to raise crops like wheat, millet, cotton and sugarcane.
● Punjab is the most densely populated province of Pakistan because of its alluvial plains,
moderate rainfall and tolerable summer and winter temperatures.

Coastal zone:
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● Pakistan has a delta coastline in the sindh (Karachi, thatta, badin) and the hilly makran
coast (gwadar, ormara, pasni) in balochistan.
● Karachi: mild climate, low average precipitation( 250mm, monsoon), winters are mild,
summers are hot, high humidity (60% to 70%), cool sea breezes in summer
● The winter months are considered the best time to visit Karachi, when most of the social
events take place.
● Economic activities can be carried on throughout the year due to mild climate.
● Farming is possible almost all year, depending on the availability of water from irrigation
channels.
● The seaports are open all year round to carry out international trade.
● Road and rail transport links to inland areas are never closed for business and economic
activities.
● Air flights are rarely cancelled because of bad weather.
● All types of industries ranging from cottage and small-scale to large-scale manufacturing
are operational in all seasons.
● During summer however, tropical cyclones sometimes cause coastal flooding in low-lying
areas, damaging infrastructure, homes and farmland in the Indus delta. Fishing
communities suffer economic losses due to tropical cyclones.
● Makran coast: dry, hot, maximum temperature in june( 31°C to 40°C), in January (18°C to
19°C), the oceanic influence keeps the temperature lower than the inland areas in
summer and higher in winter, humidity is along the whole coast and average annual
rainfall is below 250mm.
● The rain affects the supply of drinking water as its provided from reservoirs which are
rain-dependent.
● The moderate climate makes gwadar port operational throughout the year for trade
activities.

4.4.1 analyse the effect of human activities on the climate (industrialisation, agricultural
practices, deforestation):

Industrialization:

● increase in greenhouse gas emissions, particularly carbon dioxide, which is the major
contributor to global warming.

● Non renewable resources are used mostly to meet demand so higher emission of toxic
gases.
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● an increase in deforestation, contributes to climate change as trees absorb carbon

dioxide and provide oxygen.

● increase in temperature, which has led to a rise in sea levels, melting of glaciers and
changes in precipitation patterns due to climate change.

● increase in air pollution due to the emission of gases and particles that are harmful to
human health and the environment.

● increase in natural disasters such as floods, droughts, and extreme weather events in
Pakistan.

● resulted in the reduction of natural resources such as water, which has further worsen
the impact of climate change on Pakistan

Agricultural practices:

● major source of greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane and nitrous oxide,
which are released during activities such as livestock production, rice cultivation, and the
use of nitrogen fertilizers.

● Deforestation for agricultural purposes has also contributed to climate change in

Pakistan, as trees absorb carbon dioxide and provide oxygen.

● Changes in land use patterns due to agricultural practices have also led to soil
degradation and erosion, which affects the ability of land to sequester carbon and
contribute to the carbon cycle.

● Irrigation practices in Pakistan have also contributed to climate change, as the use of
groundwater pumps and irrigation systems is energy-intensive, resulting in greenhouse
gas emissions.

● The impact of climate change on Pakistan's agricultural sector has been significant, with
changes in precipitation patterns and rising temperatures affecting crop yields and food
security.

● The adoption of sustainable agricultural practices, such as agroforestry, conservation

agriculture, and integrated crop-livestock systems, can help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and increase carbon sequestration.
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● Pakistan has also implemented policies to promote sustainable agricultural practices,

such as the introduction of a national policy on climate change and the development of
a climate-smart agriculture framework.

● However, more needs to be done to encourage the widespread adoption of sustainable

agricultural practices in Pakistan to mitigate the impact of agriculture on climate change.

Deforestation:

● Deforestation is a major contributor to climate change in Pakistan as trees absorb carbon

dioxide and provide oxygen.

● Pakistan has one of the highest deforestation rates in the world, with forests being
cleared for agricultural land, livestock grazing, and commercial logging.

● Deforestation in Pakistan has led to an increase in carbon dioxide emissions, which

contribute to global warming and climate change.

● The loss of forests has also led to soil erosion, decreased soil fertility, and changes in
precipitation patterns, which affect the ability of land to sequester carbon and
contribute to the carbon cycle.

● Deforestation in Pakistan has also led to a loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services,
such as water purification and soil conservation, which further exacerbate the impact of
climate change.

