PHOTOSYNTHESIS

BEST ‘O’ LEVEL BIOLOGY REVISION NOTES ®

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
COMPILED BY G. TARUVINGA

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 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis
— Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose
using light energy in the presence of chlorophyll.
— Oxygen is released as a by-product.
— Photosynthesis is summarized by the word equation:

Or by the chemical equation:

— The raw materials of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water and light energy.
— The end products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen.
— The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of the leaf of a plant and water is
taken up through the roots.
— Chlorophyll is the green pigment that absorbs light for photosynthesis.
— Chlorophyll absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the formation of
glucose/carbohydrates. Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts of palisade cells of the leaf.

The importance of photosynthesis

1. It reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the air which is the main cause of global warming.
2. Produces oxygen which is used in respiration by living organisms.
3. Produces food which is a source of nutrients and energy for living organisms.
4. Energy is stored in fossil fuels through photosynthesis.
— All the energy in fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, came from the sun, captured through
photosynthesis. Burning of fossil fuels releases energy for human activities.

The fate of the end products of photosynthesis

— Photosynthesis has two end products: glucose and oxygen.

 Glucose is converted into:
1. soluble sucrose for translocation through phloem from leaves to storage organs.
Sucrose is then converted into insoluble starch for storage.
2. fats and oils for storage in seeds and for making cell membranes.
3. cellulose for making cell walls.
4. amino acids and plant proteins when it combines with nitrates in the plant.
5. energy during respiration.

 Oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through stomata into the surrounding air or water.
 The oxygen is used for respiration by plants and animals.

Try this question

What are the uses of soluble glucose in plants?

Answer

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Glucose can be: converted into insoluble starch for storage, used for respiration, converted into
fats and oils for storage and making cell membranes, used to produce cellulose (which
strengthens cell walls) and used to produce proteins.

How to prove that a leaf carries out photosynthesis

— Any green part of the plant can carry out photosynthesis but the leaf is the main
photosynthetic organ of the plant.
— To prove that a leaf carries out photosynthesis we need to test it for starch, which is one of
the carbohydrates made during photosynthesis.

Testing a leaf for starch

1. Destarch leaves of a potted plant by putting it in a dark cupboard for 48 hours so that it uses
up all of the stored starch.
2. To ensure the leaves are completely destarched, take some and test them for starch using
the procedure shown in the diagram that follows. They should give a brown colour to show
that starch is absent.
 Why must the plant be destarched? Photosynthesis is measured by how much starch is
produced so the leaf must start without starch.

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3. Now place the potted plant in sunlight for a few hours to allow it to carry out photosynthesis.
4. Take some leaves form this plant and test them for starch using the steps shown in the
diagrams that follow.
5. Note the colour change after applying iodine.

Observations
1. After heating the leaf in hot water it became whitish, hard, brittle and crispy.
2. The colourless alcohol became dirty green after heating the leaf in it.
3. The leaf became soft after rinsing it in warm water.
4. After applying iodine solution, the leaf turned blue-black showing that starch was present in it.

Conclusion
Therefore green leaves manufacture starch during photosynthesis.

SUMMARY: TESTING A LEAF FOR STARCH

 Destarch leaf in dark cupboard for 48 hours- removes starch.

 Put leaf in light for a few hours- photosynthesis occurs/leaf makes starch.
 Boil leaf in water - stops enzyme reactions, removes waxy cuticle/breaks down cell walls
(allows easier penetration by alcohol).
 Boil leaf in ethanol - removes chlorophyll, leaf becomes whitish (to avoid masking colour
changes).
 Dip in hot water - softens leaf (ethanol makes it hard, brittle,).
 Iodine added – to test for starch (blue-black colour shows presence of starch).

TRY THESE QUESTIONS

1) During the starch test on a leaf, what is the purpose of first heating the leaf in hot water? [2]
 to break down the cell walls/to remove waxy cuticle;
 to allow easier penetration by alcohol/ethanol/methylated spirits;
 to stop enzymes reactions within the leaf.
2) What is the purpose of heating the leaf in alcohol? [2]
 to remove/extract the chlorophyll;
 to avoid masking colour changes/observations later.
3) What is the purpose of rinsing the leaf in warm water? [1]
 to soften the leaf.

