11 FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY 1. What is frictional electricity ? When is a body said to be electrified or charged ? Frictional electricity“If a glass rod is rubbed with a silk doth, or a fountain-pen with a coat-sleeve, itis able toattract small pieces of paper, straw; lint light feathers, etc. Similarly, a plastic comb passed through dry hair can attract such light objects. In all these examples, we ‘cansay that the rubbed substance has become electrified or electrically charged. It is because of friction that the substances get charged on rubbing. The property of rubbed substances due to which they attract light objects is called electricity. The electricity developed by rubbing or friction is called frictional or static electricity. The rubbed substances which show this property of attraction are said to have become electrified or electrically charged. 2 Give a historical view of frictional electricity. From ‘where did the term electricity get its origin ? Historical view of frictional electricity. In 600 B.C, Thales of Miletus, one of the founders of Greek science, first noticed that if a piece of amber is rubbed with a Woollen cloth, it then acquires the property of attrac- ting light feathers, dust, lint, pieces of leaves, etc. In 1600 A.D., William Gillbert, the personal doctor to Queen Elizabeth ~ 1 of England, made a systematic study Of the substances that behave like amber. In his book Magnete (on the magnet), he introduced the name AND FIELD | ae electrica for such substances. In fact, the Greek name for amber is elektron which is the origin of all such words : electricity, electric force, electric charge and electron. For Your Knowledge Amber is a yellow resinous (gum like) substance found on the shores of the Baltic sea. Both electric and magnetic phenomena can be derived from charged particles. Magnetism arises from charges in motion. The charged particles in motion exert both electric and magnetic forces on each other. | Hence electricity and magnetism are studied together as electromagnetism. 1.2. ELECTRIC CHARGE 3. What is electric charge ? Is it a scalar or vector quantity ? Name its SI unit. Hectric charge. Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the elementary particles like electrons, protons, etc., of which all the objects are made up of. It is because of these electric charges that various objects exert strong electric forces of attraction or repulsion on each other. Electric charge is an intrinsic property of elementary particles of matter which gives rise to electric force between various objects. Electric charge is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is coulomb (C). A proton has a positive charge (+e) and an electron has a negative charge (~¢), where €=1.6x 10°" coulomb 1)Large-scale matter that consists of equal number of electrons and protons is electrically neutral. If there is an excess of electrons, the body has a negative charge and an excess of protons results in a positive charge. 13> EvectRc __ 4. What is electrostatics ? Mention some of its important applications. Electrostatics is the study of electric charges at rest. Here we study the forces, fields and potentials associated with static charges ' + of electrostatics. The attraction and repulsion between charged bodies have mav trial applications. Some oi these are as follows 1. In electrostatic loudspeaker. 2. In electrostatic spraying of paints and powder coating. 3. In flyash collection in chimneys. 4. Ina Xerox copying machine. 5. In the design of a cathode-ray tube used in television and radar. STATICS ndus- 14 TWO KINDS OF ELECTRIC CHARGES 5. How will you show experimentally that (i) there are only two kinds of electric charges and (ii) like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other ? nds of electric charges. About 100 years ago, Charles Du Fay of France showed that ‘sate r on various objects are of only two kinds. The following simple experiments prove this fact. () Rub a glass rod with silk and suspend it from a. of thread. d var it. The | (Fig. 1.1(a)} Silk Glass ) sa ‘Attraction ) " Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. PHYSICS xy (ii) Bring a plastic rod rubbed with wool near ¢ charged glass rod. The two rods attract each other [Fig. 1.1(b)]. (ii), Now rub a plastic rod with wool and suspend i from a rigid support. Bring another similarly charged plastic rod near it. There will be a repulsion between the two rods (Fig. 1.1(c)]. Exrrkivenr 2. If a glass rod, rubbed with silk, is made to touch two small pith balls (or polystyrene balls) which are suspended by silk threads, then the two balls repel each other, as shown in Fig. 1.2(a). Similar two pith balls touched with a plastic rod rubb fur are found to repel each other [Fig. 1.2(0)]- se ith ball touched with glass rod attract touched with a plastic rod [Fig. 1.2(¢)] silk thread Se 7 N on (@) Repulsion (6) Repulsion| (€) Attraction Fig. 1.2. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract. From the above experiments, we note that t charge produced on a glass rod is different from th cha luced on a plastic rod. Also the charg produced on a pith ball touched with a glass rod different from the charge produced on pith bi touched with a plastic rod. We can conclude that : The above experiments also demonstrate that th charges are transferred from the rods to the pith ba on contact. We say that the pith balls have bef electrified or charged by contact. This property wl distinguishes the ttvo kinds of charges is called the pola of charge.ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD 6 What are vitreous and resinous charges ? What twas torong with this nomenclature ? Vitreous and resinous charges. Charles Du Fay used the terms vitreous and resinous forthe fw kinds of charges. 