● The government of Pakistan has implemented policies to address deforestation, such as

the Ten Billion Tree Tsunami program, which aims to plant ten billion trees by 2023.

● However, deforestation continues to be a major challenge in Pakistan, and more needs

to be done to promote sustainable forest management practices and reduce the
demand for forest products.

● Community-based forest management programs and the involvement of local

communities in forest conservation can also help address deforestation and mitigate the
impact of climate change.

4.4.2 state the main sources of pollution [industrial emissions (air), human waste (land),
arsenic (water);
The main sources of pollution in Pakistan are:
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● Industrial emissions, particularly air pollution from factories and power plants, which
release harmful gases and particles into the atmosphere.

● Human waste, which pollutes land and water sources, particularly in urban areas where
sanitation infrastructure is inadequate.

● Arsenic contamination of groundwater, which affects millions of people in Pakistan and

poses serious health risks.

To summarize:

● Industrial emissions contribute to air pollution in Pakistan

● Human waste pollutes land, particularly in urban areas

● Arsenic contamination affects water sources in Pakistan.

4.4.3 analyse the problems related to health, agriculture and environment caused by
pollution;

Health:

● Exposure to air pollution in Pakistan has been linked to respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer,
and heart disease.

● Water pollution has led to the spread of water-borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid,
and hepatitis A.

● Heavy metal contamination of soil and water sources has led to health problems such as
lead poisoning, which can cause neurological damage.

Agriculture:

● Soil degradation and erosion caused by pollution can lead to reduced agricultural
productivity and food insecurity.

● Pollution from agricultural practices, such as the use of nitrogen fertilizers, can
contaminate water sources and affect aquatic ecosystems.

Environment:
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● Pollution in Pakistan has led to the degradation of ecosystems and the loss of
biodiversity.

● Water pollution and depletion of water sources have led to conflicts over access to clean
water and disrupted the livelihoods of communities that rely on fishing and agriculture.

● Air pollution has contributed to climate change, which has had negative impacts on the
environment, including melting glaciers and changing precipitation patterns.

4.4.4 analyse the likely impact of global warming on Pakistan;

1. Water scarcity: Pakistan already faces water scarcity, and global warming is likely to
worsen this problem by reducing snowmelt from mountainous areas and altering
precipitation patterns. This could lead to reduced agricultural productivity and water
availability for households and industries.

2. Health impacts: Rising temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns could lead to
the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Heat waves and
other extreme weather events could also increase the risk of heat stroke and other
heat-related illnesses.

3. Agricultural impacts: Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns could lead to

changes in the timing of planting and harvesting, affecting crop yields and food security.
Pests and diseases may also increase in prevalence, affecting the productivity of crops
and livestock.

4. Natural disasters: Pakistan is already prone to natural disasters such as floods and
landslides, and global warming could increase the frequency and intensity of these
events. This could lead to loss of life, displacement of communities, and damage to
infrastructure.

5. Glacial melt: Pakistan is home to many glaciers, including the Himalayan and Karakoram
ranges. Global warming is causing these glaciers to melt at an accelerating rate, which
could lead to glacial lake outburst floods and affect water availability in the long-term.

4.4.5 suggest remedies to lessen the effect of global warming on Pakistan (at an individual
level, at the government level);
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Individual Level Remedies Government Level Remedies

Use energy-efficient
appliances and reduce Implement policies to promote
energy consumption at renewable energy, such as solar
home. and wind power.

Use public transportation,

carpool, or bike to reduce Regulate emissions from
greenhouse gas emissions industries and power plants to
from transportation. reduce pollution.

Promote sustainable
Plant trees and support agriculture practices, such as
reforestation efforts to reducing the use of chemical
absorb carbon dioxide fertilizers and promoting
from the atmosphere. organic farming.

Implement policies to reduce

Reduce waste by recycling, deforestation and promote
composting, and reducing sustainable forest
plastic usage. management.

Promote water conservation

Conserve water by fixing and implement policies to
leaks, using low-flow address water scarcity, such as
fixtures, and reducing rainwater harvesting and
water consumption. efficient irrigation techniques.

