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Review article Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology

https://doi.org/10.1144/qjegh2020-064 | Vol. 54 | 2020 | qjegh2020-064

Performance of slope stabilization trials on the road network of

Laos
G. Hearn1*, J. Howell2 and T. Hunt3‡
1
Hearn Geoserve Ltd, Worthing, West Sussex, UK
2
Living Resources Ltd, Lukesland House, Ivybridge, Devon, PL21 0JF, UK
3
Winchester, UK
GH, 0000-0002-9503-8049; TH, 0000-0001-9752-3614
* Correspondence: [email protected]
‡
Retired

Abstract: Landslides pose significant hazards on the road network of Laos. These landslides frequently block access and
occasionally result in the subsidence or loss of the carriageway. Several slope stabilization trials focusing on the use of
bioengineering techniques and low-cost engineering measures were implemented in 2007 and 2008. Heavy rains in 2018
caused numerous landslides on the road network and a review was undertaken of the performance of the slope stabilization trial
sites implemented ten years earlier. The outcome has proved very positive overall and vindicates the efforts made to understand
the causes and mechanisms of the observed slope failures and the ground conditions that pertained. The outcomes of this
research have been used to strengthen practice in Laos, and further afield, and to provide a valuable basis for future practice.
Received 23 March 2020; revised 3 April 2020; accepted 6 April 2020

Expansion of the trunk road network and the connectivity of rural the underlying rocks and the depth and composition of soils.
areas are seen as investment imperatives in most developing Triggering factors are usually transient and include the distribution
countries. Improved road access is considered to be a major of rainfall and the groundwater condition on any given slope at any
contributor to economic development and the improvement of given time, the presence of toe erosion, whereby river scour removes
livelihoods (Warr 2010; Faiz et al. 2012; Hearn 2015; Sewell and support to the slopes above, seismic acceleration during earth-
Desai 2016; Hearn and Shakya 2017; Tanga et al. 2017). Large quakes, and the effects of changes in land use and engineering
parts of the world’s mountains lie in developing countries and many practices. To varying degrees, all of these factors play a part in the
mountain areas experience seasonally distributed rainfall that can stability of roadside slopes in Laos.
trigger landslides and flood hazards (e.g. Hearn 2011a). Landslides, Road construction techniques have come in for a lot of criticism
in particular, lead to recurrent road closures that can require costly in recent years as far as landslide activity is concerned. Well-
reinstatement as well as socioeconomic losses due to intermittent engineered roads have carefully selected alignments (Hearn 2015),
access. Road authorities often have insufficient funds to prevent earthworks that are designed to suit the rock and soil conditions
landslides from occurring and some are unable to respond swiftly exposed, drainage and scour protection works that control rainwater
and effectively when they do occur. An affordable and sustainable runoff, and retaining walls to: (1) avoid excessive excavations;
approach to slope management has so far eluded many road (2) support otherwise unstable slopes above; and (3) facilitate road
authorities when confronted with these hazards. construction across difficult ground conditions below (Hearn
The UK Department for International Development (DFID) has 2011b). However, even the most well-designed and constructed
invested considerable effort in the development and application of mountain roads are affected by landslides, especially following the
best practice techniques for sustainable slope management in rural passage of high-intensity cyclonic rainfall. Most of these landslides
access road corridors in developing countries. Much of the earlier are shallow and occur in overburden soils, leading to temporary road
work was carried out in Nepal and Bhutan (e.g. Howell et al. 1991; closures. Deep-seated landslides, usually involving rock, are less
Hearn and Lawrance 1997; Howell 1999; Hearn et al. 2003). In frequent. These can present recurrent hazards that prove extremely
2006, DFID commenced a three-year research project in Laos aimed difficult to stabilize or mitigate.
at strengthening slope management practices in the country and Landslides occurring on the slope below the road are often
developing and adapting the techniques pioneered in Nepal for use triggered by erosion below culvert outlets, the reactivation of
in the Indochina region. Several sites were selected for bioengin- previously failed soil or first-time failure in fill and spoil material
eering and low-cost engineering trials and the performance of these due to saturation from rainfall or road runoff. Although some of
works can now be assessed, some ten years after their implementation. these problems can be resolved using periodic and emergency
maintenance, others require engineering geological investigations
Landslides and mountain roads to sufficiently define ground conditions for robust design purposes
(Hearn and Hart 2020).
Landslides are an unfortunate fact of life when it comes to the
management of transport infrastructure and the safety and livelihood
of rural communities in mountain areas. Factors that control the Landslides and the mountain road network of Laos
stability of slopes along mountain roads can be broadly divided into
Geography and geological background
those that condition instability and those that trigger it. Among the
conditioning controls are the steepness of natural slopes, the Laos is a landlocked country (Fig. 1) with a population of
geometry of cut slopes, the structure, strength and permeability of 6.5 million in 2015, a GDP growth rate of 7% per annum