1, The charge developed on glass rod when rubbed with silkasclled vitreous charge (Latin virtum =plass), 2. The charge developed on amber when rubbed with seool ot called resinous charge (amber isa resin) But later on, these terms were found to be misleading, For example, a ground glass rod develops resinous electricity while a highly polished eboriite red develops vitreous electricity. 7. What are positive and negative charges ? What is the nature of charge on an electron in this convention ? Positive and negative charges. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), an American pioneer of electrostatics introduced the present-day convention by replacing the terms vitreous and resinous by positive and negative, respectively. According to this convention 1 Reece 4 glass rod when rubbed is called positive charge. 2 Tatar developed on a plastic rod when rubbed with wool is called negative charge. The above convention is consistent with the fact that when two opposite kinds of charges are brought in contact, they tend to cancel each other's effect. According to this convention, the charge on an electron is negative. Table 1.1 gives a list of the pairs of objects which get ‘charged on rubbing against each other. On rubbing, an object of column I will acquire positive charge while that of column I will acquire negative charge. Table 1.1 Two kinds of chorges developed on rubbing Column 1 Column II it (Negative charge) Glass rod Silk cloth Flannel or cat skin | Ebonite rod Woollen cloth Amber rod Woollen coat Plastic seat Woollen carpet __| Rubber shoes J Obviously, any two charged objects belonging to same column will repel each other while those of ‘wo different columns will attract each other. : For Your Knowledge ‘Purely conventional one. However, itis unfortunate hy ‘the charge on an electron (which is so important Physical and chemical properties of materials) | ® WBenjamine’s choice of positive and negative charges is turns out to be negative in this convention. It would |__ have been more convenient if electrons were assigned | positive charge. Buti science, sometimes we have to | __ live with the historical conventions. | > Different substances can be arranged in a series in such a way that if any two of them are rubbed together, then the one occurring earlier in the series acquires a | positive charge while the other occurring later acquires | a negative charge : | Fur | 2 Flannel 3. Sealing wax | & Glass 5. Cotton 6 Paper | 7% Sik 8. Human body 9. Wood 10. Metals 11. Rubber 12 Resin | 1 Amber 14. Sulphur 15. —Ebonite 16. Guta parcha ‘Thus glass acquires a positive charge when rubbed | with silk but it acquires negative charge when rubbed with flannel 15 ELECTRONIC THEORY OF FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY 8. Describe the electronic theory of frictional electricity. Are the frictional forces electric in origin ? Electronic theory of frictional electricity. All matter is made of atoms. An atom consists of a small central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, around which revolve a number of electrons. In any piece of matter, the positive proton charges and the negative electron charges cancel each other and so the matter in bulk is electrically neutral. The electrons of the outer shell of an atom are loosely bound to the nucleus. The energy required to remove an electron from the surface of a material is called its ‘work function’. When two different bodies are rubbed against each other, electrons are transferred from the material with lower work function to the material with higher work function. For example, when a glass rod is rubbed with a silk cloth, some electrons are transferred from glass rod to silk. The glass rod develops a positive charge due to deficiency of electrons while the silk cloth develops an equal negative charge due to excess of electrons. The combined total charge of the glass rod and silk cloth is still zero, as it was before rubbing i, electric charge is, conserved during rubbing. Electric origin of frictional forces. The only way by which an electron can be pulled away from an atom is to exert a strong electric force on it. As electrons are actually transferred from one body to another during, rubbing, so frictional forces must have an electric origin.PHYSICS 21.8 rans > “The cause of charging is Aa tl i tome from one material 4 Be ~ ) 0 | > “The material with lower (a / “, se aan Fig «yal hase (0) Hse care ty. i — i the mains is supplied f0 Our) =e ‘The electricity from a A Sas fra aed aa Staafvore coos jour brings in the Sees ay increases i turn wire. The Sa : fed to a thick metal plate . of the ‘as electric iron, refrigerator, TV, wire. When any fault LATORS: a ces the earth connected 10 teste metalic body, the charge 16 CONDUCTORS AND INSU if insulators ? ed he conducts df from the SOR? so ve wire . Why cannot we electrify # metal rot by rubbing jt while ‘othe oe wh Rappers to tout haldng iin our hand ? How can we ric ow ty of the appliance does not receive any Conductors. The substances lect f geo ow easily ae ele a iags contain 4.7 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION a ee he Se +s meant by electrostatic induction ? ‘of electricity. animal ‘11. What is by ‘acids, alkalies, luctors. Electrostatic induction. As shdwn in Fig. 14, holda, ich apd. AB over an insulating stand. Bring t Ea : 6 rod glass rod near its end A. The fret Sectrons of the outer f . a; rod get attracted towards > svseus Due tothe absence of free charge u mes electron deficient carriers, these substances off i c ative charge while the through the d Bacq “equal positive charge. As fod is taken away, the charges at the Conducting rod r, it ree istrib re ‘On the other hand, if some charge an place. We shall discuss ature in the next chapter. istinguishing A matlab in .d rubbed with wool does not any charge. This is because the B a ‘icity, so any a good conductor of ed on the | rod ‘the human body. We « yt ng it a plastic or a rut i 5 ‘ Re i ant rig. 1.4 Hlectrostatic induction. 