5.1.1 locate on the map of Pakistan the main regions of the following natural resources found
in Pakistan:

● Forest: Coniferous, Alpine, Riverine, Irrigated, Tropical thorn forest, Sub-tropical Scrub
forest, Mangroves
● Minerals: Rock salt, natural gas, copper, limestone, gypsum, marble, coal;

Types of forests Examples of areas

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Alpine forests Northern areas (chitral, dir, kohistan)

Coniferous forests 1.northern areas
2.khyber pakhtunkhwa (abbotabad, mansehra, kohistan, shangla,
swat)
3.rawalpindi, Islamabad, murree
4.balochistan mountains (quetta & kalat divisions)
Tropical thorn forest 1.punjab plains
2.southern & western balochistan
3.sindh plains
Sub tropical scrub 1.hills and foothills of lower Himalayas
forest 2.sulaiman and kirthar ranges
3.western mountains (Peshawar, Waziristan, kohat, mardan)
4.above the makran coast range
Riverine forest River Indus and its tributaries
Mangrove forest 1.coastal areas of sindh
2.coastal areas of balochistan (deltaic regions)
Irrigated forests 1.changa manga near Lahore
2.wan bachran in the thal area
3. chichawatni in sahiwal district & ghulam Muhammad and guddu
barrages
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rock salt & gypsum

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limestone & marble

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copper

natural gas & coal

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5.1.2 explain the importance of natural resources in the economic development of Pakistan;

1. Agriculture: Pakistan has a fertile land with a diverse range of crops, including cotton,
wheat, rice, and sugarcane. The agriculture sector is a significant contributor to the
economy, employing around 40% of the workforce and providing raw materials for the
agro-based industry.

2. Minerals and Mining: Pakistan is rich in mineral resources, including coal, natural gas,
copper, gold, and iron ore. These resources are important for the development of
industries such as steel, cement, and fertilizers.

3. Energy: Pakistan is heavily dependent on imported energy sources such as oil and gas.
However, the country has significant potential for renewable energy, including solar,
wind, and hydropower. By tapping into these resources, Pakistan can reduce its reliance
on imported energy and improve energy security.

4. Fisheries: Pakistan has a long coastline and a large exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which
supports a thriving fishing industry. The fisheries sector is a significant contributor to the
economy, providing employment and raw materials for food processing and export
industries.

5. Forests: Pakistan has significant forest resources, including the largest man-made forest
in the world, the Changa Manga forest. Forests provide important ecosystem services,
including carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and water regulation. They also
support the timber industry and provide non-timber forest products such as honey and
medicinal plants.

5.2.1 discuss the importance of energy resources in the development of a country (natural
gas, petroleum, coal and hydel);

1. Natural Gas: Natural gas is a cleaner-burning fossil fuel that can be used for electricity
generation, heating, and industrial processes. It is abundant and cost-effective, making it
a key contributor to economic growth. In addition, natural gas can be used as a
feedstock for the production of fertilizers, chemicals, and other products, supporting the
growth of the manufacturing sector.

2. Petroleum: Petroleum, or crude oil, is a vital source of energy for transportation,

powering cars, trucks, airplanes, and ships. It is also used in the production of plastics,
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chemicals, and other products. Countries with significant petroleum reserves can
leverage this resource to support economic growth and development.

3. Coal: Coal is a fossil fuel that has historically been used for electricity generation and
industrial processes. While it is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions and air
pollution, it remains an important source of energy in many countries, particularly those
with abundant coal reserves.

4. Hydel Power: Hydel power, or hydroelectric power, is generated by harnessing the power
of moving water. It is a clean and renewable source of energy, making it an attractive
option for countries looking to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels. Hydel power can
support economic development by providing a reliable source of electricity for homes,
businesses, and industries.

5.2.2 analyse the need for increase in production of energy resources of Pakistan;

1. Meeting energy demands: Currently, the country faces significant energy shortages,
resulting in frequent blackouts and load shedding. Increasing energy production will help
meet this demand and support economic growth.

2. Supporting economic growth: Energy is a critical input for many industries, including
manufacturing, agriculture, and transportation. Increasing energy production will
support the growth of these sectors and improve economic productivity.

3. Reducing reliance on imports: Pakistan is heavily dependent on imported energy

sources, particularly oil and gas. Increasing domestic energy production will reduce the
country's reliance on expensive imports, improving energy security and reducing the
trade deficit.