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4) What is the purpose of applying iodine solution to the leaf at last?

 to test for starch
1) What is the purpose of placing the leaf on a white tile? [1]
 White background enables colour change to be seen easily.
2) Why is the Bunsen burner flame put off before heating the leaf in alcohol? [1]
 Safety precaution: Alcohol vapour is highly flammable/inflammable.
3) State four changes that occur to the leaf after heating it in alcohol. [4]
 colourless/whitish
 hard
 brittle
 crispy

Factors which affect photosynthesis

 Factors which affect photosynthesis are

— light
— carbon dioxide (CO2)
— chlorophyll
— Water.
 Photosynthesis investigations - Principles and Starch test

Experiments are used to find out what factors (CO2, light, chlorophyll) are needed for
photosynthesis. But first of all you need to destarch the plants. To be certain that they are
thoroughly destarched, test a leaf for starch before you begin your investigation. Why must
the plant be destarched? Photosynthesis is measured by how much starch is produced so
the leaf must start without starch.

 Principles of investigations
1) Investigations need controls
 Control- plant (or leaf) that has all substances it needs.
 Test (or the experiment) - plant/leaf that lacks one substance (light/chlorophyll/CO2).
 The Importance of a Control: The control is used as a comparison so as to come up
with a valid conclusion.

2) Plants must be destarched

 It is very important that the leaves you are testing should not have any starch in them at
the beginning of the experiment.
 So, first of all, you must destarch the plants. Leave them in the dark for 48 hours. The
plants use up all stores of starch in its leaves.

3) Test the leaf for starch with Iodine solution.

Experiments to demonstrate factors which affect photosynthesis

1. Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Method
1) Take a potted plant with variegated leaves (leaves with green and non-green patches e.g.
white/yellow).Green patch is the control. The non-green patch is the test.
2) Destarch the plant by keeping it in a dark cupboard for 48 hours.
3) Draw one leaf to show the white and green patches.
4) Expose the plant to the sunlight for about 6 hours.
5) Test one of the leaves for starch with iodine solution.
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6) Draw the leaf again and indicate the colour changes.

Observations
— Diagram of leaf before and after testing for starch.

— Areas with previously green patches turn blue-black (test positive for starch).
— Areas with previously non-green patches (white/ yellow patches) remain brown (test
negative for starch).

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PICTRUE: Variegated leaf, before and after testing for starch.

Conclusion

 Photosynthesis takes place only in green patches because of the presence of chlorophyll.
 The pale yellow patches do not perform photosynthesis because of the absence of
chlorophyll.
 Therefore, chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

2. Light is essential for photosynthesis

Method
1) Take a potted plant.
2) Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48 hours.
3) Test one of its leaves for starch to check that is does not contain any.
4) Cover part of the leaf with some aluminium foil to prevent light getting through.
The uncovered part of the leaf is the control. The covered part is the test.
5) Place the plant in light for a few days.
6) Remove the cover and test the leaf for starch.

Observations
Only parts of the leaf that were left uncovered and received light go blue-black (positive test for
starch). The covered parts which didn't receive light remain brown (negative test for starch).

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Conclusion
Light is necessary for photosynthesis.

3. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is essential for photosynthesis

Method
1) Take two destarched potted plants.
2) Cover both the plants with bell jars (or transparent plastic bags) and label them as A and B.
3) Inside Set-up A, place NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate). It produces CO2.
Set-up A is the control.
4) Inside Set-up B, place soda lime or NaOH (Sodium hydroxide). It absorbs CO2.
Set-up B is the test or the experiment.
5) Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.
6) Perform the starch test on both of the plants.

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Observations
Leaf from the plant in which NaHCO3 has been placed turns blue-black (gives a positive test for
starch).
Leaf from the plant in which NaOH has been placed remains brown (gives a negative test for
starch).

Conclusion
Leaf that gets CO2 gives a positive test for starch and leaf that does not get CO2 gives a
negative test for starch. Therefore it means CO2 is essential for photosynthesis.

Summary: Experiments to demonstrate factors which affect photosynthesis

Describe an experiment to investigate the necessity of chlorophyll using appropriate controls.