© 2020 The Author(s). This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/). Published by The Geological Society of London. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
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2 G. Hearn et al.

Fig. 1. The geography of Laos.

(OECD 2017) and an economy that is the thirteenth fastest growing some areas receive in excess of 3500 mm. Much of this rainfall
in the world (AIIB 2019). Its land area extends over 236 800 km2, of occurs between the months of May and October and is associated
which >75% can be described as hilly or mountainous (Fig. 2), with with tropical depressions, storms and typhoons. Forest covers most
elevations of up to 2800 m above sea-level. The average annual of the mountainous regions and, although some areas are still being
rainfall generally ranges between 1500 and 2500 mm, although progressively cleared for timber and agricultural purposes, many

Fig. 2. Mountainous terrain of Laos

between Vang Vieng and Luang Prabang.
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Slope stabilization trials in Laos 3

Fig. 3. Landslides, floods and debris-

strewn river beds were common outcomes
of the heavy rains that affected large parts
of the country in 2018.

upland watersheds are seeing forest becoming re-established cause annual losses of 3–4% of the GDP (AIIB 2019). Although
through government efforts to limit slash-and-burn agriculture and landlocked, Laos is still periodically affected by typhoons that
shifting cultivation. penetrate across Vietnam from the South China Sea.
The regional geology is the outcome of >400 myr of plate
convergence, accretion, subduction and volcanic arc formation,
resulting in multiple episodes of orogeny and mountain-building, Road network
the creation of fold–thrust belts and igneous intrusions (e.g. The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MPWT) is
Metcalfe 2013). The outcrop pattern is complex and consists of a responsible for the development and management of the road
wide range of rock types, including fine- and coarse-grained network. This network currently consists of slightly more than
sedimentary sequences, low- to high-grade metamorphic rocks, and 50 000 km of roads, divided into National, Provincial, District,
lavas and plutonic rocks, predominantly granite and granodiorite. Urban, Rural and Special roads, of which National Roads account
The rock masses are typically closely-jointed, often intensely folded for c. 7500 km (MPWT 2018). Less than 20% of the entire network
and faulted, and are sometimes deeply weathered on the surface. is made from asphalt or double bituminous surface treatment; the
Transported soils are common and are derived from the gradual remainder consists of gravel or earth roads. According to the OECD
processes of hillslope denudation as well as rockfall and landslide (2017), Laos has the lowest ratio of sealed road length to total road
deposits that accumulated as the contemporary landscape evolved. length and the lowest quality of transport infrastructure of
The country is highly vulnerable to climate-related disasters 11 countries in South East Asia. However, the mountain road
(OECD 2017), particularly floods and landslides (Fig. 3), which network never carries >5000 AADT (annual average daily traffic),

Fig. 4. A large rock slide blocked this

section of road in 2018 and caused heave
to the pavement and gabion retaining wall.
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4 G. Hearn et al.