10. What is meant by earthing or grounding in tic induction is the phenomenon 4 ‘household circuits ? What is its importance ? ification of a conductor int which opp% Earthing and safety. When a charged body is at its closer end and similar charges appearé in the presence of a nearby charged body. in contact with the earth (through a connecting conductor), its entire charge passes to the ground in The positive and negative charges produced at the form of a momentary current. This process in which a ends ofthe conducting rod are called induced charges body shares its charges with the earth is called grounding or ge on the glass rod which induces charges on conducting rod is called inducing charge. earthing. .ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD 15 42, Deseribe howe tow metal spheres can be oppositely are yn ction. charge a metal sphere positively the external charge. (@) When the plastic rod is removed, the positive a, ‘uniformly on the sphere. ste Fig, 15 Two metal spheres get oppositely charged by induction. —!? ie: the two metal spheres on insulating stands in contact, as shown in Fig, 1.5( 1 Charging by induction. ‘Similarly, the metal sphere can be negatively changed by bringing a positively charged glass rod near it of ee For Your Knowledge | Polo any of ts charge1.6 18 BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE Itis observed from experiments that electric charge thas following three basic properties 1. Additivity 2.Quantization 3.Conservation. | We shall discuss these properties in detail in the next few sections. that during rubbing only an 1.9 ADDITIVITY OF ELECTRIC CHARGE ‘number of electrons can be transferred from, 14. What do you mean by additive nature of electric charges ? Additive nat an extended body individual particles, the total charge of an extended sum (ie, the sum Ifa system contains charges 4, total charge is, FMA Ig toe ty ‘The total charge of a system containing tour charges2.uC -3 WG 4 uCand = 5 xCis a2 mC-3 pC AWC 5 C= ~2 WC 1.10 QUANTIZATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE 15. What is meant by quantization of a physical the charges quantity ? involved are sorhundredsofe ‘Quantization of a pl For Your Knowled: E zation ofa psial quantity me = ously to hve aviary cannot have a floor of the value in-between, Thus the energy of an electron in atom or the electric charge of a system is quantized, The minimum amount by which a physical quantity can change is called its quantum. any body, wultiple of a ‘certain minimum amount of charge. This basic charge {a the charge on an electron, which is denoted by eand has magnitude 1.6 x 10" coulomb. Thus the charge on | fan electron is —¢, on a proton is +e and that on co-particle is +2e. , jays an integral. mi quantized. However, q established.PHYSICS) Le 4 SfFe mucteus contains 26 protons and 30 neutrons. 2 a+ 260 1] CONSERVATION OF CHARGE 18. State the law of conservation of charge. Give some change with time. This is the law of conservation of charge which states : 1. The total charge of an isolated system remains constant. i 2. Electric: 1L When a glass rod is rubbed with a silk clot. je Bectic nee follows = _ NaCl = Na*+CT ‘As the total charge is zero before and after the i ved. ionisation, so charge is conser a 3. Charge is conse) during the fision of a “nu Gravitational forces b nucleus by a neutron. Between eet ne I+ SU» Mapa + Ke +3 n+ Energy [pees of Fi charge before fission (0+ 9 ‘mass may not have 2°Y| on _ net charge. ne Total charge after fission (56 +36 +30) ot.ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIEW + where, my = rest mass of the body, c= speed of light, and m= mass ofthe body when moving with speed 1 Asoc, therefore, m>m, In contrast to mass, the charge on a body remains constant and does not change asthe speed ofthe body changes 1.13 coutoms’s Law oF ELt 9.27 Coulomb tw. 1 two point charges 4, and 4, are separated by distance r, then the force F of attraction of repulsion between them is such that Fem and Fat © Pah op pag fie 2 me where kis a constant of lectro- kis a constant of proportionality called electro Static force constant. The val depends on the TpLut ofthe medium between the two charges and the System of units chosen to measure F, 4, 4, and A the two charges located in free space and in St ‘unis, we have be) 95109 Nm?C? coe where tq is called permittivity of free space. So we can express Coulomb's law in SI units as coulomb =>}, abcoulomb = “1 e.m.u. of charge 1 coulomb = 7h abcoulomb = f charge For Your Knowledge edge ‘torsion balance isa sensitive device to measure force. ‘When theinearsizes of charged bts are much aller than the distance between them, and the charged bodies ar cl vy > More sty the SLuntof charge 1 coulomb sequal to ‘Lampere-second, where 1 amperes defined interms of the magnetic force between two current carrying wires,1.10 consider two positive point charges 4, and ‘vacuum at distance rfrom each other. They repel ea vec ch other. They repel each -—- i-—- — —i, a Fig. 1.8 Repulsive coulombian forces for ¢;% >0. In vector form, Coulomb's law may be expressed as E,, = Force on charge 4, due to 4, 1 Frey hi, where j, toa Similarly, ©, isa unit vector in the direction from q, F,, = Force on charge 4; due to 4, one. me Pr ™ where fy = 21, isa unit vector in the direction from a, tog, ‘The coulombian forces between unlike charges (gy4q <0) are attractive, as shown in Fig. 1.9. pi. 1.9Aitnsive coulomb oe fo, 6 <2 Importance of vector form-The vector form of cou loa iaw gives the following additonal information erefore By =~ ey t the two charges exert equal and other. So Coulombian law of motion 2 As the Coulombian forces act along Ff or By, line joining the centres of two they are central forces. eas 10 sage of partion toa high degree Coulomb's law is valld only una’ | ‘The electric charges must be at rest 2. The electric charges must be point charges je. | the extension of charges must be much smal than the separation between the charges. greater than the nucles for distances <10™ dominates over the electrostatic force. 