- Take a destarched, variegated plant.
- Place the plant in sunlight for about 6 hours.
- Draw one leaf to show the white and green parts.
- Test the variegated leaf for starch using a few drops of iodine solution.
- Only the green parts of the leaf go blue-black, as these parts of the leaf contains chlorophyll.

Describe an experiment to investigate the necessity of light using appropriate controls.

- Take a destarched plant.
- Cover part of the leaf with some aluminium foil to prevent light getting through.
- Leave the plant in the light for a few hours.
- Test the leaf for starch using a few drops of iodine solution.

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- Only the parts of the test leaf that were left uncovered go blue-black, as the covered parts
didn't receive light.

Describe an experiment to investigate the necessity of carbon dioxide using appropriate

controls.
- Take a destarched plant.
- Enclose it in a plastic bag with soda lime that absorbs carbon dioxide.
- Leave the plant in the light for a few hours.
- Test a leaf for starch using a few drops of iodine solution.
- The leaf should show a negative result for the starch test.
- A control experiment should be set up in exactly the same way but without soda lime.

Factors that affect the RATE of photosynthesis are

— light intensity
— carbon dioxide concentration
— temperature

Describe an experiment to measure the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis.
- Cut a piece of pondweed about 5cm in length.
- Put a paperclip on the pondweed to stop it floating to the surface.
- Put the lamp close to the plant and measure the distance between the plant and the lamp.
- Count the number of bubbles released over 5 minutes. Repeat several times and calculate the
average.
- Repeat this procedure with the lamp at different distances from the plant.
- The number of bubbles should decrease as the distance between the lamp and the plant
increases.

Describe an experiment to measure the effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis.

- Cut a piece of pondweed about 5cm in length.
- Put a paperclip on the pondweed to stop it floating to the surface.
- Set up the apparatus with water baths at different temperatures.
- Count the number of bubbles released over 5 minutes.
- Remember that factors like light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration must be kept
constant.
- You should find that the increasing temperature of pondweed increases the rate of
photosynthesis.
- However at higher temperatures the rate of photosynthesis will decrease.

Describe an experiment to measure the effect of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis.
- Cut a piece of pond weed about 5cm in length.
- Put a paperclip on the pond weed to stop it floating to the surface.
- Count the number of bubbles released over 5 minutes.
- Adding sodium hydrogen carbonate to water increases the concentration of carbon dioxide as
it dissolves in water.
- Other factors like light intensity and temperature must stay constant.
- You should find that the plant produces more bubbles of gas as the carbon dioxide
concentration increases.

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LEAF STRUCTURE

External structure of a leaf

Name the different external parts of the leaf.

- margin
- lamina
- petiole
- veins
- mid rib
- tip

What is the function of the lamina?

— The lamina or lead blade has a large surface area to maximize absorption of sunlight. It also
allows for rapid diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaves (large surface area).

What is the function of the petiole?

— The petiole positions the lamina for maximum absorption of sunlight and gaseous exchange.

What is the function of the veins?

The veins allow transport of water and mineral salts to the cells of the lamina. They also
transport manufactured food from the leaves to the other parts of the plant.

How are the leaves USUALLY arranged?

— They are usually arranged in a regular pattern around the stem (paired/alternate
arrangement).

Why are they arranged in this manner?

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— This is to ensure that the leaves are not blocking one another from sunlight and that each leaf
receives optimum amount of light.

Internal structure of a leaf

Name the different parts of the internal structure of the leaf.

- cuticle
- upper epidermis
- palisade mesophyll
- spongy mesophyll
- vascular bundle (xylem and phloem)
- lower epidermis
- guard cells

Describe the cuticle and its function.

Waxy layer above the epidermis which prevents excessive water loss. It is transparent to allow
sunlight to penetrate to the mesophyll.

Describe the upper epidermis and its function.

Single layer of closely packed cells which have no chloroplasts.

Describe the palisade mesophyll and its function.

A few layers of closely packed cells which are long, cylindrical and contain numerous
chloroplasts for maximum absorption of sunlight.

Describe the spongy mesophyll and its function.