Fig. 5. Typical range of slope failures affecting the Laos road network (modified from Hunt et al. 2008).

with a significant proportion of this network receiving <1000 vehicles available to clear them. 2018 was a particularly wet year in Laos, with
per day and therefore qualifying as low-volume roads. several rain gauge stations recording their highest annual rainfall ever.
Landslides pose significant hazards to the management of the road This triggered numerous shallow landslides in the mountainous north
network (Fig. 4). Figure 5 shows the range of slope hazards that and NE of the country, with one 60 km length of road, for example,
commonly affect mountain roads in Laos. By far the most frequent experiencing >250 small landslides that required more than US$ 0.5
are shallow (up to 1–2 m) slope failures that occur within roadside cut million in emergency work to clear. Landslide reinstatement costs
slopes and the slopes above. These result in partial or complete accounted for between 30 and 90% of the 2018 emergency budgets
blockage to roads, causing disruption to traffic, sometimes for several in the six provinces occupying the north and NE of the country.
hours. In extreme cases this disruption can last for days where Where large and recurrent landslides occur above the road, a
landslides are numerous and/or there is limited earth-moving plant common response is to remove as much of the unstable material as

Fig. 6. Typical outcome of slope failure

below a road.
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Slope stabilization trials in Laos 5

possible through slope excavation rather than to attempt stabiliza- Table 1 Engineering functions of different bioengineering techniques
tion. This is often successful if the topography allows excavations to (modified from Hearn et al. 2011, reproduced with permission of the
Geological Society, London)
daylight, but can lead to much more serious problems if the slopes
above are steep and long, if excavations are cut too steeply and if the Technique Function
geological conditions are unfavourable.
Linear grass-planting: rooted slips • The best and quickest way to
Slope failures below the road are less numerous, but their effects
of large grasses planted in lines. create surface vegetation cover
on long-term road serviceability can be much greater. As shown in Slips are made by splitting out on a steep, bare,
Figure 5, these failures can involve instability in both fill and natural clumps to give small sections of predominantly soil slope
slopes and the outcome can range from cracking and deformation to root and shoot. Lines are • Effective on almost all soil
the pavement to large-scale subsidence and loss of the carriageway horizontal (dry, well-drained slopes up to 2V:1H
(Fig. 6). Below-road slope failures are usually more difficult to soils), vertical (moist, poorly • Robust protection and shallow
drained soils) or diagonal reinforcement of the surface
resolve because they often require expensive geotechnical investi-
(variable moisture soils) soil
gations before any design options can be assessed. Retaining walls
are sometimes constructed to provide short-term support, but these Direct seeding: the seeds of shrubs • The best way to establish
tend to fail in the medium to long term as a result of inadequate and small trees are inserted into vegetation on rocky slopes
foundations or a design that does not take full account of the ground crevices in slopes composed of
weathered rock
conditions. Alternatively, sections of road are realigned through
Brush layers: woody cuttings from • Instant barrier that interrupts
excavation into the cut slope to avoid slope instability below. This shrubs or small trees are arranged runoff. As plants root and
usually provides only temporary relief and, again, can trigger slope in lines in shallow trenches grow, they protect and
problems above. horizontally across slopes reinforce the soil
formed in unconsolidated debris. • Stronger than grass
These can be installed on slopes • Often good on loose stony
SEACAP 21 research programme up to about 1V:1.25H debris
• Most shrubs tolerate shade, so
Background this method can often be used
under tree canopies where
The South East Asia Community Access Programme (SEACAP) grasses will not grow