1.15 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY 24. What do you mean by pe Define dielectric constant in terms charges. Permittvity : An intro are placed in any medium in, When two charge apart in water is about 1/80th them when they are separated by same ding to Coulomb's law, the force ‘charges 9, end 4,, placed in vacuu! each other, is given by ‘The quantity ¢ is called als peri of the intervening medium. equation (1) by equation (2), we geELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD Lt are 19? = 2210 1d (ex10"F or 7 10.2810" ' 9107 or 423210 C Number of electrons missing from each ion is nah 322 10 16x10" Example 6. A free pith-all A of 8 g carries a positive charge of 510°" C ‘must be the nature and Clearly, when a material medium of i constant x is placed between the charge: between them becomes 1/ times the origi ‘vacuum. That is, Fg = i force of epson balances the weight of pital A med = E ‘When the pith-ball A remains F Hence the Coulomb's law for any material medium stationary, may be written as Fe age hte ms TO" met ange o 1 9h. x (vacuum) =1 ie Sen tt ae oe mass L4G, sc water) =80. a= 510°C " Examples based on reSem=005m fig. 1.10 DW SHI Hm 9 ys c9g Formulae Used (00577 1 keel hie or 898% (0057 «10-4 ag Cs oS 1 4h aoe 2 haath AP = 4.36 10°7C (postive, Units Used yet, ar in coulomb, Fin newton and r in metre. Constant Used bea) <9.10° Nm?C* are, Example 5. Th ‘Suppose charge ~ 4 moves around the positively charged wsi83.7 x 10"? N, a when they ae separated by 2 5 How many SbtEe + ith sped v along the cela path of econ are missing fom each ion ? Se Solution. Here F =3.7« 10" N, r=5A=5% 10m, 9 =4,=4(609) As Fo hth dnc?ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD where m, and m, are the masses of the proton and clectron. Hence Butk =9% 10° Nm?C?, en 1.610%, =9.1x10 bg, Nim? kg? 9x10 ©6671 51.67 «10-7 x91 010 = 227% 10% (6) (i) Similar to that in part (9), the ratio of the aagnitudes of electric force to the gravitational force between two protons at distance ris given by ke im, = 16710 G=667» ‘enormously stronger than the gravitational () The magnitude of the elects proton on an electron is «qual to the magnitude of the force exerted by an election on a proton. The magni- tude ofthis force is ke 910° rele. Z c fe r-1A=10"" =23x10°N Acceleration of the electron due to the mutual attraction with the proton, Acceleration of the proton due to the mutual staan withthe electron apne BIEN 1.109 me? 670? Clearly, the acceleration of an electron or a pro! ‘due to the electric force is much larger: ‘ation due to gravity. So, we can neg! ‘Bravitational field on the notion of the e! Proton, charge q, by the i respectively {A plastic conb passed through hair 1 piece of paper upwards, The electro- jon between the comb and the piece of comes the force of gravity exerted by the un, if you stand at arm's i instead of being elects- each of you had an excess of electrons ‘over protons by just one percent, then the force of repulsion between you would be enough to lift the entice earth 117 FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES ‘THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLEPHYSICS where a=1, i may be noticed that for each choice of a the summation on b omits the value a. This is because Simumation must be taken only over othe Th Shove expression can be written in a simpler way as follows Ff =Total fore on charge 9 due to many point charges ¢ Fig. 1.26 saperestion pine: face on - hage a eeted by 086 Hee yy th ney angen [7-7 P ‘hare ‘According to Coulomb's law, the force exérted on Examples based on 4 - AB. ), For example, if a charge 4 is distributed over the entire volume of a sphere of radius R, then its volume charge density is "ae 3 The charge _con- “tained in small volume Vis d= dV ap 2 4 cm“ ee ay types of continuous charge respective charge densities, lectric field produced by each type of charge distribution. Hence write expression for the electric field of a general source charge distribution. We define the volume charge volume as the charge contained y= pav Volume charge distributionFa [have im {7 Electric fd duet the volume charge distribution 1 te lcation of charge & Bae. emf 7 @) Surface charge distibation. It is «charge B= dyads Fig. 1.59. Surface charge distribution. For example, if a charge q is uniformly distributed over the surface of a spherical conductor of radius R, then its surface charge density is e-t cn* aa tak . ‘The charge contained in small area dS is dq =o dS “Total electrostatic force exerted on charge gy due to the entire surface Sis given by =e [ Sash eo Electric field due to the surface charge distribution at the location of charge qy is -_ gE sass % Amys 7 (©) Line charge distribution. It is a charge distribution along a one-dimensional cx line L in space, as shown in Fig, 1.60. We define the line charge ~~) density at any poi length ofthe lr ee aad ‘The ST unit for Ais Cm! a charge gis uniformly ds ius R then ts linear charge 1 ee 2nR = The charge contained in small length dLis dg ha Total electrostatic force exerted on charge 4 the entice length Lis given by hs ze fee J jar Electric field due the location of charge gy is line charge distrib vol page F=t=— [tar v% irs! ? The total electric field due to a continuous! distribution is given by Bog 2 E+ E+E, ule Paviet astet ® Be] Qaveel ashe or Font roa es {H General charge distribution. A general charge bution consists of continuous as well as discrete Hence total electric field due to a general distribution at the location of charge qy is give™ = Eason + Bom ia have [5 E ea = total meg | 4? Hf gasief}ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD 137 In all the above cases, =7"/r is a variable unit EXmple M6, Sint four drops of radius 002 m and each vector directed from each point ofthe volume, surface or line charge distribution towards the location of the point change Solution. Volume of each small drop wt (000)? =; roy Vota