Irregularly shaped cells with numerous large intercellular air spaces. This allows for rapid
diffusion of gases inside the leaf.

Describe the vascular bundle and its function.

Contains xylem and phloem, allowing for the transport of water and food minerals respectively
within the plant.

Describe the lower epidermis and its function.

Single layer of closely packed cells. Many minute openings called stomata found here.
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When do stomata open and close?

Stomata open in the light and close in the dark.

How do the stomata open in the day?

In the day, water from the adjacent epidermal cells enters the guard cells. Guard cells swell and
become turgid. This causes the guard cells to become curve and pull the stomata open.

How do stomata close during the night?

In the night, K+ ions diffuse out of the guard cells. Water potential in guard cells increases
leading to the exit of water by osmosis. Guard cells then become flaccid and stoma closes.

How does carbon dioxide enter the leaf?

CO2 diffuses into the leaf via the stomata. CO2 dissolves into the film of water surrounding the
mesophyll cells and diffuses into cells.

How does water enter the leaf?

Water is brought to the leaves via the xylem vessels in the veins. Water leaves the veins and
moves from cell to cell in the meanwhile by osmosis.

How the leaf is adapted for photosynthesis

1) Broad so large surface area is exposed for light absorption.

2) Thin for short distance of diffusion and light absorption.
3) Chloroplasts in palisade cells absorb light.
4) No chloroplasts in the epidermal cells to allow sunlight to penetrate the mesophyll layer.
5) Waxy cuticle reduces water loss by evaporation.
6) Network of xylem that brings water to the leaf cells.
7) Network of phloem that carries away the sugars produced in photosynthesis.
8) Transparent waxy cuticle and epidermis to allow light to enter.
9) Stomata that open and close in response to light intensity.
10) Numerous stomata for gaseous exchange.
11) Guard cells that control the opening and closing of stomata.
12) Leaf arrangement on plant stem that minimizes overlapping and shadowing of one leaf by
another.
13) Long narrow upper mesophyll cells packed with chloroplasts that collect sunlight.
14) Many air spaces in lower mesophyll layer to allow diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
15) Tall/elongated palisade cells increase surface area for absorbing carbon dioxide.
16) Thin and elongated palisade cells so many can be tightly packed near the top surface of the
leaf. This means that the palisade cell layer is close to the source of light.

TRY THESE QUESTIONS

What increases light absorption in plants?

— large surface area.
— palisade mesophyll is composed of tall thin cells.
— waxy cuticle is transparent to allow light to enter.
What increases gas exchange in plants?
 spongy mesophyll has air spaces (inter-cellular spaces) to allow gases to move easily.
 epidermis of leaf perforated by stomata.
 guard cells change shape in order to control the size of the pore.

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REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Male reproductive system

 Testes (testicles): produce sperm and testosterone

 Scrotum: a sac that hangs and keeps testes cool outside the body. The cool (lower) temperature in
the scrotum is essential for sperm production.
 Epididymis: tightly coiled tube that stores sperm.
 Sperm ducts: transport semen containing sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.
 Cowper’s gland: produce fluid which contributes to semen.
 Seminal vesicle: a gland that secretes a fluid that nourishes the sperms. The fluid makes up a
proportion of semen.
 Prostate gland: produce alkaline fluid which contributes to semen. The alkaline fluid neutralises
vaginal fluids preventing sperm from being killed.
 Semen is a composition of sperm and fluids from glands. Fluids from the sex glands contain nutrients
and enzymes which nourish and activate the sperm, allowing them to swim actively.
 Urethra: passage for semen (+sperm) during sexual intercourse. Also urinates (passage of urine from
the bladder).
 Penis: deposits semen containing sperm into vagina.
Penis becomes erect and firm, inserted into vagina during sexual intercourse and transfer sperm.

SIDE VIEW: Male reproductive system

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FRONT VIEW: Male reproductive system

Female reproductive system

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Side view: Female reproductive system

 Ovaries: contains follicles, produce and stores eggs, produce oestrogen

 Oviducts (fallopian tubes): carries ovum to uterus; site of fertilisation
 Funnel of oviduct: guides ovum into oviduct during ovulation.
 Uterus – where foetus develops. Thick muscles of the uterus assist in parturition. The
endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus) nourishes the embryo after implantation.
 Cervix- a ring of muscles that separate the vagina from the uterus
 Vagina: receives sperm from erect penis during intercourse.