4. Supporting sustainable development: Pakistan has significant potential for renewable

energy, including solar, wind, and hydropower. Increasing the production of these
resources will support sustainable development, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and
support the country's commitments under the Paris Agreement.

5. Improving access to energy: Millions of people in Pakistan still lack access to electricity
and other forms of modern energy. Increasing energy production will help expand access
to energy and support poverty reduction.
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5.3.2 discuss how natural and human factors affect the production of small-scale and cash
crop farms (cotton, rice, sugarcane, wheat);

Natural Factors:

1. Topography: usually the flatter the land, the larger and more efficient the farm.
Mountainous regions are far more difficult to farm than plains, because the slopes must
be made into terraces. The more valuable crops are cultivated on flat land, such as cash
crops. Output tends to decline as land gets steeper and higher.
2. Soils: rich soils are more productive. Alluvial and loess( fine soil deposited by wind) are
best for farming. Soils that are rich in hummus are best for farming. The river Indus and
its tributaries spread alluvium on their banks. Pakistan’s soil lacks organic matter, this
deficiency can be met by using manure and nitrogenous fertilizers, which make it
possible to cultivate more crops.
3. Water, including rainfall: northern areas including the potwar plateau, receive adequate
rainfall. For most of the year this area can produce crops without irrigation and has good
grazing for animals. The drier areas towards the south and east are only suited to arable
farming with the help of irrigation. Water for irrigation comes from snow-fed and
monsoon-fed rivers flowing from the northern mountains or from ground water.
4. Temperature: in the northern areas, the growing season is april-september, whereas in
the sunnier south, cereals and fruits can ripen throughout the year.
5. Pests and diseases: pests and diseases are likely to attack crops if preventative and
curative measures are not taken. Attacks by pests and diseases reduce agricultural
output.

Human Factors:

1. Irrigation facilities: irrigation is used to improve yields. With the extension of irrigation
facilities, two or three crops can be grown in a year and the cultivable area increases.
However, canal irrigation can cause problems such as waterlogging and salinity. The
installation of tubewells is increasing in areas where the water table is high. In order to
produce more crops, fields need a regular supply of water.
2. Fertilizers: the application of fertilizers (traditional manure or chemical fertilizers) has
increased output
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3. Mechanization: the introduction of machines such as tractors, tillers, combine

harvesters, etc. for rice has increased agricultural output but has led to a sharp decline in
the number of people employed in the agriculture sector. It has helped to increase
farmer’s incomes by minimizing pre- and post-harvest losses. It also generates non-farm
employment.
4. High-yielding varieties of seeds (HYVs): the use of high-yielding varieties also increases
output by 10% to 20%, if fertilizer is applied and sufficient water is supplied.
5. Marketing of agricultural products: agricultural marketing is disorganized with a lack of
transport facilities and a large number of intermediaries, raising costs and reducing
output.
6. Size of farm: small farms are uneconomic. Machinery cannot be used, small holdings are
difficult to supervise, loans cannot be obtained to develop small holdings, irrigation is
difficult on small and discontinuous farms, experiments cannot be carried out to
increase production. The output of a smallholding is small, so profits are low. Owners are
unable to improve their farm inputs, resulting in low production and low profit. The
solution lies in consolidation of holdings.
7. Plant protection programmes: preventative measures prepare disease-resistant seeds
and protection measures include aerial and ground spraying with insecticides against
pests and diseases. Pakistan’s plant protection department maintains vigilance surveys
for the control of locusts, particularly in desert areas. The public sector provides
pest-scouting advisory services and aerial spraying.

5.3.3 discuss natural and human factors that affect livestock farming (cattle, goats, sheep,
fish);

Human factors

1. Medication: Healthy cattle are essential for efficient beef and milk production, and
disease control is necessary to ensure quality of production. Livestock farms can
face losses due to pandemics and diseases, but veterinarians can help prevent
these health hazards through proper vaccination programs. They need to
collaborate with farming communities to ensure the effective and right
medication.
2. Provision of shelter: The proper shelter is essential for livestock production, as it
provides protection from heat, cold, and predators, as well as helps prevent
suffering and death due to extreme climate. Without proper shelter, livestock
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would need more calories for normal functioning and would lose minerals and
water due to direct exposure to the sun. It is important to provide proper shelter
and shade to reduce exposure to direct sun during scorching days of summers.
3. Farming skills: Skilled farmers can use resources efficiently and effectively to
increase production, but most in Pakistan lack modern skills in farm and resource
management, panning, processing, and technology utilization, hindering their
potential productivity.
4. Mechanization: Mechanization of farming is an important part of today's farming
practices, as it increases yield and saves time and money. It is used to milk cows
and store meat and other livestock products in refrigerators, helping to boost
livestock production.