consisted of a series of research projects sponsored by DFID in the
low-volume road sector during the 2000s. It focused on the need to Fascines: bundles of long woody • Provide surface protection and
provide low-cost and sustainable solutions to the transport needs of cuttings placed horizontally in shallow root reinforcement.
shallow trenches across slopes. Once established, they can
local communities. SEACAP 21 was a research project established
Can be installed on slopes up to also catch debris
to examine how landslide hazards could be mitigated on the road about 1V:1.25H. After burial, • In certain locations, fascines
network of Laos, including measures to strengthen the capacity of they put out roots and shoots, can be angled to provide
the MPWT to manage them. The project was divided into four forming a strong line of drainage
components that covered the design and implementation of slope vegetation
improvement and landslide reinstatement works, the training of road Palisades: woody cuttings are • Form an immediate barrier that
engineers within the public and private sectors, the strengthening of planted in lines across the slope, traps debris
usually following the contours. • Less disturbance to the slope
university curricula in geotechnical engineering applications and
This can be done on a wide range than brush layers, so they can
feasibility studies to examine the economic basis for proactive of sites up to about 1.75V:1H be installed on steeper slopes
investment in slope management initiatives (Hearn et al. 2008; Hunt • In certain locations, palisades
et al. 2010; Hearn and Hunt 2013). can be angled to provide
Slope stabilization trials were implemented at 13 sites along drainage
National Road 13 North between Vang Vieng and Luang Prabang Truncheon cuttings: large woody • Relatively strong plant
and the adjacent section of National Road 7 (Fig. 1) and were cuttings from trees inserted material on slopes that are still
divided into two phases: Phase 1, bioengineering works; and Phase upright at intervals in slopes unstable
2, geotechnical engineering works. A budget of US$ 250 000 for formed in deep and/or loose • Withstand damage from
civil works was provided by a World Bank credit under the Road debris moving debris
Maintenance Program and US$ 25 000 was provided by SEACAP Live-check dams: small check • Low-cost, flexible structures to
for geotechnical ground investigations. dams with structural elements reduce concentrated erosion
made from the woody cuttings of • Limited disturbance to the
trees are placed at intervals in slope
Phase 1 bioengineering works erosion gullies • Can be used on weak,
unconsolidated materials
Bioengineering is the use of vegetation, either alone or in
conjunction with small-scale and low-cost engineering structures Tree-planting: potted seedlings • Restoration of a forest mix of
– such as surface drains, trench drains, dry stone walls and from a forest nursery are planted trees in the long term
revetments – to reduce shallow (usually up to 1 m depth) slope at intervals across a soil slope
instability and erosion on slopes. When properly designed, Wattle fences: fences made of • A rapid temporary measure on
woven branches are used to slopes with loose surface
vegetation structures can, themselves, perform the function of retain small volumes of debris, debris
surface drainage and soil retention; plant roots play a part in forming mini terraces
increasing the shear strength of soils and promoting soil suction
(Howell 1999; Hearn et al. 2011). Table 1 summarizes the
engineering functions that different planting techniques can fulfil
and Figure 7 shows diagrammatically how they are implemented. Figure 7 were applied. The works commenced just prior to the 2007
Three experimental sites between Vang Vieng and Luang wet season and were substantially complete by the end of the year.
Prabang were selected for bioengineering works. All three were Plants were selected that were familiar and acceptable to local
the locations of shallow slope instability above and below the road. farmers and were grown in dedicated nurseries. Bioengineering
Most of the techniques summarized in Table 1 and illustrated in specifications and layout drawings formed the basis of a contract
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6 G. Hearn et al.