tt at rape 012) x? a Ro002+4=008m 4 Force exerted on 2 charge go due toa continuous Charge on small drop = 5 C=5 x 10°* C 4 — ae i Surface charge density of small drop, Fab (9e q 5x a = > Cor ‘e ae? a omaF §. Bef due contmoas change tion, te Sure charge dens bigger drop, : Eee? 6g x ow Units Used ay pisinCm oinCnv Ain" and Ein NC Sh Set | A008 tag ©; dnQ02F* 5x10 4 le 5. A charged ph ample 4. Ot he formar te ecified deo 0.7 Cm. Wher ‘of uniform linear charge density d withou: density change INCERT 130] the sphere and intial charge on i Electric field of a line change from ot law. Consider an infinite ine of charge with ne charge density as shown in Fig. 161 a culate its electric field at any point Pat Inptene: 07-745 ce y from it.The charge on small element de of In second case o7 +014 = 24044 ar or asia “ Oh ae (0, we get or Sat 0H a Initial charge, q= 22 C. From(), r= [4 . [22 Voxdn Vouae "oreo 1y..61 Amcion an inten of aeELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD Solution. Consider two symmetric elements each of length dl at A and B The electric fields of the too clements perpendicular to PO get cancelled whe those along PO get added, Electric Field at O due fo an element of length is 1d te Moe [Along PO} <1 dal amy Fo = 1 Madey ag ee? {l= ad) Total electric field atthe centre Ois a ee - Tre 0 rn Fra Paege Problems for Practice 3A metal cube of length 0.1 m Calculate its surface charge density hanged by 124. 104 Cm) 1.39 HINTS 1 Useo= iy 2 Une ge dma 3). Surface area of cube = 6 x I° = 6 «0.01 = 0.06 m?, 0, 4 fae aredee or Ra?! i RR PP as, So SE REE pers 122 ELECTRIC DIPOLE 35. What isan electric ipl ? Define dipole moment and give its SI unt. Give some cumple of ecte dips, What rede or point dls? ul end epost chrgs moment ofan electric dipole is @ ‘vector whose magnitude is either charge times the separation between the two opposite charges andthe direction is along the dipole axis from the negative to the positive charge, As shown in Fig. 1.64, consider an electric dipole consisting of charges + q and ~9 and separated by dis- tanceZa. Ihe line joining the chargesis called dipole axis, wt a v4 a__+4__3 , Th 6s Dipole moment = Ether charge «a vector drawn from negative to positive charge « Fegad ‘Thus the dipole moment it a veto quantity ts directions long the dipole axis rom —t0 qand its smagalode i a ‘The unitof dipole moments coulomb metre (Cm) When both the charge qand pa fe has a finite size (equal to 20), locaton between sg and =, 2 direction anda of electric dipoles. Dipoles are common molecules like H,0, HCl CHOH etc, the centre of postive charges does not ‘are electric dipoles. They have a permanent dipole moment.140 We can think of a dipole in urge q > 2oin such a way that 2ahas a finite value, Such a ‘called an ideal or point ole moment, = Dipoles associated with individual atoms or molecules, may be treated as ideal dipoles. An ideal dipole is fied only by its location and a dipole moment, as it has no finite size, 1.23 DIPOLE FIELD 36. What is a dipole field ? Why does the dipole field at lorge distance falls off faster than Ur? ? Dipole fila The electric field produced by an electric pole is called a dipole fld. This can be determined by using (a) the formula for the field of a point charge andl (6) the principle of superposition Variation of dipole field with distance. The total charge of an electric dipole is zero. But the electric field ‘of an electric dipole is not zero. This is because the changes + q and ~ gare separated by some distance. 0 the electric fields due to them when added do not exactly cancel out. However, at distances much larger than the dipole size (r>>2a) the fields of +q and 9 nearly cancel out. Hence we expect a dipole field to fall off at larger distance, faster th field due to a single charge larger distances falls off as 1/7 "typical of the fact a dipole field at 1.24 ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN AXIAL POINT OF A DIPOLE 37. Derive an expression for the electric field at any point on the axial line of an electric dipole. Electric field at an axial point of an electric dipole As shown in Fig. 165, consider an electric dipole consisting of charges + q and ~ 4 separated by distance 2a and placed in vacuum. Let P be a point on the axial line at distance r from the centre O of the dipole on the side of the charge + q lols a ee Bee —az—— Fig. 1.65 Hlectricfeld at an axial point of dipole Flectric field due to charge ~q at point Pis z -4 4 ang (r+ # | owards tft where 7 is a unit vector along the dipole axis from -9 to+g \ PHYSICS Electric field due to charge + qat point P is = 45 towards: B= Tagine (towards righy Hence the resultant electri field at point P is Eww * Eat E., Sale eS alee al? a, “Gre, (Fay? ale = fee eer a For r>>, ¢? can be neglected compared to. pte. ane: hoe (Canty, lech id at ny xia pont the dp acts alons the dipole axis fom negative to pontine charge i.e,, in the direction of dipole moment 7’. (towards righ) 125 ELECTRIC FIELD AT AN EQUATORIAL POINT OF A DIPOLE charges ~q and + 4, separated by and placed in vacuum. Let P te a point on the equa- torial line of the dipole at distance r from it oPp=r Fig, 1,66 Electric field at an equatorial point of a dipoleSamet ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD Electric field at point P due to + q charge is Sg ve Fpag ge rected along Electric field at point P due to ~q charge is f= ai E,= im oa directed along PA Thusthe magnitudes of £' and E., are equal ie, 1 4 fee ee ede a ae Fa? Clearly, the components of E', and E., normal to the dipole axis will cancel out. The components parallel to the dipole axis add up. The total electric fet Ey is opposite oF Equa = ~(E.g €08 8+ E, . cos 0) p =-2E, cos p (E.,=E,41 So, tm, Pad Peat” cos O= 4 i = Fees =~ aay (Fa BP where p=29a, is the electric dipole moment. If the point P is located far away from the dipole, >> a then, 2 pe Clearly, the direction of electric field at any point on the equatorial line of the dipole will be antiparallel to the dipole moment ). 