Natural factors

1. Vegetation: Vegetation is one of the important natural factors affecting livestock

farming. People practice more livestock farming in areas which are rich vegetation. Lack
of vegetation discourages animal rearing.
2. Availability of water: Just like that of crop farming, an abundance of water is important
for the practice of livestock farming. People related to animal rearing have special
grazing places
which they irrigate periodically for the growth of grass etc.
3. Diseases and pandemics: Different pandemics and diseases attack animals killing them
wholesale. In absence of finding a timely cure can cause a huge loss to farmers.
4. Climate: As different animals live in different climates they cannot simply easily adapt to
survive in a different climate. Only a few animals can survive the snowy winters of
Karakorum, Hindukush, and the Himalayas. Trying to rear animals of hot places like that
of Sindh and Punjab in Gilgit or Skardu will be counter-effective.

5.3.4 explain the effects of climatic conditions (with reference to various climatic regions)
and natural topography on agriculture in different regions of Pakistan;

Climatic topography Climatic conditions Effects on agricuture

region
Highland Mountainuous ● Severe cold ● The growth of the trees is
climate areas (the winters retarded during winters
regions include ● Mild to warm because of the freezing
northern,
summers temperature.
north-western,
35

and western ● Temperature ● Moreover, the snow in winter

highlands) falls below hides the grass making it
freezing point in difficult for animal grazing.
winters Due to much cold rivers, lakes
and torrents freeze.
● Farming is not possible during
winter
● vegetables and crops are
cultivated during summer and
stored for winter.
● Another effect of the climate
is
the Transhumance practiced
in these areas. Transhumance
is a practice in which people
move to pastures with the
animals i.e. sheep, goats,
cattle, etc. in summer and
return to warmer plains
during winters.
● Similarly, the rough landscape
and terrain make it difficult to
cultivate crops. However,
fruits such as apples,
mangoes, apricots, and
grapes are grown in the
valleys of high-altitude
areas.

Lowland zone Indus plain/ ● Hot summers, ● T he Indus Plain of Punjab and
plain areas of cool winters Sindh falls in this climatic
sindh and ● Summer zone.
punjab
monsoon ● Areas located in this climatic
rainfall zone receive carried and
irregular rainfall which has led
36

to a well-developed canal
irrigation system. As a result
of the availability of water
and moderate temperature,
people
raise crops like wheat, millet,
cotton, and sugarcane
throughout the year.
● Another reason for well-
developed canal irrigation is
the presence of rivers and
plain area. It is relatively
easier to construct canals in
plains than in mountains.
● Cultivation throughout the
years in these plain areas
helps meet the food needs of
an
increasing population of
Pakistan.

Coastal Coastal areas ● The climate is ● Because of the moderate

climate dominated by temperature agricultural
sea breezes practice continues throughout
throughout the year depending on the
the year. supply of water.
Because of ● Mostly, people living in
blowing of sea coastal areas practice fishing
breezes the as the main occupation.
climate ● According to Pakistan Fisher
is moderate. Folk Forum, more than 3.7
Winters are mild million people are related to
and summers fishing as their source of
are Livelihood.
hot.
37

Desert/arid deserts ● Climate is one ● Unlike coastal communities,

climate of the extremes people living inland move
● Low rainfall with their cattle/animals in
● Cool-mild search
winters and hot of food and water from one
summers place to another place.
● Summers are ● Due to scanty rainfall and
very hot during excessive evaporation, the
day time Baloch practice 'Karez, a
unique system of
underground irrigation
primarily for saving water
from evaporation. They use
this water for irrigation
purposes.
● Unlike other regions, cold and
dry climates and winter rains
due to western depressions
characterize the highland
areas
of Balochistan.
● These features make the
highlands of Balochistan
suitable for growing fruits i.e.
apples, melons, grapes, and
peaches. People also cultivate
other crops i.e. millet, wheat,
barley.