Fig. 7. Typical bioengineering details (modified from Hearn et al. 2011, reproduced with permission of the Geological Society, London).

with a local contractor, who was given training and close extended into the cultivated slope above and could potentially have
supervision while implementing the works during the 2007 wet placed an electricity pylon at risk. Following a topographic survey
season. and detailed site inspection, a combination of slope-trimming, the
removal of loose debris, grass- and shrub-planting, and a surface
drainage system was designed and implemented. Shallow failure
Bioengineering illustration A and gully erosion were occurring in loose spoil material below the
Figure 8 shows the slope condition at one of the Phase 1 sites in road at this location as well. This was addressed using live-check
2007, 2008 and 2018. Instability in the cut slope in 2007 had dams, grass-planting and brush-layering. The layout of the designed
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Slope stabilization trials in Laos 7

Fig. 8. Bioengineering illustration A: slope condition before, during and after implementation of bioengineering works at a site of cut slope instability.

works is shown in Figure 9. The slope condition in 2018 (Fig. 8) instability and/or where trial pits could not be excavated deeply
shows how well the trial performed at this location: dense vegetation enough for foundation investigations.
growth is providing good surface protection. The cost of these At three locations, the engineering geological mapping showed
works, covering a total area of c. 3500 m2, amounted to US$ 18 700 that cracking close to the edge of the road, or settlements to the road
in 2008. Using 2019 unit rates, this cost amounts to US$ 22 800. itself, were the result of ground movements occurring over much
larger areas than the confines of the road and adjacent slopes. Slope
monitoring schemes at two of these locations, comprising surface
Bioengineering illustration B monuments and inclinometers, yielded such slow rates of
Another of the bioengineering trial sites is illustrated in Figure 10. movement that it was decided the high cost of stabilization would
At this location, slope-trimming, re-profiling, mortared masonry not be justified in view of the anticipated low cost of ongoing road
composite revetment, brush-layering and grass-planting were used maintenance. Investment in stabilization at these sites would have
to address shallow instability in the cut slope, while truncheons were been unaffordable for the SEACAP project and would have been
planted to help stabilize the slope below the road (Fig. 11). As inconsistent with the intention of yielding low-cost solutions.
Figure 10 shows, substantial progress in slope protection had been Instead, drainage improvements were implemented and, in 2018, the
achieved during the passage of only two wet seasons (2007 and situation had not become significantly worse at either site.
2008). In 2018 the slope was well-vegetated and stable, although a At the third location, the rates of ground movement were
small area of slope erosion had appeared at one end of the site (not evidently much faster: the entire road had subsided in 2008 by up to
visible in the photograph). The total cost of the works, covering an 1 m over a distance of 50 m as a result of the failure of the slope
area of c. 2200 m2, amounted to US$ 13 500. below. Site investigations led to the design of a 6 m high masonry
wall to retain the road fill with a foundation beneath the depth of
movement. Design drawings and bills of quantities were prepared
Phase 2 geotechnical engineering works
for the wall and ancillary works, but before these could be
Most of the ten geotechnical trial sites related to ground movements implemented the road authority had realigned the road into the
below the road. The main causes of these problems included stream hillside above, thus placing it outside the zone of active movement
erosion and scour below culvert outlets, seepage of road runoff into (Fig. 12). In 2018 this movement had regressed to the point that the
slopes and the headward regression of landslide and erosion scars. realigned outside shoulder of the road was beginning to fail.
Each of these locations was subject to a site investigation consisting Although the realignment option may have been significantly
of topographic mapping, engineering geological mapping and cheaper in the short term, a road-retaining wall will eventually be
ground investigations. The shallower slope failures were investi- required to protect the road from the regressive ground movements
gated using trial pits, including the use of a dynamic cone that have inevitably continued.
penetrometer to assess the founding conditions for retaining walls. Remedial designs at the six other geotechnical sites comprised
Drill holes were used to supplement trial pits at sites of deeper improved slope and roadside drainage, retaining walls, scour
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8 G. Hearn et al.

Fig. 9. Bioengineering illustration A: layout of the bioengineering works shown in Figure 8.

protection works and the use of reinforced concrete slope surfacing. walls were c. 6 m in height with unit costs at 2019 prices amounting
Standard details and site-specific designs were prepared, existing to a little over US$ 1000 per metre run. This rate includes the cost of
construction specifications used by the MPWT were strengthened to excavation and safe disposal, filter fabric, structural backfill, a
accommodate the slope works, and a local contractor was procured subsoil drain behind the heel of the wall, mortared masonry and
and supervised during the 2007–2008 dry season. grass-planting for erosion protection on the slope immediately
The reinforced concrete slope surfacing trial was used to halt the below the toe of the wall. During a training course for road
progress of erosion and shallow failure affecting a 20 m high slope maintenance engineers that took place in 2019, the general view was
below the road formed in weathered rock. Prior to 2008, the road that these costs were significantly higher than the walling costs
had been realigned into the hillside above in an attempt to allay the normally incurred. However, it was also agreed that there was little
effects of the regressing scar. The application involved the removal point in building structures with inadequate foundations or without
of loose and unstable rock, smoothing of the rock face and fixing of the required quality control, particularly as there are several cases of
a reinforcing mesh that was nailed and grouted into the slope, onto retaining wall foundation failure along the road network.
which a 50 mm thick layer of concrete was applied by hand. Careful Two of the geotechnical sites had not performed as intended
detailing of the design was required and specifications developed in when they were observed in 2018. The main exception concerned a
Hong Kong and the Philippines were adapted to suit the ground location where culvert outlet protection works had been built in
conditions and contractor capabilities in Laos. As far as the authors 2008, consisting of reinforced concrete chutes, cascades and stilling
are aware, this was probably the first time the technique had been basins and the reconstruction of the masonry culvert headwall that
used in the road sector of Laos and, as Figure 13 shows, the outcome provided support to the adjacent road fill. According to local
has been successful. The area of slope covered was c. 1100 m2 at a accounts, a failure in the cut slope adjacent to these works had
total cost in 2008 of US$ 9300. Using 2019 unit rates, the cost blocked the road in 2017 and caused ponding of road runoff,
would be US$ 11 000. creating a small lake across the road. Eventually this lake over-
Figure 14 shows one of several sites where masonry retaining spilled the retaining wall and washed out most of these structures,
walls were used as the main means of road reinstatement. In each including the retaining wall itself. Although this is a disappointing
case, the founding levels were determined from geotechnical outcome, it is the result of events beyond the design scope of the
investigations. To illustrate the construction costs, three of these original structures. A reinforced concrete headwall has been
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Slope stabilization trials in Laos 9