39. Give a comparison of the magnitudes of electric Fields of a short dipole at axial and equatorial points. Comparison of electric fields of a short dipole at xial and equatorial points, The magnitude of the electric field of a short dipole at an axial point at distance r from its centre is eeteze 8 aes dinar fel at an equatorial point at the same 1 oie Foe “Fay Clearly, Fait =2 Foqua Hence the electric field of a short dipole at a distance r along its axis is twice the electric field at the same distance along the equatorial line. 1.26 TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD 40. Derive an expression for the torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field. Hence define dipole moment. Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field. As shown in Fig. 1.67(a), consider an electric dipole consisting of charges +4 and ~q and of length 2a placed in a uniform electric field E' making an angle 6 with it, It has a dipole moment of magnitude, p=qx2a Force exerted on charge + qby field E = E (along E) Force exerted on charge -~qby field B =-qE (opposite to E) Fun = +48 ~ aE =0. m4] Fig. 1.67 (a) Torque om a dipole in a uniform electric field. () Ditection of torque as given by right hand screw rule. Hence the net translating force on a dipole in a uniform electric field is zero, But the two equal and opposite forces act at different points of the dipole They form a couple which exerts a torque.tween the two for, = ii “e t 2a sin 8 =(4%20) bean ° or T= pE sin 6 (p 2 A =qx2a) . the direction of torque 7 is Perpendicular to both p and E’, 50 we can write Ta RxP The direction of vector t is that in which a right handed scre Clearly, the torque on the dipole will be maximum when the dipole is held Perpendicular to E. Thus Tmax = PE sin 90° = pE. Dipole moment. We know that the torque, t= pEsin®@ If E =1 unit, 6 =90°, then t = p i be defined as the torque ice dipole moment may ’ ling on an electric dipole, placed perpendicular to a uniform a . electric field of unit strength. 2 Of yw Me1.28 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES : 43. What are electric lines of force ? Give their important properties. . Electric lines of force. Michael Faraday (1791-1867) introduced the concept of lines of force to visualize the nature of electric (and magnetic) fields. A small positive charge placed in an electric field experiences a force in a definite direction and if it is free to move, it will start moving in that direction. The path along which this charge would move will be a line of force. An electric line of force may be defined as the curve along which a small positive charge would tend to move when free to do so in an electric field and the tangent to which at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.1.46 In Fig. 1.72, the curve PQR is an electric line of - The tangent drawn to this curve at the point P Bives the direction of the field E, at the point P. Similarly, the tangent at the point Q gives the direction Of the field E at the point Q, and so on. 7 z/ / L, Fig. 1.72 An electric line of force. The lines of force do not really exist, they are imaginary curves. Yet the concept of lines of force is very useful. Michael Faraday gave simple explana- tions for many of his discoveries (in electricity and magnetism) in terms of such lines of force. For Your Knowledge ‘The lines of force are imaginary curves, but the field | which they represent is real. ‘The term ‘lines of force’ is misleading. It will be more | appropriate to call them electric (or magnetic) ‘field Hines’. | A field line is a space curve ie, a curve in three dimensions. Nels acta | v Properties of Electric Lines of Force 1. The lines of force are continuous smooth curves without any breaks. 2. The lines of force start at positive charges and end at negative charges - they cannot form closed loops. If there is a single charge, then the lines of force will start or end at infinity. 3, The tangent to a line of force at any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point. 4, No two lines of force can cross each other. Reason. If they intersect, then there will be two tangents at the point of intersection (Fig. 1.73) and hence two directions, of the electric field at the ‘same point, which is not possible, Ep Fig, 1.73, | 5, The lines of force are always normal to the surfag ‘of a conductor on which the charges are i, ‘equilibrium. Reason. If the lines of force are not normal to the conductor, the component of the field E parallel | to the surface would cause the electrons to move | and would set up a current on the surface. But no current flows in the equilibrium condition. 6. The lines of force have a tendency to contrac lengthwise. This explains attraction between two unlike charges. 7. The lines of force have a tendency to expand laterally so as to exert a lateral pressure on neigh. bouring lines of force. This explains repulsion between two similar charges. 8, The relative closeness of the lines of force gives a measure of the strength of the electric field in any region. The lines of force are ( close together in a strong field. (ii) far apart in a weak field, (iif) parallel and equally spaced in a uniform field. 