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 Clitoris: Female erectile organ homologous to the penis.

 Vulva: External female genitalia. Consists of two labia (liplike structures) namely the labia majora
and the labia minora.
 Labia majora: The outer fold of the vulva.
 Labia minora: The inner fold of the vulva.
 Structures in the vulva have a nerve supply, which can respond to touch, pain, pressure and
temperature. This makes these structures sensitive and active to sexual arousal during touch,
especially by the male partner.
GAMETES – SEX CELLS

Sperm-Male gamete

1. The sperm (singular: spermatozoon, plural: spermatozoa), consists of a head, middle piece and tail.
2. The head contains:
(a) An acrosome, an enzyme-containing sac. The acrosome contains digestive enzymes which break
down the outer membrane of the ovum, allowing for fertilisation.
(b) A small amount of cytoplasm and a large haploid nucleus
3. The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria to provide energy for the sperm to swim to the
egg.
4. The tail (flagellum) beats to propel the sperm towards the egg.

Ovum (egg) – Female gamete

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1. The female gamete, the ovum, is a large cell containing abundant cytoplasm.
2. It has a large nucleus containing a haploid set of chromosomes.
3. It is surrounded by a plasma membrane and an outer membrane.

Differences between sperm and ovum

Sperm ovum
Smaller Larger
No food store Has own food store
Elongated. Head, middle piece and tail. Spherical in shape.
Nucleus either X or Y. Nucleus has X chromosome.
Motile. Has tail for swimming. Non-motile. Passive movement due to 4cilia in
oviduct and peristalsis of oviduct wall.
Millions of sperms produced throughout life Number of eggs determined at birth.
Large number of sperms released per ejaculation Only one egg released per month from puberty to
menopause.
PUBERTY

 Stage of human growth and development in which a person becomes physically and sexually mature.
 During puberty, the reproductive system of a young person begins to function. The sex organs mature
and begin to produce gametes.
 Male sex hormone, testosterone, is produced in the testis.
 Female sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone, are produced by ovaries.
 These sex hormones cause development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty.
 TABLE: Secondary sexual characteristics at puberty
Males (Boys) Females (Girls)
Hair grows at the pubic area, armpit and chin Hair grows under armpits and in pubic region.
regions.
Testes and penis enlarge Vulva and vagina enlarge.
Larynx enlarges and voice deepens Uterus enlarges.
Testes start producing sperms. Hips/pelvis widen for childbirth.
Body becomes more masculine. Ovaries mature and start producing ova
Shoulders broaden Menstruation and ovulation start.
Breasts/mammary glands enlarge

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Menstrual cycle
 The first sign of puberty in a female is the menstrual period or menstruation (the monthly
discharge of blood from the uterus via the vagina).
 The menstrual period (menstruation) usually lasts for five days.
 Menstruation is part of the menstrual cycle.
 The menstrual cycle is cyclic changes in women which prepare the uterine lining for pregnancy.
If pregnancy does not happen, the lining is shed at menstruation.
 The average menstrual cycle lasts about 28 days and repeats.
 There is natural variation in the menstrual cycle in women ranging from 21 days to 35 days.
 As a female gets older menopause occurs.
 Menopause is when ovaries stop releasing eggs and the menstrual cycle stops.
 Menopause usually takes place between 45 and 55 years of age.

STAGES IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

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The menstrual cycle has four stages:

1. Menstrual flow stage (day 1 -5)

Uterine lining (endometrium) breaks down and flows out of body through the vagina. It lasts for 3-5
days. The unfertilised ovum (egg) dies and also flows out. Four things are discharged through the
vagina namely uterine lining, dead unfertilised egg, mucus and small amount of blood.
At this time level of oestrogen and progesterone is very low in blood resulting in breaking of Uterine
lining (endometrium).
2. Follicle stage (day 6-13)
Graafian follicle develops and matures.
Meiosis produces a new egg surrounded by a Graafian follicle.
Mature Graafian follicle secrete oestrogen.
Oestrogen level gradually increases and maximizes or reaches a peak around day 12.
Oestrogen stimulate uterine lining (endometrium) repair and growth (proliferation).The lining
becomes thick and spongy with blood vessels (i.e. highly vascularised).
Oestrogen also prevents maturation and development of more follicles (eggs).
3. Ovulation (day 14)
Graafian follicle raptures and releases an ovum (egg) into oviduct. This release of an ovum is called
ovulation and is stimulated by oestrogen. Ovulation occurs around day 14.
4. Corpus luteum stage a.k.a. luteal stage (day 15-28)
The ruptured Graafian follicle forms a corpus luteum or yellow body.
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some oestrogen.

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 High levels of progesterone inhibit maturation of any other follicles so preventing release of more
than one egg (ovum).
 Progesterone maintains uterine lining (endometrium) by thickening it and causing it to be richly
supplied with blood capillaries for possible implantation of embryo. The endometrium thickens, fills
with fluids and nutrients to nourish the potential embryo.
 The progesterone also causes the mucus in the cervix to thicken, so that sperm and bacteria are less
likely to enter the uterus.
 The increase in progesterone and oestrogen levels from the corpus luteum also causes milk ducts in
the breasts to dilate. In turn the breasts sometimes swell and become tender.
 When ovum (egg) remain unfertilized, corpus luteum degenerates (breaks down); level of both
hormone (progesterone and oestrogen) decreases, causing breaking of uterine lining
(endometrium) and a new menstrual cycle begins. The unfertilised egg also dies and passes out
of the uterus with the menstrual bleeding.
 If the egg is fertilised the corpus luteum continue secreting progesterone and oestrogen, until the
growing foetus’ placenta can take over progesterone and oestrogen production.
What happens if no fertilisation occurs?

 Egg will die/breakdown

 Corpus luteum breaks down
 Progesterone is not secreted
 Thickened uterus lining cannot be maintained due to absence of progesterone. Therefore
uterine lining breaks down.
 Lining flows out together with blood, mucus and dead egg through the vagina (menstruation).
 Menstrual cycle repeats.
What happens if fertilisation occurs?

 Fertilised egg becomes a zygote, develops into embryo by mitosis.

 Embryo implants into uterine lining.
 Embryo secretes a hormone which prevents corpus luteum from breaking down until placenta is
formed.
 Corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone and oestrogen until placenta is able to take
over the production of these hormones.

FERTILE PERIOD (day 11-16)

 From day 11 to 16 is the fertile period because copulation (sexual intercourse) could result in
fertilisation.
 Ovulation occurs during this period on day 14. The released egg can survive for 2 days up to day 16. It
travels along the oviduct due to sweeping action of oviduct villi and oviduct peristalsis. During this
time the egg can be fertilized in the oviduct by one of the sperms if copulation (sexual intercourse)
occurs. The sperms can survive for 3 to 4 days in the uterus. So released on day 11 the sperm can
cause pregnancy.
Mating/sexual intercourse/copulation

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 Penis becomes erect and firm and is inserted into vagina. Ejaculation occurs and penis transfers sperm
into vagina along with liquids from seminal vesicle, Cowper’s gland and prostate gland.
 Chemicals in the liquid give the sperms energy to swim through the uterus and along the oviducts.
 The route of the sperm from the testis to the ovum after ovulation is as follows: testis, epididymis,
sperm duct, urethra, vagina, cervix, uterus, oviduct.
 Fertilisation occurs if a sperm meets an egg.
Fertilisation

 Egg released from ovary is usually surrounded by a few layers of follicle cells. To penetrate the egg,
acrosome of sperm releases an enzyme to disperse the follicle cells and break down part of the egg
membrane.