Fig. 10. Bioengineering illustration B: slope condition before, during and after implementation of bioengineering works at a site of cut slope instability.

Fig. 11. Bioengineering illustration B: layout of the bioengineering works shown in Figure 10.
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10 G. Hearn et al.

Fig. 12. Realigned road (behind the

trucks) with benched excavation into the
hillside and active ground movement
associated with the landslide in the
foreground (date of photograph 2008).

constructed in their place and a concrete covering has been applied Lessons learnt from the SEACAP 21 slope stabilization
to the slopes below, in a similar manner to the 2008 trial described trials
earlier. In the second exception, the works constructed in 2008
above the road were entirely excavated as the road was realigned to In general, the outcome of the SEACAP 21 trials has been very
avoid a large landslide triggered below the road in 2018. positive. The bioengineering works have performed well and this
Apparently, the trial site had performed well until it had to be reflects the importance of investing sufficient time and effort to
removed to make way for realignment. ensure that:

Fig. 13. Slope condition before (2007), during (2008) and after (2018) the construction of hand-applied reinforced concrete coverings to an unstable
weathered rock slope below the road. RC, reinforced concrete.
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Slope stabilization trials in Laos 11

Fig. 14. Slope condition before (2007), during (2008) and after (2018) construction of a masonry retaining wall at a site of slope failure below the road.

• the design matches the ground conditions; With respect to the last point, it will usually take three to five years in
• the plants selected are appropriate for the soils and drainage the subtropics to establish full vegetation cover. During this time the
conditions and will have the required function; slope will need to be protected from grazing and there will need to
• the site is properly prepared; be a plan in place, agreed with local farmers, to ensure they manage
• quality control is maintained throughout the planting their own land above the cut slope in a way that does not adversely
process; and affect the stability of the site. The greatest success has been achieved
• the completed works are carefully monitored during the first with the planting of grasses in diagonal lines (i.e. at 45o to the
years of growth to identify and rectify any adverse direction of the maximum slope) and in the use of shrubs grown
developments, including the replacement of under-perform- from cuttings rather than from seedlings, as the former tend to
ing plants and any changes to the drainage regime on the produce a mass of fine strong roots most suitable for soil
slope. reinforcement.

Fig. 15. Use of bioengineering techniques

to help stabilize and control erosion on
slopes adjacent to and below retaining
walls.
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12 G. Hearn et al.