9. The lines of force do not pass through a conductor because the electric field inside a charged conductor is zero. 1.29 ELECTRIC FIELD LINES FOR DIFFERENT CHARGED CONDUCTORS 44, Sketch and explain the field lines of (i) a positioe point charge, (ii) a negative point charge, (iti) two equll and opposite charges, (iv) two equal positive charges and (v) a positively charged plane conductor. Electric field lines for d ent charge systems (i) Field lines of a positive point charge. Fig. 14 shows the lines of force of an isolated positive poitt charge. They are directed radially outwards because? small positive charge would be accelerated in outward direction. They extend to infinity. The field® spherically symmetric ie, it looks same it directions, as seen from the point charge._—_—ste ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELO IKK io, 1.74 Field lines of a positive point charge. (ia Field lines of a negative point charge. Like that of a positive point charge, the electric field of a negative point charge is also spherically symmetric but the lines of force point radially inwards as shown in Fig, 1.75. They start from infinity. i) Field lines of two equal and opposite point charges. Fig. 1.76 shows the electric lines of force of an electric dipole ie., a system of two equal and opposite point charges (+ q) separated by a small distance. They start from the positive charge and end on the negative charge. The lines of force seem to contract lengthwise as if the two charges are being pulled together. This explains attraction between two unlike charges. The field is cylindrically symmetric about the dipole axis ie, the field pattern is same in all planes passing through the dipole axis. Clearly, the electric field at all points on the equatorial line is parallel to the axis of the dipole. Fig. 1.75 Field lines of a nega- tive point charge. Fi : 5:1.76 Field lines of an electric dipole. () Field lines of two equal and positive point and seigt€ 177 shows the lines of force of two equal 7 . Point charges. They seem to exert a lateral fomees, the two charges are being pushed away heen et This explains repulsion between two ce tee The field E is zero at the middle point N of two charges. This point is called neutral Point ; has oieich no line of force passes. This field also symmetry. Fig. 1.77 Field lines of two equal positive charges. (v) Field lines of a positively charged plane conductor. Fig. 1.78 shows the pattern of lines of force of positively charged plane conductor. A smalll positive charge would tend to move normally away from the plane conductor. Thus the lines of force are parallel and normal to the surface of the conductor. They are equispaced, indicating that electric field E is uniform at all points near the plane conductor. Fig, 1.78 Field pattern of a positively charged plane conductor. 45. What is the relation between the density of lines of force and the electric field strength ? Illustrate it in a diagram. Relation between electric field strength and density of lines of force. Electric field strength is proportional to the density of lines of force i, electric field strength at a point is proportional to the number of lines of force cutting a unit area element placed normal to the field at that point. As illustrated in Fig. 1.79, the electric field at Pis stronger than at Q. Density of lines of force is proportional to the electric field strength. Fig. 1.791.48 of electric field of @ 9 ? dependence ‘ 46. Show that the Vir" dependenc tof the electric point charge is consistent with the comcep field lines Consistency of the inverse square law with the electric field fines. As shown in Fig, 1.80, the number of radial ines of force originating from a point charge qin a given solid angle AQ is constant. Consider two points P, and P, at distances x, and x; from the charge 4. The same number of lines (say n) cut an element of area #2 3M at P, and an element of area AQ at Py Number of lines of force cutting unit area element " ae, 7 Pag As electric field strength oc Density of lines of force Se gang Besa ng 1 2 130 area vector 7. What is an area vector ? How do we specify the direction ofa planar area vector ? How do we associate a vector to the area of a curved surface ? Area vector, We come across many situations where we need to know not only the magnitude of a surface area but also its direction. The direction of a planar area vector is specified by the normal to the plane. In Fig. 181(@) a planar area element 4S has been repre- sented by a normal vector dS. The length of vector di represents the magnitude dS ofthe area element. tf) ig atunit vector along the normal othe planar area, then Baas jp ® @ Fig, 1.81 (a) A planar area element. (b) An area clement of a curved surface. In case of a curved surface, we can imagine it toby divided into a large number of very small are elements. Each small area element of the curved surface can be treated as a planar area. By convention, the direction of the vector associated with every are element of a closed surface is along the outward dram normal. As shown in Fig. 1.81(b), the area element dSat any point on the closed surface is equal to dS ni, where Sis the magnitude of the area element and 1 is a unit vector in the direction of outward normal 131 ELECTRIC FLUX 48, Define the term electric flux. How is it related electric field intensity ? What is its SI unit ? Electric flux. The term flux implies some kind of flow. Flux is the property of any vector field. The electric flux is a property of electric field. The electric flux through a given area held inside an electric field is the measure of the total number of electric lines of force passing normally through that area As shown in Fig. 1.82, if an electric field EF’ passes normally through an area element AS, then the electric flux through this area is, Ad: = EAS Fig. 1.82 Electric flux through normal area,_ 00) and AS—+0, the apr ; above sum ma et Thug wee integral taken over the closed a Sim 2B ge S40 £ Thus or cogent lectric flux throu; th any surface §, open is gh any suri , Op fig “qual to the surface integral of the electric Over the surface &. ~~ then the component of E normal to AS will be 0 that the electric flux is ‘= Normal component of Ex Surface area = Ecos 0x AS Electric flux is a scalar quantity. Unit of g = Unit of Ex unit of $ ‘SI unit of electric flux =NC1.m?= Nm? Equi alently, SI unit of electric flux = Vm"!.m?