5.3.5 discuss the role of agriculture in the economic development of Pakistan;

● Agriculture is one of the most important sectors in Pakistan's economy, contributing

significantly to its Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment, and exports.
38

● The agriculture sector in Pakistan is mainly composed of small-scale subsistence farmers,

and the majority of the land is under the control of large landowners.
● Agriculture also plays a significant role in Pakistan's exports, with major exports
including rice, cotton, fruits, and vegetables.
● The government of Pakistan has introduced several policies and programs to support the
agriculture sector, including the provision of subsidies, credit facilities, and research and
development programs.
● The government has also established the Agricultural Market Information System (AMIS)
to provide farmers with up-to-date information on market prices and trends.

5.3.6 discuss the problems faced by the agricultural sector of Pakistan;

● Water Scarcity: Pakistan is an arid and semi-arid country with limited water resources.
Agriculture in Pakistan is mainly dependent on irrigation, and the limited water
resources have led to water scarcity, which has impacted agricultural productivity.
● Land Degradation: The agricultural sector in Pakistan is facing the issue of land
degradation due to poor soil quality, erosion, deforestation, and overgrazing. The
degraded land is unable to provide the required nutrients to crops, which results in poor
crop yield.
● Lack of Modern Technology: The majority of farmers in Pakistan use traditional farming
methods, which results in low productivity. The use of modern technology, such as
irrigation systems, fertilizers, pesticides, and improved seeds, is limited in Pakistan.
● Poor Infrastructure: The infrastructure for agriculture in Pakistan, such as storage
facilities, transportation, and market access, is inadequate. This results in postharvest
losses, lack of market access, and low prices for crops.
● Lack of Research and Development: The agricultural sector in Pakistan lacks research and
development facilities. The research and development facilities are necessary to improve
the quality of seeds, improve crop yield, and develop new technologies that can
enhance agricultural productivity.
● Climate Change: Climate change is a major threat to agriculture in Pakistan. Changes in
temperature and precipitation patterns have led to crop failures, reduced crop yield, and
loss of livestock.

5.3.7 suggest remedies for the problems faced by agricultural sector of Pakistan;

1. Climate change: The government can establish policies and programs to promote
climate-smart agriculture, such as crop diversification, conservation tillage, and
39

integrated pest management. Furthermore, the use of climate-resilient crop varieties

and irrigation practices can also help to mitigate the impacts of climate change on
agriculture.

2. Lack of research and development: To address this problem, the government can invest
more in agricultural research and development by allocating more funding to research
institutions and universities. The private sector can also be encouraged to invest in this
area by offering incentives such as tax breaks or subsidies.

3. Poor infrastructure: The government can improve rural infrastructure such as roads,
electricity, and telecommunications. This will facilitate the transportation of agricultural
products and also provide better access to markets for farmers.

4. Lack of modern technology: The government can introduce policies to facilitate the
adoption of modern technology, such as the use of precision agriculture tools, drone
technology, and artificial intelligence. Training programs can also be provided to farmers
to enable them to use such technologies.

5. Land degradation: To combat land degradation, the government can promote

sustainable land use practices such as conservation tillage, crop rotation, and cover
cropping. The use of organic fertilizers can also help to improve soil health.

6. Water scarcity: The government can invest in water infrastructure, such as dams and
irrigation systems, to improve water availability for agriculture. Efficient irrigation
systems, such as drip irrigation, can also be promoted to conserve water. Furthermore,
policies can be introduced to incentivize farmers to adopt water-efficient practices such
as crop diversification and drought-resistant crop varieties.

5.4.1 describe different methods of irrigation used in pakistan

● Canal irrigation; karez, inundation and perennial canal

● Lift irrigation; Persian wheel and tube well
● Dams; mangla, tarbela, and warsak
● Barrages; guddu, sukkur, suleimanki
1. Canal irrigation: in canal irrigation water is taken from rivers, lakes, barrages, dams, etc.
to fields to cultivate crops.

Type of canal Details

40

Karez Karez is an old system of canal irrigation

practiced in the Balochistan province of
Pakistan. This system consists of several
kilometers of long underground water
channels used to take out water present in
the foothills for irrigation purposes.
Verticle shafts are dug to the water channel
for maintenance and clearance in event of
a blockage. The water flowing through the
underground canal is not exposed to
sunlight. This helps prevent the
evaporation of water and its consequent
loss in a province that is hit by scarcity of
water.