 Only one sperm nucleus enters the egg. The haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus,
and a fertilized egg or diploid zygote is formed.
 The fusion of the sperm and egg nuclei is called fertilisation.
 As soon as a sperm has entered the egg, membrane of the egg thickens so that no other sperms can
enter.
 The remaining sperms, which did not fertilize the egg, eventually die.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO

Implantation

 Sweeping action of oviduct villi and oviduct peristalsis move the zygote to the uterus.
 Zygote divides by mitosis to form a ball of cells called embryo. It takes about 5 days for embryo to
reach the uterus. Embryo may float freely in uterus for about 2 days.
 Eventually embryo sinks/embeds in the uterine lining, a process called implantation. Implantation
usually occurs about 7 days after fertilisation.
Development of placenta

 Soon after implantation, finger-like projections called villi begin to grow from embryo in uterine lining.
They contain blood capillaries of embryo. The villi have very high surface area: volume ratio for
maximum exchange by diffusion between mother and embryo.
 Villi and uterine lining in which the villi are embedded make up the placenta. The placenta is formed
partly from embryonic tissue and partly from the uterine lining.
 Umbilical cord attaches embryo to placenta.

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DIAGRAM showing Amniotic sac, placenta and umbilical cord.

Development of amniotic sac

 Amniotic sac/amnion starts to develop at the same time as placenta.

 Encloses embryo or foetus in a fluid-filled space known as amniotic cavity.
 The fluid in the amniotic cavity is called the amniotic fluid.
Fetal blood system is separated from mother’s blood system

Why? Because:

1. Blood pressure of mother would kill the foetus as it is much higher than that of foetus.
2. Blood groups may differ and blood cells would agglutinate so blocking blood vessels.
Functions of the placenta

1. Allow diffusion of oxygen and dissolved food substances (glucose, amino acids) from mother’s
blood (maternal blood) to foetal blood.
2. Allow metabolic wastes or excretory products (urea, CO2) to diffuse from foetus into maternal
blood.
3. Allows protective antibodies to diffuse from maternal to foetal blood. The antibodies protect
foetus from certain diseases e.g. Rubella (German measles).
4. Produces progesterone which maintains uterine lining in a healthy state during pregnancy.
Functions of umbilical cord

1. Contains 2 umbilical arteries that transport deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste products
from foetus to placenta.
2. Has one umbilical vein that transport oxygenated blood and food substances from placenta to
foetus.
(NB: Artery: away from foetus. Vein: to foetus).

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Functions of the amniotic fluid

1. Supports and cushions the foetus before birth.

2. Shock absorber.
3. Cannot be compressed so protects foetus from physical injury.
4. Allows foetus a certain degree of movement, promoting muscular development.
5. Lubricates and reduces friction in vagina (birth canal) during birth.

DIAGRAM: Foetus in the uterus just before birth.

Follow-up questions

1) Describe the functions of the oestrogen hormone released by the Graafian follicle during the follicle
stage of the menstrual cycle.
2) Describe the four functions of the progesterone hormone released by the corpus luteum during the
luteal stage.
3) The following diagram shows the stages of the menstrual cycle.

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(a) Complete the names of the stages on the diagram [4]

(b) Briefly describe each stage of the menstrual cycle making reference to hormonal changes, follicle
maturity and endometrium changes. [17]
(c) Why is the day 11 to 16 period of the menstrual cycle regarded as the fertile period? [4]
[TOTAL/25]
4) Write a short and comprehensive summary of the menstrual cycle in not more than 180 words. [20]
Answer
Days 1-5: Menstrual flow stage
The old uterine lining breaks down and is released together with dead egg. This is called
Menstruation. Low level of oestrogen and progesterone cause uterine lining to break down.

Days 6-13: Follicle stage

Meiosis produces a new egg surrounded by a Graafian follicle.
The Graafian follicle produces oestrogen, which thickens the uterine lining and stops more eggs
being produced.

Day 14: Ovulation

The Graafian follicle bursts and releases the egg, which moves into one of the oviducts. The egg
survives for about 2 days.

Day 15-28: Corpus luteum (luteal) stage

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The Graafian follicle becomes the Corpus Leutum, which releases progesterone and some oestrogen.
Progesterone thickens the uterine lining and stops more eggs being produced.
If fertilisation hasn't occurred then the Corpus Leutum breaks down by day 22. This breaking down
reduces the progesterone levels and so the uterine lining breaks down by Day 28. A new menstrual
cycle begins. If egg is fertilized the corpus luteum continue secreting progesterone and oestrogen,
until the growing foetus’ placenta can take over progesterone and oestrogen production.

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