= Vm. 1.32 GAUss’s THEOREM 49. State and prove Gauss’s theorem. Gauss's theorem. This theorem gives a relationship between the total flux passing through any closed Surface and the net charge enclosed within the surface. Gauss theorem states that the total flux through a closed surface is 1/ 6, times the net charge enclosed by the closed surface. Mathematically, it can be expressed as af e.g = s £ Proof. For the sake of simplicity, we prove Gauss’s theorem for an isolated positive point charge 4. As shown in Fig. 1.85, suppose the surface Sis a sphere of radius r centred on q. Then surface $ is a Gaussian surface. Spherical Gaussian surface Fig. 1.85 Flux through a sphere enclosing a point charge. Electric field at any point on Sis 14 E=—.4 . ane, ? This field points radially outward a all points on S Also, any area element points radially outwards, so it is parallel to E, ie, 0 =0°. Flux through area d3 is dg, = E .d3 = E dS cos 0° = EdSme Sis certain symmetric charge configurations wha Votal thax through surtace s otherwise “gute ifn wat fc me | 4 = fag -fras-rfas application of Coulomb's law and the Pring s s s superposition, ey = Ex Total area of sphere 1.34 CouLoMme’s LAW FROM : 2 GAUSS'S THEOREM 51. Deduce Coulomb's law from Gauss's they Deduction of Coulomb's law from Ga \heorem, As shown in Fig. 1.86, consider an isola) . Positive point charge q. We select a spherical surg, ‘This proves Gause’s theorem, of radius r centred at chargeq as the Gaussian surfas! For Your Knowledge Sa Bald fora dosed surface of any shape and tor any Beneral charge distribution, > ty cit change encloned by a closed surface is sero (¢= 0) then fun through it is also zero aa te % The aiage 9 appenting in the Fig, 1.86 fupliog Gases theorem toa ; = By symmetry, E has same ma; | > The electric field F appearing i i 7 a \gnitude at all Points nd outside the | 0" S. Also E and dB at any point on § are directed Tadially outward. Hence flux through area d& is 46, = E .d8 = Eascosor = Eas Net flux through closed surface $ is fF. = frase E fas 5 3 3 = Ex total surface area of $= Ex 4n7 Using Gauss’s theorem, | 133 GAUSSIAN SURFACE or Ex 4nr? 50. What is a Gaussian surface ? Give its importance. Gaussian surface. Any hypothetical closed surface OF enclosing a charge is called the Gaussia integral of “The force on the point charge qy if placed on sur}! wahich afield produced by the charge encloses by Swill be ‘hich in tum, gives the total ux through the ear FaqeE=—1_ % Importance. By a clever choice of Gaussian sur- face, we can easily find the electric fields Produ1.35. FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITELY 1.36 ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A UNiFo, LONG CHARGED WIRE CHARGED INFINITE PLANE SHEE, MY ignitude is same 1 charge. To determine ine charge, we choose the field at a distance rfrom @ cylindrical Gaussian surface wit aren A Fig, 1.98 Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet. By symmetry, electric field £ points outward normal to the must have same magi tude and oppo: ‘equidistant fro ‘choose cylindrical Gaussian area A and length 2r with, sheet. As the lines of force are p: surface of the cylinder, the flu surface is zero. The flux through the plane-end faces¢ the cylinder is = EAS EA=2 EA Charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, qzoA afb =f. B+ [28+ (EG, According to Gauss's theorem, $-. + & 8 Fig. 1.97 Cylindrical Gaussian surface frline charge. ~ & J, cosy [ a, os [EUS 590° i 4 & s 2ea=24 on = £ fas, +040 S = Ex area ofthe curved surface Fis inutepeh or = Ex2xrl ‘Charge encl Using Gauss’s the sheet, away fromes ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELD a of 0 Suppose ? be a unle vector pointing right a fe} ia | a plane par —~ bE f densities , and, y i with 6, > 23 >0. Suppose / is a unit vector pointing opp om to right. u from left 0 rig afew Hoe Sheet — shet2 Fig. 1.100 In the region I: Fields due to the two sheets are Bao, Bais 2s Tost ono Total fell EB, + B=—5F 0+ J 0 ®o In the region II: Fields due to the two sheets are Een aan Eee ane ag Bay From the principle of superposition, the total * . electric field at any point of region Total field, oon SF % R-E+E ae 24 5 . iv Total field, Ey, =0 “Totaled, Ey = (0, ~0,) Thus the electric field between two oppositely 2ey charged plates of equal charge density is uniform ‘which is equal to and is directed from the positive to % the negative plate, while the field is zero on the outside of the two sheets. This arrangement is used. for producing uniform electric etd Tal field, Ey = 1.37 FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL fora Electric field ean eld of two oy charged plane : Paral oon Ben tod aelel tos the charge had been Plan! Plates. As shown in ™* PH sheets having, uniform surface charge =B ad PHYSICS i 0 Fo Reh? WFor r= gy fe q=4nrtg (©) When point P ties inside he spheric! shel. As ‘clear from Fig. 1.102(a), the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is zero, i.e., 7 Gavssian ‘surface a ‘Soherical shel, charge density = Gaussian surface for inside points thin spherical shell of charge. Fx through the Gaussian surface, y= Bx ne? Applying Gauss's theorem, Fig, 1.101 Gaussian surface for outside points of 2 thin spherical shell of charge (a) When point P lies outside the spherical shell. The total charge q inside the Gaussian surface is the charge (on the shell of radius R and area 4xR™ [For r< Rl] q=4nRo Flux through the Gaussian surface, Figure 1.102() shows how E varies wth distance = Ex ae? from the centre of the shell of radius R. E is zero from By Gauss’s theorem, 20 to r= R; and beyond r= R- we have : 1 =! cad 7 [For r> R] the field due t charge of the shel (b) When surface just encloses Applying Gauss's theorem, Fig, 1.102 (b) Variation of £ with for a spherical shel of charge.159 136 FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY (b) When the point Plies on the sphere. The Gaussian CHARGED INSULTING SPHERE” ad jst encloses the charged sphere. Applying se a cscethat heeled flat Cenc sphere of (a) When point P e fe ante pF inde the sphere an San’ i Ror frvmgs a, 120 () an tie ride pot of ‘rien fa te = Exar ssp cl hase By Gases there,