Attention to detail in the design and construction of geotechnical majority of landslides that affect the road network are small and
engineering works has enabled them to remain stable and perform involve shallow failures in soil and weathered rock on the slopes
as required. The preparation of engineering geological maps proved above the road. These are treatable using grass- and shrub-planting,
crucial in assessing the extent, mechanisms and causes of ground fascines and palisades, often in combination with small-scale
movement, and close inspection of the exposures in trial pits meant engineering works, such as masonry revetments and surface
that the ground conditions could be defined adequately for design drainage measures. Although bioengineering can also be used
purposes. Confirmation of the bearing capacities and foundation effectively in below-road situations, most of the locations remedied
depths for masonry retaining walls and quality control during by SEACAP 21 involved the use of retaining walls and substantial
construction, especially with respect to the mortar content and block protection works for drainage outlets. These structures require levels
interlock, are among the main reasons why these walls have of investment that may be atypical of normal practice on low-volume
remained robust after ten years of service. roads, but the trials demonstrate how it is important to ensure that all
It should be noted that, although the description and discussion in engineering interventions are fit for purpose and that investments are
this paper have treated bioengineering and geotechnical engineering not wasted by an inadequate appreciation of the ground conditions.
techniques separately, bioengineering was applied as either primary
or ancillary works to almost all the trial sites (Fig. 15).
Acknowledgements The research described in this paper was undertaken
Uptake and sustainability of the SEACAP 21 research by Scott Wilson Ltd (now part of AECOM) in association with Lao Consulting
Group and SD & XP Consultants, Vientiane for the Ministry of Public Works and
outputs Transport (formerly the Ministry of Transport, Post and Construction), People’s
Democratic Republic of Lao. The authors thank all those who contributed to the
Extensive field and classroom training formed important compo- research, including ministry staff, training specialists at the National University of
nents of the SEACAP 21 project (Scott Wilson 2009). This Laos, local consultants and D. Salter, South East Asia Community Access
culminated in the production of a slope maintenance manual (Hunt Programme (SEACAP) Technical Manager at the time. The SEACAP 21 project
won the 2010 UK Ground Engineering Sustainability Award for Best
et al. 2008) and a slope maintenance site handbook (Hunt et al. International Project. The views or opinions expressed herein do not necessarily
2009), both produced in English and Lao. The former has been reflect the views of the Department for International Development. All drawings
incorporated into the latest version of the MPWT road design by K. Finlay of KJ Creative. Information on 2019 unit rates was provided by
Y. Vachoima.
manual (MPWT 2018) and elements of it have found their way into
manuals developed in other parts of the world, most notably in
Africa. Through the Research for Community Access Partnership, Author contributions GJH: conceptualization (equal), formal analysis
(equal), funding acquisition (lead), investigation (equal), methodology (equal),
DFID continues to sponsor research in the rural access sector in writing – original draft (lead), writing – review and editing (equal); JH: formal
South Asia and Africa and is in the process of developing a analysis (equal), investigation (equal), methodology (equal), project administra-
guideline for the use of bioengineering and low-cost slope tion (equal), writing – review and editing (supporting); TH: conceptualization
stabilization measures to enhance roadside slope stability in (equal), formal analysis (equal), investigation (equal), methodology (equal),
project administration (equal), writing – review and editing (equal).
Uganda (Hearn et al. 2019). The findings from Laos form a
useful background to this work.
Despite the progress made by the SEACAP 21 research project, Funding The SEACAP 21 project was sponsored by the Department for
International Development. The World Bank provided funds for the civil works
the part played by engineering geology and geotechnical engineer- element of the project. The preparation of this review has been funded by UKaid
ing in the routine and emergency management of roadside slopes in from the UK Government through the Research for Community Access
Laos remains limited. The MPWT does not currently have Partnership. The opportunity to examine the SEACAP 21 trial sites in 2018
was provided by the lead author’s role in the Climate Resilient Road Planning,
personnel sufficiently trained in these subjects and this, together Asset Management Support and Capacity Building project undertaken by Sweco
with the limited maintenance budgets available, means that the in association with Lao Transport Engineering Consultant and the Lao Consulting
engineering response to landslides is almost always reactive and, Group, with funding provided by the Nordic Development Fund, supported by
understandably, limited in scope to the need to reinstate access to the World Bank, the European Investment Bank and the European Union.
traffic as quickly as possible. These are probably the main reasons
why some below-road measures, particularly retaining walls, are not Data availability statement Data sharing is not applicable to this
always performing effectively. article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
The MPWT is currently hosting the Climate Resilient Road
Planning and Asset Management project, which includes the Scientific editing by Stuart Millis
mapping of landslide and flood vulnerability along the Laos road
network. This project has also trained road maintenance engineers
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