Inundation canal
The canals which are taken directly from
rivers are referred to as inundation canals.
In Pakistan, these canals take water from
the Indus and its tributaries in the Indus
Plain. They are filled with water during the
flood season when the water level is high
in the rivers. They remain dry during
winters.

Perennial canal
Perennial canals are modern-day canals
taken from barrages and dams. They are
full of water throughout the year and
provide water to a vast area of land used
for crop cultivation in Punjab and Sindh.
They help provide water to even those
areas which were once arid or semi-arid.
41

2. Lift irrigation: lift irrigation is one of the methods of irrigation in Pakistan. In this
irrigation method, water is lifted from underground and used to irrigate the land.

Types of lift irrigation Description

Tubewells
This is a type of lift irrigation in which
farmers lift underground water with the
use of diesel or electrically operated
pumps. A normal tubewell lifts water from
a depth of almost 300 feet or more. TThe
lifted water is used for irrigation purposes.

Persian wheel This is the oldest method of irrigation using

the power of blindfolded bullocks or other
animals practiced in rural parts of the
country. A bullock or two turn a horizontal
wooden wheel geared to a vertical wheel
at the end of a shaft. The vertical wheel is
attached with many ports at its edges
which lift water from the well and drop it
into a channel leading towards the field.

3. Dams: dams are human-made water reservoirs of water by creating a barrier on a river
esp. in mountainous areas. The stored water helps meet irrigation needs through canals
along with the generation of electricity, fishing, etc.

Mangla The Mangla Dam is one of the longest earth-filled dams in the world on the
dam River Indus. It is a multipurpose dam with two main uses of
controlling and storing water for irrigation and generation of electricity. It
also acts as a point for fishing and tourist attractions.
42

Tarbela
dam

Warsak
dam

4. Barrages: barrages are also barriers constructed on rivers in plain areas to store water to
use for irrigation and flood control. They are very long structures across the rivers in
Punjab and sindh. Unlike dams, barrages are made in flat areas.

Barrage Location Area under irrigation

Sukkur barrage River indus Sukkur, khairpur,

nawabshah, shikarpur and
larkana districts

Guddu barrage River Indus Jaccobabad and ghotki

districts

Sulaimanki barrage River sutlej A large area in southern

Punjab and the
bahawalnagar district.

5.4.2 explain the importance of irrigation in Pakistan;

 akistan is an agricultural country. Agriculture provides the largest share of total employment
P
and raw material to different industries. It is the largest source of foreign exchange earnings. It
also constitutes the largest share of the total GDP of the country. As the most important sector
of the economy, agriculture depends upon irrigation. Because there is scanty rainfall in the
43

country which occurs in the monsoon season. The little rainfall is of less use as it occurs
randomly at different times and quantities, thus not suitable for the cultivation of crops. The
river and underground water is used for agriculture through different methods e.g. canals,
dams, lift and barrage irrigation. Hence irrigation is very important in Pakistan.

5.4.3 discuss the causes of water logging and salinity;

What is waterlogging?
The term waterlogging refers to an increase in the level of underground water due to
continuous seepage of water from perennial canals and fields. This results in the saturation of
soil with water making it unfit for crop cultivation and plant growth. Plant roots to a greater o
lesser under the soil require air which is
prevented to get in because of the presence of water.
What is the problem of salinity?
The underground water that reaches the earth's surface because of waterlogging also brings
different chlorides dissolved in it. This salt is deposited on the surface of the soil as a result of
evaporation of this water as it exposes to the sun. This deposition of salt on the surface of the
earth is called salinity. An amount of the salt is also brought by irrigation water. The deposition
of salt does not allow the growth of plants thus making the soil unfit for crop cultivation.
The deposition of salt inland has adversely affected agricultural production. This problem
affects 0.10(1) million acres of land every year. Crops cannot be grown inland with the
deposition of salt. This problem reduces cultivable land.

5.4.4 explain ways through which the land damaged by water logging and salinity can be
restored;

Installation of Tube wells

Installation of tube wells can help reduce the level of the water table of underground water. A
farmer can achieve two important purposes by installing a tube well. Firstly it will bring a
reduction in the water table/level of underground water. Secondly, It will provide
much-needed water for irrigation and cultivation of crops.
Proper drainage system
As discussed above, one of the causes of waterlogging is the seepage of standing water on the
fields into the ground. This seepage of water causes an increase in the water table. By
introducing an effective drainage system to drain excess or standing water on the fields can
help avoid the seepage of water and waterlogging.
Flushing out the salt
44

Flushing out the salt is one of the remedies to do away with salinity. Providing extra water
during irrigation can flush out soluble salts from the surface of the field. Doing it several times
will bring a reduction in the deposition of salt on the field thus making it fit for crop farming.
This has been one of the ways to reclaim the salinity hit land in Pakistan.

Repair of canal banks

Water in perennial canals gets leaked from the canal banks and seeps into the ground to cause
waterlogging. Regular and periodic repair and effective management of perennial canals can
help avoid the problem.

5.5.1 describe the distribution of forests in Pakistan;

Types of forests Examples of areas

Alpine forests Northern areas (chitral, dir, kohistan)
Coniferous forests 1.northern areas
2.khyber pakhtunkhwa (abbotabad, mansehra, kohistan, shangla,
swat)
3.rawalpindi, Islamabad, murree
4.balochistan mountains (quetta & kalat divisions)
Tropical thorn forest 1.punjab plains
2.southern & western balochistan
3.sindh plains
Sub tropical scrub 1.hills and foothills of lower Himalayas
forest 2.sulaiman and kirthar ranges
3.western mountains (Peshawar, Waziristan, kohat, mardan)
4.above the makran coast range
Riverine forest River Indus and its tributaries
Mangrove forest 1.coastal areas of sindh
2.coastal areas of balochistan (deltaic regions)
Irrigated forests 1.changa manga near Lahore
2.wan bachran in the thal area
3. chichawatni in sahiwal district & ghulam Muhammad and guddu
barrages
5.5.2 discuss the economic importance of forests for Pakistan.

1. Use as firewood:
The use of forests as a source of firewood goes back to time immemorial. The rural areas exp.
the mountainous areas of Pakistan e.g. Gilgit-Baltistan, Tribal region, Azad Jammu & Kashmir,
Chitral, etc. do not have access to natural gas. People in these areas use any type of forests
45

they have as firewood.

Similarly, the communities living along coastal areas make use of mangroves and those in
mountainous areas use alpine and other forests as fuelwood. People also plant trees esp. for
firewood and maintain them in such a way that they help them meet fuel needs along with
serving many other requirements of life.

2. An important source of timber:

Furniture is an important part of our life. At our homes, offices, and public places furniture can
be witnessed. Many forests are an important source of timber. For example, coniferous trees
are used for making offices, homes, and other types of furniture, bridges, boxes, etc. Similarly,
Shisham and Babul, two important examples of Riverain forests are also used for making
furniture, agricultural and domestic implements.

3. Environmental protection:
Another important significance of forests is that they act as guardians of the environment.
They conserve soil and prevent flooding in case of rainfall. For instance, mangroves help stop
the erosion of coastlines from sea waves that constantly hit them. They also mitigate the
damage done during oceanic storms and tsunamis caused by earth quacks in the oceans.
The absence of trees in mountains exposes slopes to the rainfall which as result drains the soil
with itself. Consequently, flooding occurs, causing human loss, damage to agricultural land,
crops, livestock, etc. This points towards the significance of forests which conserve and
preserve the soil with their deep roots.

4. Breeding and conservation centers:

Forests act as a habitat for wildlife and unlimited species. They act as places of breeding,
growth, and protection for wildlife. For instance, the coniferous forests in mountainous areas
and mangrove forests in deltas act as breeding zones for birds and fish respectively. Thus the
existence of forests is actually a gurantee for the protection of biodiversity.

5. Forests add to the scenic beauty of the areas:

Forests add to the scenic beauty of any area. In Pakistan Azad Kashmir, Marri, Shangla, Nathia
Gali, Kaghan, etc. are famous attractions for both domestic and foreign tourists. Thus forests
play a vital role in promoting the tourism industry and enhancing the economic conditions of
people as they earn income from tourism-related work.

6. Use for Grazing purposes:

In villages, livestock farmers maintain irrigated forests which apart from giving many benefits
46

also act as food for animals. Animals such as goats, sheep, cows, etc. feed on the leaves of
trees. Similarly, camels and other livestock reared in coastal areas feed on mangroves. Thus
forests along with many other functions also serve grazing purposes.